SECTION 11

LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS
IN POWER SYSTEMS
Badrul H. Chowdhury
Professor
Electrical & Computer Engineering Department
University of Missouri-Rolla

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Developing Power Flow Equations
Power-Flow Solution . . . . . . . .
Example of N-R Solution . . . . . .
Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. 11.1
. 11.2
. 11.2
. 11.6
. 11.12
11.15
11.16

INTRODUCTION
The load-flow problem models the nonlinear relationships among bus power injections,
power demands, and bus voltages and angles, with the network constants providing the
circuit parameters. It is the heart of most system-planning studies and also the starting
point for transient and dynamic stability studies. This section provides a formulation of
the load-flow problem and its associated solution strategies. An understanding of the
fundamentals of three-phase systems is assumed, including per-unit calculations, complex
power relationships, and circuit-analysis techniques.
There are two popular numerical methods for solving the power-flow equations. These
are the Gauss-Seidel (G-S) and the Newton-Raphson (N-R) Methods (Grainger and
Stevenson, 1994; Elgerd, 1982; Glover and Sharma, 1994). The N-R method is superior
to the G-S method because it exhibits a faster convergence characteristic. However, the
N-R method suffers from the disadvantage that a flat start is not always possible since
the solution at the beginning can oscillate without converging toward the solution. In order to avoid this problem, the load-flow solution is often started with a G-S algorithm followed by the N-R algorithm after a few iterations.
There is also an approximate but faster method for the load-flow solution. It is a variation of the N-R method, called the fast-decoupled method, which was introduced by Stott
and Alsac (1974). We will not be covering this method in this section.
11.1

11.2

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

NOMENCLATURE
SD
SG
S
PD
PG
P
QD









QG
Q
V 

V
B
yp









complex power demand

complex power generation
complex bus power
real power demand, MW
real power generation
real bus power
reactive power demand in
MVAR
reactive power generation
reactive bus power
bus voltage magnitude
bus voltage angle
complex voltage
shunt susceptance
shunt admittance

ys
R
X
Zs
XG
Yii
Yij









Yij 
ij 
E 
I 
Ybus 

series admittance
series resistance
series reactance
series impedance
synchronous reactance
driving point admittance at bus i
transfer admittance between
busses i and j
magnitude of Yij
angle of Yij
synchronous machine-generated voltage
complex current
bus admittance matrix

DEVELOPING POWER-FLOW EQUATIONS

A two-bus example, shown in Fig. 11.1, is used to simplify the development of the
power-flow equations. The system consists of two busses connected by a transmission
line. One can observe that there are six electrical quantities associated with each bus: PD ,
PG , QD , QG , V, and . This is the most general case, in which each bus is shown to have
both generation and demand. In reality, not all busses will have power generation. The
impedance diagram of the two-bus system is shown in Fig. 11.2. The transmission line is
represented by a -model and the synchronous generator is represented by a source
behind a synchronous reactance. The loads are assumed to be constant impedance for the
sake of representing them on the impedance diagram. Typically, the load is represented
by a constant power device, as shown in subsequent figures.
Figure 11.3 is the same as Fig. 11.2 but with the generation and demand bundled
together to represent bus power, which represents bus power injections. Bus power is
defined as
S1  SG1  SD1  (PG1  PD1)  j(QG1  QD1)

(1)

S2  SG2  SD2  (PG2  PD2)  j(QG2  QD2)

(2)

and

Also, injected current at bus 1 is

1  I
G 1  I
D 1
I

(3)

LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS

FIGURE 11.1

FIGURE 11.2

11.3

A two-bus power system.

Impedance diagram for the two-bus power system.

and injected current at bus 2 is

2  I
G 2  I
D 2
I

(4)

All quantities are assumed to be per unit. Then, since

1* Q (P1  jQ1)  V1*I
1
1* Q P1  jQ1  V1I
S1  V1I

(5)

2* Q (P2  jQ2)  V2* I

2
2* Q P2  jQ2  V2I
S2  V2I

(6)

and, since

FIGURE 11.3 Bus powers with transmission line -model for the
two-bus system.

11.4

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

FIGURE 11.4

Current flows in the network model.

Let us define current flows in the circuit as shown in Fig. 11.4. Therefore, at bus 1
1  I
1  I
1

I
 V1yp  (V1  V2)ys
1  (yp  ys)V1  (ys)V2
I
1  Y11V1  Y12V2
I

(7)
(8)

 sum of admittances connected at bus 1  yp  ys

where Y11 

 negative of the admittance between busses 1 and 2  ys

Y12 

(9)
(10)

Similarly, at bus 2
2  I
2  I
2

I
 V2yp  (V2  V1)ys
2  (ys)V1  (yp  ys)V2
I

(11)

2  Y21V1  Y22V2
I

(12)

 sum of all admittances connected at bus 2  yp  ys

Y22 

(13)

 negative of the admittance between busses 2 and 1  ys  Y12

Y21 

(14)

Hence, for the two-bus power system, the current injections are

II  YY
1

11

21

 VV 

Y12
Y22

(15)

In matrix notation,
Ibus  YbusVbus

(16)

The two-bus system can easily be extended to a larger system. Consider an n-bus system. Figure 11.5a shows the connections from bus 1 of this system to all the other busses.
Figure 11.5b shows the transmission line models. Equations (5) through (16) that were

11.5

LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS

FIGURE 11.5a

Extending the analysis to an n-bus system.

FIGURE 11.5b

The -model for the n-bus system.

derived for the two-bus system can now be extended to represent the n-bus system. This is
shown next.
1  V1yp12  V1yp13      V1yp1n  (V1  V2)ys12  (V1  V3)ys13     
I
(V 1  V2)ys1n
 (yp12  yp13      yp1n  ys12  ys13      ys1n)Vn  ys12V2  ys13V3
     ys1nVn (17)
1 Y11V1  Y12 V2  Y13 V3      Y1n Vn
I
where

Y11  (yp12  yp13      yp1n  ys12  ys13      ys1n)

(18)
(19)

 sum of all admittances connected to bus 1

Y12  yS12; Y13  yS13; Y1n  ys1n
1 
I

(20)

 YijVj

j1

(21)

11.6

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

Also, extending the power Eq. (5) to an n-bus system,

n

P1  jQ1  V1*I1  V1* Y1jVj

(22)

j1

Equation (22) can be written for any generic bus i:

n

Pi  jQi  V i* YijVj

i  1, 2, . . . , n

j1

(23)

Equation (23) represents the nonlinear power-flow equations. Equation (15) can also be
rewritten for an n-bus system:

 
1
I
2
I


n
I

Y11 Y12
Y21 Y22


Yn1 Yn2

Y1n
Y2n

Ynn

 
V1
V 2


V n

(24)

or
Ibus  Ybus Vbus

(25)

where

Ybus 

Y11
Y21

Yn1

Y12
Y22

Yn2

Y1n
Y2n
 bus admittance matrix

Ynn

(26)

POWER-FLOW SOLUTION
Let us take a generic bus as shown in Fig. 11.6. As mentioned earlier, each bus has six
quantities or variables associated with it. They are V ,  , PG , QG , PD , and QD. Assuming
that there are n busses in the system, there would be a total of 6n variables.

FIGURE 11.6

A generic bus.

LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS

11.7

TABLE 11.1 Bus Classifications

Bus classification

Prespecified variables

Unknown variables

Slack or swing
Voltage-controlled
Load

V , , PD , QD
V , PG , PD , QD
PG, QD, PD, QD

PG , QG
, QG
 V , 

The power-flow Eq. (23) can be resolved into the real and reactive parts as follows:

 Pi  Real Vi*YijVj
j1

i  1, 2, . . . , n

Qi  Imag Vi* YijV j

j1

i  1, 2, . . . , n

(27)

(28)

Thus, there are 2n equations and 6n variables for the n-bus system. Since there cannot be
a solution in such case, 4n variables have to be prespecified. Based on parameter specifications, we can now classify the busses as shown in Table 11.1.
We will now describe the methods used in solving the power-flow equations.

Gauss-Seidel (G-S) Algorithm for Power-Flow Solution

Note that the power-flow equations are
n

Pi  jQ i  Vi*  YijVj

i 1, 2, . . . , n

(23)

j1

 Vi*YiiVi 

 V *i YijVj
j1, ji

Q Vi*YiiVi  (Pi  jQ i) 

(29)
n

 Vi*YijVj
j1, ji

n
Pi  jQ i
Q YiiVi 
  YijVj
Vi*
j1, ji

Q Vi 

n
Pi  jQ i
  YijVj
Vi*
j1, ji

Yii

(30)
(31)

(32)

Also, from (29),

Pi  Re Vi*YiiVi 
and

 Vi*YijVj
j1, ji
n

(33)

11.8

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

Q i  Imag Vi*YiiVi 

 Vi*YijVj
j1, ji
n

(34)

where Yij are elements of the Ybus.

The G-S Algorithm
Step 0.

Formulate and Assemble Ybus in Per Unit

Step 1.

Assign Initial Guesses to Unknown Voltage Magnitudes and Angles

V   1.0,

Step 2a.

0

i form Eq. (32)

For Load Buses, Find V

 YijVj(k)  Yii
j1, ji

V i(k1)  (Pi jQ i)  Vi*(k) 

where k  iteration no. For voltage-controlled busses, find Vi using (34) and (32) together. That is, find Qi first.

 

Q (k1)
 Imag Vi*(k) V (k)
i
i Yii 

 YijV (k)j 
j1, ji
n

Then

V (k1)
 (Pi  jQ i)/Vi*(k) 
i

 YijVj*  Yii
j1, ji
n

(k1)

However, V i is specified for voltage-controlled busses. So,Vi(k1)  Vi , spec   i, calc

In using Eqs. (32) and (34), one must remember to use the most recently calculated
values of bus voltages in each iteration. So, for example, if there are five busses in the
system being studied, and one has determined new values of bus voltages at busses 1 3,
then during the determination of bus voltage at bus 4, one should use these newly calculated values of bus voltages at 1, 2, and 3; busses 4 and 5 will have the values from the
previous iteration.
Step 2b.

For Faster Convergence, Apply Acceleration Factor to Load Buses

(k)
(k)
(k)
V (k1)
i,acc  V i,acc  (V i  V i,acc)

(35)

where  acceleration factor.

Step 3.

Check Convergence
Re [V (k1)
]  Re [V (k)
i
i ] 

(36)

That is, the absolute value of the difference of the real part of the voltage between
successive iterations should be less than a tolerance value . Typically,   104, and
also,
Imag [Vi(k1)]  Imag[Vi(k)]  
(37)
That is, the absolute value of the difference of the imaginary value of the voltage should
be less than a tolerance value .

11.9

LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS

FIGURE 11.7 A two-bus system illustrating line-flow computation.

If the difference is greater than tolerance, return to Step 3. If the difference is less than
tolerance, the solution has converged; go to Step 4.
Step 4. Find Slack Bus Power PG and QG from Eqs. (27) and (28)
Step 5. Find All Line Flows as Described in the Next Section
Computing Line Flows. As the last step in any power-flow solution, one has to find the
ij,
line flows. This is illustrated by the two-bus system shown in Fig. 11.7. Line current, I
at bus i is defined positive in the direction i : j.
s I
pi(Vi  Vj)ys  Viypi
ij  I
I

(38)

Let Sij, Sji be line powers defined positive into the line at bus i and j, respectively.
2 *
i*j  Vi
Vi*  Vj*y*
Sij  Pij  jQ ij  ViI
s  Vi ypi

j*i  Vj
Vj*  Vi*y*
*
Sji  Pji  jQ ji  VjI
s  Vj ypi
2

(39)
(40)

The power loss in line (i  j) is the algebraic sum of the power flows determined from
(39) and (40).
SLij  Sij  Sji
(41)
Newton-Raphson (N-R) Method for Power-Flow Solution
The Newton-Raphson method enables us to replace the nonlinear set of power-flow equations of (23) with a linear set. We will show this after the basis for the method is explained.
The Taylor series expansion of a function f(x) of a single variable, x, around the point
(x  a) is given by
f(x)  f(a)  (xa)

f
(x  a)n 2f

x a
2!
x2

  

f
 value of the derivative evaluated at x  a.
x a
The series converges if lim n  0.

where

n: 

(x  a)n nf
 n
n!
xn

(42)

11.10

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

If (x  a)  1 then we can neglect the higher-order terms and write (42) as

f
f(x)  f(a)  (x  a) x

(43)

For a function of n variables, one can expand around the point: (x1  a1), (x2  a2),
(xn  an) with (xk  ak)  1 and k  1, 2, . . . , n. Then, Eq. (42) becomes
f(x1, x2, . . . , xn)  f(a1, a2, . . . , an)  (x1  a1)

f
x1

a1

 (x2  a2)

f
x2

  (xn  an)

a2

f
xn

(44)
an

Let us consider a set of nonlinear equations, each a function of n variables:

f1(x1, x2, . . . , xn)  y1
f2(x1, x2, . . . , xn)  y2

fn(x1, x2, . . . , xn)  yn

(45)

or
fk(x1, x2, . . . , xn)  yk

k  1, 2, . . . , n

(0)
(1)
Assume initial values x(0)
k and some correction, xk, which when added to xk yield xk .
s
When x(0)
are
close
to
the
solution,
x
,
the
are
small.
x
k
k
k
Using the approximate Taylors series, we have

fk
x1

(0)
(0)
fk(x1, x2, . . . , xn)  fk(x(0)
1 , x2 , . . . , xn )  x1

xn

fk
xn

xn(0)

x1(0)

 x2

 yk

fk
x2

x(0)
2

  

k  1, 2, . . . , n

(46)

 

(47)

or, in matrix form,

(0)
(0)
y1f1(x(0)
1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

y2f2(x(0)
1 ,

x(0)
2 ,

, x(0)
n )

...



(0)
(0)
ynfn(x(0)
1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

or

f 1
x1
f 2
x1

f n
x1




x1(0)

f 1
x2

x1(0)

f 2
x1

f n
x2

x1(0)




x2(0)

x2(0)

x2(0)

f 1
xn
f 2
xn

f n
xn




x1

xn(0)

x2

xn(0)

xn(0)

xn

[U](0)  [J](0)[X](0)

(48)

 [X]  ([J](0))1[U](0)

(49)

where [J] is the Jacobian matrix.

11.11

LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS

To continue iteration, find [X](1) from

[X](1)  [X](0)  [X](0)

(50)

[X](k1)  [X](k)  [X](k)

(51)

Generally,

where k  iteration number.

The Newton-Raphson Method Applied to Power-Flow Equations
The N-R method is typically applied on the real form of the power-flow equations:
Pi 

 Vi Vk yik cos (k  i  ik)  fip

k1
n

Qi    Vi Vk yik sin (k  i  ik)  fiq

k1

(52)
i  1, . . . , n
(53)

Assume, temporarily, that all busses, except bus 1, are of the load type. Thus, the
unknown parameters consist of the (n  1) voltage phasors, V2 , . . . , Vn. In terms of real
variables, these are:
Angles

2, 3, . . . , n

Magnitudes

V2, V3, . . . , Vn

(n  1) variables
(n  1) variables

Rewriting (47) for the power-flow equations,




f2 p
3

P2(0)

f2 p
 2

P3(0)

f3 p
 2

f3 p
3

fnp
3

fnp
 2

Q(0)
2

f2q
 2

Q(0)
3

f3q
 2

Q(0)
n

(0)





Pn(0)

(0)

fnq
 2

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

f2 q
3
f3q
3

fnq
3




f2 p
 n

f3p
 n

fnp
 n

f2q
 n

f3q
 n

fnq
 n

(0)





(0)

(0)

(0)




(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

f2 p
  V2 
f3 p
  V2 




f2p
  Vn 

f3p
  Vn 

(0)

(0)





(0)

fnp
  V2 

(0)

f2q
  V2 

(0)

f3q
  V2 





(0)

(0)

(0)

fnq
  V2 

fnp
  Vn 
f2q
  Vn 
f3q
  Vn 

fnq
  Vn 


(0)

(0)

2(0)

(0)

3(0)

(0)








(0)

n(0)

(0)

V2(0)

(0)

V3(0)


(0)

Vn(0)

(54)

11.12

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

Before proceeding any further, we need to account for voltage-controlled busses. For
every voltage-controlled bus in the system, delete the corresponding row and column
from the Jacobian matrix. This is done because the mismatch element for a voltagecontrolled bus is unknown.
Writing Eq. (54) in matrix form,
U (0)  J(0) X (0)
where

(55)

U (0)  vector of power mismatches at initial guesses

J (0)  the Jacobian matrix evalutated at the initial guesses
X (0)  the error vector at the zeroth iteration

The N-R Algorithm

Step 0. Formulate and Assemble Ybus in Per Unit
Step 1. Assign Initial Guesses to Unknown Voltage Magnitudes and Angles for a
Flat Start
V   1.0,   0
Step 2. Determine the Mismatch Vector U for Iteration k
Step 3. Determine the Jacobian Matrix J for Iteration k
Step 4. Determine Error Vector X from Eq. (55)
Set X at iteration (k  1): X(k1)  X(k)  X(k). Check if the power mismatches are
within tolerance. If so, go to Step 5. Otherwise, go back to Step 2.
Step 5. Find Slack Bus Power PG and QG from Eqs. (27) and (28)
Step 6. Compute Line Flows Using Eqs. (39) and (40) and the Total Line Losses
from Eq. (41)

EXAMPLE OF N-R SOLUTION

Consider the three-bus system shown in Fig. 11.8. Known quantities are also shown.
Given: V11.0 0 p.u., V2  1.0 p.u., P2  0.6 p.u., P3  0.8 p.u., Q3  0.6.

FIGURE 11.8

A three-bus example power system.

LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS

11.13

Step 0.
Ybus 

j7
j2
j5

j2
j6
j4

j5
j4
j9

Step 1.

X (0)

(0)
0
2
(0)
0
 3 0 
V2 
1.0
1.0
V3 0

 

Step 2.
P2  f2p  y21 V2 V1 cos (1  2  21)  y22 V2 V2 cos (2  2  22)
 y23 V2 V3 cos (3  2  23) (56)
Q2  f2q  y21 V2 V1 sin (1  2  21)  y22 V2 V2 sin (2  2  22)
 y23 V2 V3 sin (3  2  23) (57)
P3  f3p  y31 V3 V1 cos (1  3  31)  y32 V3 V2 cos (2  3  32)
 y33 V32 cos (3  3  33) (58)
Q3  f3q  y31 V3 V1 sin (1  3  31)  y32 V3 V2 sin (2  3  32)
 y33 V32 sin 23 (59)
The specified bus powers are: P2S  0.6, P3S  0.8, Q3S  0.6. The calculated bus
0
powers at this iteration are: P2  2.1.1 cos (0  0  90)  6.1.1 cos (90)  4.1.1
cos (0  0  90)  0, P 03  5.1.1 cos 90  4.1.1 cos 90  9.12 cos (90)  0, Q 03 
(5.1.1 sin 90  4.1.1 sin 90  9.12 sin (90))  0. Therefore, the mismatches are
P2  0.6; P3  0.8; Q3  0.6.
Step 3.
f2p
2

 y21 V1 V2 sin (2  21)  y23 V2 V3 sin (2  3  23)
f2q
3

f2q
,
 2
f2 p ,
  V2 

 y23 V2 V3 sin (3  2  23)

f2q
f2q
f2q
,
,
3
  V2 
  V3 
f3 p ,
  V2 

f3q
  V2 

No need to evaluate these since bus 2

is a voltage-controlled bus.

(60)

(61)

11.14

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

f2p
V3

 y23 V2 cos (3  2  23)

(62)

Therefore, at the initial guesses,




f2p
2
f3p
2
f3p
3

3

f2p

 4

V3

0

 y32 V3 V2 sin (2  3  32)  4

(63)

  [y31 V3 V1  sin (3  31)  y32 V3 V2 sin (3  2  32)]  9 (64)

 [y31 V1 cos (1  3  31)  y32 V2 cos (2  3  32)
 2y33 V3 cos 33]  0
f3q
2

d2

6

f3p
 V3

f3q

f2p

 [y32 V3 V2 cos (2  3  32)]  0

(66)

 [y31 V3 V1 cos (3  1  31)

 y32 V3 V2 cos (3  2  32)]  0

f3q
 V3

(65)

(67)

 [y31 V1 sin (1  3  31)  y32 V2 sin (2  3  32)
 2y33 V3 sin 33]  9

 
P (0)
2
P (0)
3
Q (0)
2
Q (0)
3

6
4
0
0

4
9
0
0

0
0
10
4

0
0
4
9

(68)

 
2
 3
V2
V3

After the row and column corresponding to bus 2 are eliminated:

 

0.6
6
0.8

4

0.6
0

4
9
0

0
0
0

 
2
3
V3

Step 4.
To solve the preceding equations, one can resort to inversion of the Jacobian matrix.
However, computationally, it is more efficient to apply a numerical technique such as the

LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS

11.15

Gaussian elimination technique. The latter can be found in any textbook dealing with
numerical analysis. This technique is applied next.

 

4
9
0

 

0.667
2.25
0

0.6
6
0.8  4
0.6
0

1
0.1
0.2  1
0.6
0

 

0.1
1
0.1  0
0
0.6

 

1
0.1
0.063  0
0.6
0

0.667
1.583
0
0.667
1
0

 

2 Divide by 6
3 Divide by 4
V3

0
0
0

0
0
9

0
0
9
0
0
9

 

 2
3 Add this row to row 1
V3

 

 2
3 Divide by 1.583
V3

 
 2
3
V3

By back substitution,
V3(1)  V2(0)  V3
 1.0  0.067
 0.933
2  0  0.063  0.063

0.6
 0.067 ;
9
0.063
;
0.1  0.667  3
0.058
;
0  0.058  0.058

V3  
3 
2 

2 

Continue further iterations until convergence is achieved.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
The two solution strategies described here comprise the basic steps in a load-flow solution. The reader should be reminded that, occasionally, an off-nominal transformer, a
capacitor, or other network devices also have to be modeled. Most of these models can
be represented in the bus admittance matrix. Another practical consideration that one
needs to bear in mind is that all generators have upper and lower limits of reactive
power generation. Hence, if during a load flow iteration it is found that any one of the
generators is violating its limits, then that particular bus where the generator is located
is said to have lost voltage control and, thus, should be treated as a load bus in subsequent iterations.
As is obvious from the two methods, computer-based analysis is essential for obtaining accurate load-flow solutions of any realistically sized power system. A computer-

11.16

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

based analysis typically utilizes many numerical techniques, such as optimal ordering
and sparsity techniques, in order to reduce memory and storage requirements. There are
several excellent load-flow programs available that are widely used by engineers in utility companies for frequent system studies. While industry-grade load-flow software
tends to be very expensive, there are now many educational versions of load-flow software available that are inexpensive and quite adequate for classroom use or for studying
small-scale systems.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Elgerd, O. I. 1982. Electric Energy Systems Theory An Introduction, 2nd ed. New York: McGrawHill.
Glover, J. D., and M. Sharma. 1994. Power System Analysis, and Design, 2nd ed. Boston: PWS
Publishing.
Grainger, J. J., and W. D. Stevenson. 1994. Power System Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stott, B., and O. Alsac. 1974. Fast Decoupled Load Flow, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
& Systems, Vol. PAS-93, pp. 859 869.