AN 9/29/07

Zumdhal Chapter 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

2.1 The Early History of Chemistry
Before 1000BCE natural ores were processed to produce metals and for embalming
400 BCE the Greeks proposed that all matter was composed of fire, earth, water, and air
Democritus used the term atomos (atoms) to describe small particles
Next 2000 years dominated by alchemists (often fakes)
Important discoveries included elements (mercury, sulfur, and antimony); prep. of mineral acids
1500s systematic metallurgy was developed (extraction of metals from ores) by Georg Bauer (Germany)
and the medicinal application of minerals by Paracelsus (Swiss alchemist)
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) (Irish) meas. Relationship between pressure and the volume of gasses
1661 Quantitative sciences of physics and chemistry born when published The Skeptical Chemist
Defined an element as something that couldnt be broken down to 2+ simpler substances
This was accepted instead of the Greeks idea of 4 substances
Didnt believe metals were elements
George Stahl (1660-1734) a German chemist suggested phlogiston flowed out of burning materials
therefore a substance burning in a closed container eventually stopped burning because the air in the
container became saturated with phlogiston on the subject of combustion.
Joseph Priestley (1773-1804) an English scientist discovered O2 was found to support combustion and
was therefore low in phlogiston.
2.2 Fundamental Chemical Laws
Late 1700s gases CO2, N2, H, and O2 had been discovered by weight reactants/products
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) a French chemist finally explained true nature of combustion
Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed.
Combustion involved O2
1789 published first modern textbook Elementary Treatise on Chemistry
French Revolution began; executed 1794.
Joseph Proust (1754-1826); French
Law of Definite Proportion: a given compound always contains exactly the same proportions of
elements by mass.
John Dalton (1766-1844); English
A given compound, comprised of tiny particles, should always contain the same combination of
these atoms; explained Prousts findings.
Law of Multiple Proportions: When 2 elements form a series of compounds, the ratios of the
masses of the second element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be
reduced to small whole numbers.
Compound
Mass of O2 that combines w/ 1 g C
Compound I (CO?)
1.33g
Compound II (CO2?)
2.66g
Compound II contains twice as much oxygen per gram of carbon as compound I
2.3 Daltons Atomic Theory

1808 Dalton published A New System of Chemical Philosophy; his theory of atoms
1. Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms
2. The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different in some
fundamental way(s)
3. Chemical compounds are formed when atoms combine with each other. A given compound always
has the same relative numbers and types of atoms.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms-changes in the way they are bound
together. The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.
Assumed nature would be as simple as possible
Formula for water OH; H mass of 1, O mass of 8
First table of atomic masses (many of Daltons masses were later proved wrong)
Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778-1850; French) experimentally found key to determining absolute formulas
1809 measured volumes of gasses (under same temperature and pressure conditions) that reacted with
each other.
Found that 2 volumes of H react w/ 1 volume of O to form 2 volumes of gaseous water
Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856; Italian) hypothesized how to find absolute formulas
Avogadros Hypothesis: (1811) at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different
gasses contain the same number of particles.
Under these conditions, volume of gas is determined by number of molecules present, not by
the size of the individual particles.
Gaseous hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine are all composed of diatomic (2 atom) molecules H2,
O2, and Cl2
Other chemists didnt believe elements could attract each other to form molecules.
Lacked a standard; in one textbook there were 19 different formulas for acetic acid
2.4 Cannizzaros Interpretation
1. Compounds contained whole numbers of atoms as Dalton postulated.
2. Avogadros hypothesis was correct-equal volumes of gasses under the same conditions contain the
same number of molecules.
Arbitrarily assigned the relative molecular mass of H2 to be 2, then set out to assign other masses
Mass of 1.0 L O2 = 16 = 32
Mass of 1.0 L H2 1
2
Since both contain 2 atoms, the relative atomic masses for H2 and O2 are 1 and 16
Consistency of large quantities of information convinced everyone he was correct; approx. values
2.5 Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom
The Electron
J.J. Thomson (1856-1940; English) studied electrical discharges in partially evacuated tubes
Cathode Ray Tubes
When high voltage was applied to the tube a cathode ray (from -, or cathode) was produced
Produced at negative side and repelled b negative pole of an applied electric field, postulated that
ray was a stream of negatively charged particles now called electrons.
Charge to mass ratio e/m= -1.76 x108 C/g
All atoms must contain electrons since electrons could be produced from electrodes made of various
types of metals
All atoms must contain some positive charge since atoms were known to be electrically neutral
Plumb Pudding Model: an atom consisted of a diffuse cloud of positive charge with negative
electrons embedded randomly in it.

1909 Robert Millikan did oil drop experiments and calculated mass of an electron as 9.11x10-31 Kg
Radioactivity
1896 image of a piece of mineral w/ uranium in it could be produced on photographic plate in the
absence of light; Marie Curie called this radioactivity.
Three types:
1. Gamma ray: high-energy light.
2. Beta particles: high-speed electron
3. Alpha particles: 2+ charge (twice an electron; opposite charge; mass 7300 times greater).
The Nuclear Atom
1911 Earnest Rutherford carried out experiment to test plum pudding model
Directed alpha particles at a thin sheet of metal foil.
Most went through; many deflected at large angles; some were reflected
Plum pudding model incorrect
Results meant there was a center of concentrated positive charge that contains most of atoms mass
Most passed through because atom is mostly open space
Nuclear atom: atom w/ a dense center of positive charge (nucleus) w/ electrons moving around the
nucleus at a distance that is large relative to the nuclear radius.
2.6 The Modern view of Atomic Structure: An Introduction
Atom has a nucleus w/ a diameter of 10-13 cm; electrons move about it at an average distance of 10-8 cm
Nucleus contains protons positive charge equal in magnitude to electrons negative charge
Neutrons have same mass as protons (1.67x10-27 kg), but no charge
Nucleus has high density and accounts or almost all of the atoms mass
A
X
A = Mass number (total of protons and neutrons)
Z
Z= Atomic number (protons)
X= Element
Isotopes: atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
2.7 Molecules and Ions
Electrons are what participate in bonding
Chemical Bonds: forces that hold atoms together in compounds.
Covalent Bonds: forms bonds by sharing electrons
Resulting collection of atoms is called a molecule.
Examples: H2, H20, O2, NH3, CH4
Ways molecules can be represented:
Chemical formula: (simplest) the symbols of the elements are used to indicate the types of atoms
present, and subscripts are used to indicate the relative numbers of atoms.
Structural formula: individual bonds are indicated by lines; may or may not indicate shape.
Space-filling model: shows the relative sizes of atoms and relative orientation in the molecule.
Ball-and-stick model: 3D model
Ion: atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge.
Ex: Table salt/Sodium Chloride
Na Na+ +eCl + e- ClCation: positive ion.
Anion: ion with a negative charge.
Ionic Bonds: force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Ionic Solid/Salt: a solid consisting of oppositely charge ions.
2.8: An Introduction to the Periodic Table

Metals: characteristic physical properties include efficient conduction of eat/electricity, malleability,

ductility (can be pulled into wires) and often a lustrous appearance.
Chemically tend to lose electrons to form positive ions.
Transition Metals: in the center of the periodic table.
Nonmetals: appear in the upper right-hand corner (except H); usually lack physical properties of metals.
Chemically tend to gain electrons to form anions (-) in reactions with metals.
Elements in same columns (groups/families) have similar chemical properties.
Alkali Metals: (Group 1A) readily form ions with a 1+ charge when they react w/ nonmetals.
Alkaline Earth Metals: (Group 2A) form ions with a 2+ charge when they react w/ nonmetals.
Halogens: (Group 7A) all form diatomic molecules. React w/ metals to form salts containing ions
with a 1- charge.
Noble Gasses:(Group 8A) exist normally as monatomic gases and have little chemical reactivity.
Period: horizontal rows in the periodic table.
2.9: Naming Simple Compounds
Binary compounds: (inorganic) compounds composed of 2 elements.
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type I; Ionic)
Binary ionic compounds contain a positive ion (cation), always written first in the formula, and a
negative ion (anion).
Rules:
1. The cation is always named first and the anion second.
2. A monatomic (from one atom) cation takes its name from the name of the element. For example,
Na+ is called sodium in the names of compounds containing this ion.
3. A monatomic anion is named by taking the first part of the elements name and adding ide. For
example the Cl- ion is called chloride.
NaCl Na+, Clsodium chloride
CaS Ca2+, S2calcium sulfide
Li3N Li+, N3lithium nitride
CsBr Cs+, Brcesium bromide
MgO Mg2+, O2- magnesium oxide
Binary Compounds (Type II; Ionic)
Charge on the metal ion must be specified; Roman numeral indicates the charge of the cation.
In metals that form only 2 ions, the ion with the higher charge ends in ic, and the one with the lower
charge names in ous.
Elements that form only one cation dont need roman numerals
Group 1A, Group 2A; aluminum Al3+, Zn2+, Ag+
Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
Oxyanions: contain an atom of a giver element and different numbers of oxygen atoms.
Smaller number of oxygen ends in ite; larger number of oxygen ends in ate.
When there are more than 2 oxyanions in a series, hypo- (less) and per- (more than) are used as
prefixes to the name of those w/ the fewest and most oxygen atoms. (chlorine)
Binary Compounds (Type III; Covalent-Contain Two Nonmetals)
Binary covalent compounds: formed between two nonmetals.
Naming rules:
1. The first element in the formula is named first, using the full element name.
2. The second element is named as if it were an anion.
3. Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms present. (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa)

4. The prefix mono- is never used for naming the first element.
Compound
Systematic Name
Common Name
N2O
dinitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide
NO
nitrogen monoxide nitric oxide
NO2
nitrogen dioxide
N2O5
dinitrogen pentoxide
Formulas From Names
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Ca2+, OHAcids
Certain molecules that when dissolved in water, produce a solution containing free H+ ions (protons)
If the anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is named with the prefix hydro- and suffix ic
If the anion does contain oxygen, the acid named is fomed from the ron name of the anion with a suffix
of ic, or ous
If the anion name ends in ate, the acid name ends with ic (or sometimes) ric.
Ex. H2SO4 contains the sulfate anion (SO4 2-) so its called sulfuric acid
If the anion has an ite ending, the acid name ends with ous
Ex. HNO2 which contains (NO2)- is named nitrous acid
Acid
Anion
Name
HClO4
Perchlorate Perchloric acid
HClO3
Chlorate
Chloric acid
HClO2
Chlorite
Chlorous acid
HClO
Hypochlorite Hypochlorous acid