Chemistry Basics

Why are elements periodic

Variations of chemical properties across + similairitas down
BECAUSE EOF THE ELCTRONIC CONFIG
S blocl groups 1&2
P-Block groups 13-18
D-block- transition metals
F-block - lanthanides and actinides
Trends in period table
Atomic properties how they act and react and interact
Dpeneds on attration of electron to nucleus
Core charge - Positive charge that attracts outer shell electron
Ionisation energy- Energy required to ionize (remove electrons)
Across Increases-less likely. Smaller atomic + greater corecharge
Down - Decreases-more likely. Weak electrostatic force
Atomic Radius
Across- decreases. Greater electrostatic force greater core charge
Down increase. Electrons occupy most of the volume
Electronegativity Ability to attract electrons
Across increases. > electrostatic force core charge smaller
radius
Down Decreases. Weak electrostatic force big atomic radius.
Metalic character
Increases down
Decreases across
Reactivity
Increases down
Decrease across
Reactivitiy of non metal opposite
Metaloid_ chracterisitcs of both
Compound 2 or more elements combine
Molecule 2 or more non-metals combined.
Moles
Relative isotopic mass (IR) Mass of an atom of the isoptope relative
to C12
Relative atomic mass (Ar) Average of the Ir of elements isotope
(Ir x %(abundance) + (Ir x %(abundance) / 100
Relative molecular mass - Mass of one molecule relative to C12

Add all the Ar

Avagadros number (Na) 6.02 x 10^23
N number of particles
N=N/NA
N= m/M
Molar mass mass of a mole
Add relative atomic mass together.
Percentage compostion The percentage of mass of an elements
(M (of element)/M(of compound) X 100
Empirical Formula: Simplest whole number of moles
1. Find n
2. Divide answers by smallest
Molecular formuala Actual number
M(of compound) given / M(of one unit) empirical
Then times the empirical formula by the answer given

Metals
Ions held in lattice by electrostatic force between the closly packed
cations and the sea of DE
Conduct electricity in solid state
Charged particles free to move DE
Melleable and ductile
Layers of ions still held by DE when force applies Forces able to
adjust
High Density
Particles are closely packed
Hgih boiling point
Strong electrostatic force lots of energy to break bonds
Good heat conduction
DE free to move and pump transfwer energy
Limiations
The differences between metals + specifics.
Alloys
When a metal substances are melted and mixed to create desired
properties
Harder less malleable poor electrical conductors

Subsitutional Elements with fairly similar chem props and size

Interstitial Significant smaller atoms. Difficult for layers to slide
now.
Work hardening
Annealing- Heated cooled slowly. Bigger grains, softer, ductile,
large cyrstals
Quenching Heated cooled quick Hard brittle, Tine crystal formed
Tempering Quenched heated cooled Less brittle normal size
crystal
Crystal Regioin in a solid particles arranged in a certain way.
Surrounded by DE
Smaller crystal = harder and brittle

Ionic Compound
Cations and anions held in a 3-D lattice by electrostatic forces
High melting point Strong electrostatic forces lots of energy
needed to break
Hard and brittle
When force applied layers of ions move same charge close
crystal shatters
Does not conduct in solid state
No free moving charged particles
Conducts in molten state
Free moving charged particles
Electron transfer diagram All shells, total amount of protons
written
Transfer equation 1. Initial 2. New

Covalent
Carbon - Allottrpes are;
Diamond Carbon covalently bonded to 4 other carbons. Strong bond
through entire lattice sublimes does not conduct
Graphite Hard in one direction slipper in other
3 electrons bonded in layer with one DE. Conducts sublimes

CO2 Small weak forces between moleculs easy to separate.

Covalent Between 2 non metals. Share elctrons.
Covalentl molecular lattice Molecular substance is cooled enough for
molecules to form a fixed lattice
Covalent network lattice Covalent bond extends throughout entire lattice
= strong high melting Diamond
Covalent layer lattice Covalent bond extends through layers but weak
dispersion forces betweeb layers Graphite
Meltin temp + boiling temp
Small covalent bonds = low forces low points
Network + layer = strong bonds lots of energy needed.
Electrical conductivity
Molecule and network no free moving
Layer has a free moving conducts
Hardness and softness
Network = hard = strong bonding = atoms fixed in a position
Layer = forces between layers weak = slide = soft
Because of weak intermolecular forces, covalent molecules are generally
liquid or gas at room temp.
Intramolecular Forces that hold atoms together in the molecule. Chemical
change
Intermolecular Forces between molecules
Weakest to strongest bonding Dispersion. Dipole-dipole, hydrogen
bond, covalent
Bonding
Bonding electron Electron shared
Inon bonding pair/lone electrons not shared in bond
Shapes
Linear
Pyramid Lone pair + 3 bonding
V-bent 2 bonded 2 lone
Tetrahedral 4 bonding pairs
Polarised bonds
In a covalent bond 1 will have higher electronegativity
Bond is said to be polarized
Ends of differenct chargers Dipoles
For it to be polar Polar bonds. ASYMMETRICAL

Dipole-dipole interaction Ends of polar molecules join

Hydrogen bonding H bonded to N,O or F
NOF = very electronegative
Bond are highly polarized
Dispersion = weakest
Increase with the size of the atom or molecule
Particles are always moving = when more electron on one side = molecule
temporally polar and interact with nearby atoms. Instantaneous
interaction
Proven by noble gases in solid form
Low melting + boiling = forces are weak

Carbon Compounds
Carbon foms many bonds because of 4 bonding electrons.
Hydrocarbons Molecules containing mainly H and C covalent
molecules./compounds
Alkanes C(n )H(2n+2)
Carbon + H in a single bond. Saturated. Non polar
Alkene C(n)H(2n)
Doublebond. Unsaturated Non-polar
Weak dispersion forces that increase in size.
Homologous series Group of hydrocarbons that differ by CH2n SIMILAR
CHEM PROPS
Unsaturated Less H because double bond = less reactive
Structural isomers Differ in chemical strucute sam atomic mass + comp.
Differ physical states.
Naming carbon compounds
1. Amount of carbon (meth, eth, pro, but, pent, hex, hep, oct, non,
ded)
2. The homologous series (Ane or Ene)
3. Location of double bond (Pro-2-ene)
4. Location of side branches or alkyle groups
Alkyl groups Alkane molecule less a hydrogen.
Properties of Alkanes and Alkenes
Physical
Smaller molecule = more volatile (evaps easy)

More volatile = less viscosity (Thichness of liquid = burn readily)

Less force needed to overcome bonds
Boiling temp increases = more carbon
Non-polar dispersion forces join them
Large molecule = greater dispersion = high boilg temp + higher viscosity
(more tangled)
Alkane and alkene with same carbon = similar physical properties
Alkene = slightly lower boiling temp
Chemical Props of Alkane
Do combust
Use energy produced for heat, transportation and electricity
Chemical props of alkene
Combust BUT because of double bond = effects chem props
Reacts more readily with chemicals
Use as starting materials to produce alchohol
Do addition reactions
Strucutral formula Shows branches and bonding
Semi-structural Linear showing bonding

Polymers
Large covalent molecules
Consisit of monomers linked together
Contains thousand of atoms
Produced by polymerization
Empiracal formula of monomer = formula of polymer
Polymerization
Addition Name of monomer = name of polymer
Small unsaturated (alkenes) added together
Covalent bonds between monomers produce polymer
Condensation Nmed after bond between monomers
Thermoplastics
Strong covalent in chains
Weak between chains
Flexible and soft on heating
When heated monomers gain KE polymer chain slide over = broken
dispersion forces BUT strong covalent bonds = unaffected
Thermosetting
Strong covalent between both chains and in-between chains.

Lots of cross links

Char when heated
Cannot slip past each other because cross link will break
Elastomer
Strong covalent bonds within chains
Small number of cross links.
Will regain shape after forces removed because of cross links
Important properties
Tensile strength Resistance to break under tension
Softness The way the polymer can be molded
All of this + boiling temp determined by forces between polymer chains
Cross linking Covalent bonds between polymer chains.
more cross links rigid polymer
Degree of branching
Greater the degree of branching = softer and more flexible + transparent
Unbranched = closer pakcing strong intermolecular forces.
Bucky ring Prevents cahins from stacking close and creates crystal. Layers
can slide
Arrangement of side groups
Atactic Side groups are randomly stacked.
Doesnt pack good forms crystals
Isotactic Side groups all on 1 side.
Stack close together strong inter forces = high boiling
Isotactic close packing
Polar groups =stronger moleculer
Cross linked = strong bonds.
Polymer made of 2 monomers
Platicizers add flexibility
HDPE
Un-branched chains of P.E
Pack close together
Strong + less flexible with a higher boiling point
Toys and buckets
LDPE
Highly branched chains dont pack together.
Softer more flexible
Transparent because high degree of branching
Cling wrap bottles bags.
Nanotechnology

Surface Boundary between 1 subtance and another

Where paricles of different molecules interact
Particles at the surface not surrounded by other particles of that
substance and will behave different. Also have incomplete bonds
Anisotropic Different enviro
Isotropic Same enviro
Surface tension Surface of a liquid is always under pressure. The strong
the force between particles greater tension
Surface energy the amount of energy needed to increase the surface area
of a liquid by a specified amount.
Related to strength between particles.
Reflects strengths of bonds that must be broken to create a new surface
Strong bond = high surface energy
Wetting
The more the liquid spreads over a surface the more it wets.
Hydrophillic gets wet likes water glass
Hydrophobic Doesnt wet I dislikes water.
How
1. Liquid particles are attracted to other liquid partilces
2. Paticles at the surface are absorbed ot solid
3. If the liquid particles are more attracted to the solid it will wet the
surface
4. If the particles are more attracted to the liquid it will form drops
5. IF the surface enrgy of the solid is greater than that of the liquid
the surface will wet
WHATEVER GIVES IT THE BEST BOND
Nanoparticles I billioins of a meter 10^-9
Large surgace to area volume ration react better with other substances
Catalyst reacrtion happens of surface because of high surface are to
volume ratio nano particles are better.
Metal nano have properties of both metal and non metals.
It doest have a sea of electronsl