2014 923556

This article was downloaded by: [178.222.11.
116]
On: 10 October 2014, At: 09:42
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Educational Psychology: An
International Journal of Experimental
Educational Psychology
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cedp20
Video games vs. reading and school/

cognitive performances: a study on
27000 middle school teenagers
a
Alain Lieury , Sonia Lorant , Bruno Trosseille , Franoise

c
Champault & Ronan Vourch

a
Laboratoire de Psychologie Exprimentale, (CRP2C, EA 1285),

Universit Europenne de Bretagne (Rennes 2), Rennes cedex,
France
b
Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Sciences de l'Education et de

la Communication (LISEC, EA 2310), Universit de Strasbourg,
(ESPE d'Alsace), Strasbourg, France
c
Direction de lEvaluation, de la Prospective et de la Performance

(DEPP), Ministre de lEducation Nationale, Paris, France
Published online: 11 Jun 2014.
To cite this article: Alain Lieury, Sonia Lorant, Bruno Trosseille, Franoise Champault & Ronan
Vourch (2014): Video games vs. reading and school/cognitive performances: a study on 27000
middle school teenagers, Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental
Educational Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/01443410.2014.923556
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2014.923556
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
Content) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising

out of the use of the Content.
Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions
Educational Psychology, 2014

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2014.923556
Video games vs. reading and school/cognitive performances: a

study on 27000 middle school teenagers
Alain Lieurya*, Sonia Lorantb, Bruno Trosseillec, Franoise Champaultc and Ronan
Vourchc
a
Laboratoire de Psychologie Exprimentale, (CRP2C, EA 1285), Universit Europenne
de Bretagne (Rennes 2), Rennes cedex, France; bLaboratoire Interuniversitaire des
Sciences de lEducation et de la Communication (LISEC, EA 2310), Universit de
Strasbourg, (ESPE dAlsace), Strasbourg, France; cDirection de lEvaluation, de la
Prospective et de la Performance (DEPP), Ministre de lEducation Nationale, Paris, France
(Received 11 June 2013; nal version received 7 May 2014)

Video games are a very common leisure activity among teenagers and the aim of
this study is to analyse their relations with cognitive and school performances.
This study is part of a broad survey, conducted on 27,000 French teenagers
(14.5 years old) in middle school (9th grade). The survey contained both a questionnaire on leisure activities practised by teenagers and school/cognitive tests:
Comprehension tests, Math, School Knowledge, and Reasoning. The activity frequency (never to every day or almost) is studied on ve kinds of video games
(i.e. action/ghting) vs. seven reading activities (i.e. crime/thriller/fantasy).
Results show that there are no correlations or very slight ones between Video
Games and cognitive/school tests. Reading activities have potentially important
associations with cognition and especially school tests. To conclude, video
games are primarily recreational activities and the cognitive stimulation they
produce is very different from the one involved in specialised academic subjects
Keywords: video games; reading; school and cognitive performance
Introduction
Digital leisure activities (phones, internet, video games, etc.) exert an extraordinary
attraction to children and adolescents (Le Cam, Rocher, Lorant, & Lieury, 2013;
Octobre, 2009; Octobre, Dtrez, Berthomier, & Merckl, 2010; Prensky, 2001). So
parents, teachers and researchers questioned the impact of these technologies in cognitive development (Subrahmanyam, Greeneld, Kraut, & Gross, 2001). Among
these digital technologies, video games occupy an important place (Le Cam et al.,
2013; Olson et al., 2007; Punamki, Wallenius, Nygrd, Saarni, & Rimpela, 2007).
And the fact that they are interactive, has led some researchers to hypothesise a positive impact of video games on cognitive capacities. On the other hand, other
researchers have shown that the time spent on video games(,) was less than the time
spent on homework and could have negative effects on academic performances
(Weis & Cerankosky, 2010).
*Corresponding author. Email: a.lieury@uhb.fr

2014 Taylor & Francis
A. Lieury et al.
Cognitive capacities and video games

Many studies have investigated the possibility that video games can transfer performance exerted during the game into cognitive abilities (Barlett, Vowels, Shanteau,
Crow, & Miller, 2009; Boot, Kramer, Simons, Fabiani, & Gratton, 2008; Green &
Bavelier, 2003; Sims & Mayer, 2002). Most games are played for recreation and
relaxation (Punamki et al., 2007), for the pleasure of discovery and sensations
(Intrinsic Motivation: Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, 2006). Some games played reach
a point of total immersion, which is called Flow by some authors (Yee, 2006,
2007). Other games are Brain Training Games, claiming the improvement of overall
cognitive ability related to specic differences; memory, attention and reasoning
(uid intelligence). There are even games or programmes (it is sometimes difcult
to differentiate) announcing an overall benet to the brain: Brain Gym programme
(as cited in Miller & Robertson, 2010), Kawashimas Brain Training (Kawashima,
2005, 2006). Others say it improves Working Memory and uid intelligence (Jaeggi,
Buschkuehl, Jonides, & Shah, 2011).
Researches present heterogeneous results. Some studies have shown a positive
effect on specic cognitive capacities congruent with the kind of game. Green and
Bavelier (2003, 2006, 2007) have shown that experienced action video gamers could
have better performances in selective attention, and better visual discrimination.
Similarly, Strobach, Frensch, and Schubert (2012) showed that video gamers are
more efcient in dual task situations which were processed simultaneously or
sequentially (but not for single-task situations). In the same way, West, Stevens, Pun,
and Pratt (2008) and Boot et al. (2008) have shown a better visual perception of
change and a greater anticipation of events. Others show a positive effect on information speed processing and working memory (Jaeggi et al., 2011). Lorant-Royer,
Munch, Mescl, and Lieury (2010) have compared Kawashimas Brain Training to
another video game (New Super Mario Bros), paper-pencil training games (Mickey
Games), and with a control group (without any training). Among 10 tests, the results
show a positive effect on the right-hand dexterity test for the Brain training group
and a positive effect on the visual span test for the group trained with the Super
Mario game. But some brain training video games content are too global to be able
to improve cognitive performances and school tests such as Big Brain Academy or
Kawashimas Brain Training (Lorant-Royer et al., 2010; Lorant-Royer, Spiess,
Goncalves, & Lieury, 2008; Miller & Robertson, 2010).
The different results obtained in the experiments could be explained by the transfer specicity between the training tasks and cognitive tests. Thus, Mackey, Hill,
Stone, and Bunge (2011) show among children from 7- to 9-year olds a positive
training effect of video reasoning games on cognitive tests, but in very specic
ways. Thus, training in speed reasoning video games (i.e. Speed, Mario Kart) has a
positive effect on speed tests (+25%) but not on reasoning tests, while symmetrically, the reasoning games (i.e. Azada, Big Brain Academy ) allow an improvement in reasoning tests (+30%) and not for speed tests. Finally, none of these tests
produce positive transfer on memory tests (Digit Span and Space). The specicity of
the transfer could be due to multiple dimensions that cover the practice of video
games. Gentile (2011) suggests ve dimensions: the amount of time playing which
can interfere with homework, to be pathological in some children and adolescents
(addiction, Gentile, 2009); the content of the game, as we have seen with the foregoing research (games implementing perceptual/motor skills or cognitive capacities);
the game context, as in social games (i.e. World of Warcraft) or network group can
be used as reinforcement to an action (i.e. violence); the game structure, which
makes a game require a visual search, like in car games; and nally the game
mechanics, like a joystick or large movements, like the WII. These different facets
can explain the differences between research results. Baniqued et al.s (2013)
research specically analyses cognitive features in 20 games (training time consists
in ve training sessions of two hours) and their relations with a battery of tests.
Their results show three component categories: perceptual speed, spatial working
memory and uid intelligence. Games analysis shows that they are composite
including the three categories of cognitive processes with variable doses. To sum
up, we can expect a positive impact of frequent practice of video games according
to the degree of overlap with similar cognitive capacities.
The Cost on time hypothesis
On the other hand, other researchers have shown that the time spent on video games
was less than the time spent on homework (Gentile, 2009), which is called by some
displacement hypothesis (Weis & Cerankosky, 2010). Thus Weis and Cerankosky
(2010) show, in an experimental design of training, a decrease in certain academic
performances. The experiment is addressed to young boys (9 year olds) that do not
have video game systems. Students in the experimental group received a console
and games during four months, while students in the control group received the console four months later (duration of follow up). After four months, the two groups
are compared. Students in the experimental group play more (39 min/day) than boys
in the control group (9 min/day). The results show a decrease in academic performances among those who played during four months (experimental group); however, the results show no decline for mathematics and only a small but signicant
decrease for reading (5% from the control group) and for writing (6%). In this
article, we will refer to this theoretical approach under the name of Cost on time
hypothesis because instead of replacing a school activity with a fun activity, its
rather a large amount of time spent on something else, which is probably damaging
to school performances.
Leisure activity and relaxation
In fact, any after-school activity is not necessarily harmful because students need to
rest and relax from a neuropsychological point of view. Thus, Punamki et al.
(2007) and Wallenius, Rimpela, Punamki, and Lintonen (2009) show that the negative effects of after-school activities seem to take away sleeping time, resulting in
tiredness during class time. In this way, we consider leisure activity primarily as a
source of relaxation (not excessive practice that can lead to diseases, Gentile, 2009).
Reading: practice effect and cognitive capacities
In order to contrast video game practice and their potential link to cognitive/school
performance, we chose reading as a leisure activity. As reading practice is not the
primary aim of the study, we only summarised some of the large literature on this
complex topic. Reading is an activity in which intensive practice is generally recognised as benecial for academic performances (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1992,
A. Lieury et al.
1998; Topping, Samuels, & Paul, 2007). The more important mechanism is probably
learning new vocabulary. Thus, a longitudinal study from 6th to 9th grade of a
cohort of eight classes in a French middle school (Lieury & Lorant, 2013) was
undertaken in order to observe the implication of the encyclopaedic vocabulary contained in the textbooks (i.e. Julius Caesar, Manhattan, Shanga, Uranus, vector), in
school performance. An inventory in the school textbooks gives approximately 6000
encyclopaedic words in grade 6, to 24,000 in grade 9. The encyclopaedic storage
capacity was estimated at the end of each year by a multiple-choice questionnaire
with random samples of words (800 items; eight subjects). The results show an estimation of 2500 words learned at the end of grade 6, to 17,000 at the end of grade 9.
The correlations are from .61 to .72 between the score of encyclopaedic memory
and the average school grades. However, these correlations may be due to different
mechanisms. Stanovich and Cunningham (1993) distinguish two major hypotheses.
For the environmental opportunity hypothesis, a rich environment, such as a large
print exposure, or in our research, a high reading practice, is an opportunity to learn
new words and knowledge. Thus, Beck, Perfetti, and McKeown (1982) showed that
children were more efcient on knowledge tests and semantic reaction time tests for
words learned in training sessions. On the other hand some authors propose that it is
the high efciency of cognitive mechanisms, like making inferences (Jensen, 1980;
Sternberg, 1987) that is the major factor determining the vocabulary learning.
French surveys on leisure activities
The French Ministry of National Education (Le Cam et al., 2013) launched an
extensive survey on more than 30,000 11-year-old children. This 2008 survey
showed that childrens favourite activities were: watching TV, listening to music,
playing video games, using their phones and watching videos; 7090% of the
students declared to perform these activities at least once or twice a week. Reading a book appeared only in 59% of the students answers, which shows, on the
contrary, that 40% of students do not read regularly. The digital media had
thereby replaced the traditional culture. The results also showed that boys and
girls behaviour didnt differ for the majority of the activities, such as watching
TV, their favourite activity (more than 90%) or visiting friends. However, girls
spend a little more time on the phone than boys (+13%) as shown in Punamki
et al.s (2007) study. They also listen to music more often, communicate more by
Internet and read particularly more frequently (+26%). On the contrary, boys
practise more sport activities and play much more video games (+30%), also
shown by Punamki et al. (2007).
Aims of the study
Another survey was conducted on a large representative sample of 27,000 French
middle school (9th grade) teenagers (14.5 years old). This survey details favourite
themes or genres in activities: i.e. action, sports and strategy video games. The survey also contained a lot of academic and cognitive tests. The purpose of the present
study is to use the test results to investigate whether regular video game practice is
associated, positively or negatively, with academic and cognitive performances. In
order to estimate more efciently the possible relations between video games and
tests, we contrasted them with the effects of reading.
As the time spent practising leisure activity is not measured, but only the
leisure activity practice frequency is measured (day, week, month, trimester and
never), we compared the video game and reading practice with frequently or
rarely practised leisure activity. Although this study is a survey and not an
experimental design, we can expect some effects according to the different
hypothesis outlined in the introduction. Indeed, even if the correlation between a
game and a test can be explained by a third variable effect (previous skills,
motivation ), the practice leads to learning. Under this specic transfer
assumption, frequently played video games should be associated with better performances on tests, especially the reasoning test (uid intelligence). On the other
hand, according to the cost on time hypothesis, frequently practised video
games should be associated with lower performances in schools tests (math,
encyclopaedic memory). On the contrary, the assumption that reasonably performed leisure activity provides rest/relaxation, video games should not be associated with a decline in performance especially in school tests. Finally, frequent
reading practice should be associated with better performances, especially with
school learning tests (i.e. school knowledge).
Method
Participants
The survey was organised by the Direction of Evaluation, Assessment, Forecasting
and Performance (DEPP) of the French Ministry of National Education. The survey
was aimed to focus on a large sample of students, from 6th grade (11 year olds) to
9th grade (14/15 year olds). The panel of school students in September 2007 concerned the incoming 6th grade in France and DOM (oversea departments) enrolled
in public and private sector. It was expected that the sample size was 5% of the population by inference (i.e. 37,000 students). The method is based on the DEPP statistical staffs sampling method but balanced to ensure that the sample gives an
accurate picture of the population according to known criteria in the department,
public/private, urban/rural establishment, age of entry into the 6th grade; and then
the sample was random (for students in a school). The panel was 31,300 students
entered 6th grade in September 2007, and four years later, it remains 27,309 students at 9th grade (end of middle school in France): the students concerned in our
study. In our study, the proportion of boys (49.62%) is balanced with girls
(50.38%). The average age of students is 14 years old (M = 14.53, SD = .62). The
study was conducted in March/April 2011.
Questionnaire about the leisure activities

The questions relate to elds of leisure activities and after-school activities: Communication (phone and Internet); Sociability (meeting or playing with schoolmates);
Video games, TV and movies; Reading (books, newspapers and comics); outings;
sports, shows, concerts; Music and social engagement. The students had to tick a
box among ve different levels of a Likert scale, according to the estimated frequency of the activity. In this survey, there was no question about time spent on an
activity. The maximum activity practice frequency is everyday or almost (see
Table 1).
A. Lieury et al.
Table 1. Examples of questions about the leisure activities, and levels of answers.
1. Everyday
(or almost)
2 Once or
twice a week
3 Once or
twice a month
4 Once or
twice every
three months
5 Never since
the beginning
of the school
year
1-Do you phone or

text?
30-Do you read
novels (thrillers,
crime )?
16-Do you watch
reality TV
shows?
11-Do you play
action video
games?
The questionnaire includes 48 items. But in this study, we restricted the analysis
to two contrasting categories of leisure activity: video games and reading and, for
certain analysis, some very frequent or rare activities.
School and cognitive tests
The tests used in this article were constructed in French and are the following:
Reading and comprehension
The reading and comprehension tests come from previous research (Aubret,
Blanchard, & Sontag, 2006).
Phonological tests: LX3. LX3 is a phonological test composed of 10 items. The student must check the phonological intruder; for example cat, bat, glass, at and mat.
The highest score is 10. Cronbachs alpha is .61 for all items.
Comprehension test: incomplete texts TPL. This is a reading comprehension test
involving semantic memory but also its vocabulary extent, because you have to nd
the right word. The three texts of this sequence are incomplete: words have been left
out. You must nd the missing words; i.e. September! This is the chosen by the
swallow to go south of the Sahara they can spend the winter in heat. The highest
score is 20. Cronbachs alpha is .77 for all questions.
Comprehension test: silent reading LS. Silent Reading is a comprehension test.
Three texts of about 50 words are given to read, each of them followed by ve questions. The students keep the texts in front of them. The test is time limited (12 min).
The highest score is 10. Cronbachs alpha is .79 for all questions. Example of questions for text 1 (LS-D1):
A- According to the text, how many boys climb over the wall?
D- Which one follows the path?
Math
This test consists in 12 subtests related to various math skills, such as mental arithmetic, problem-solving, time calculation, unities, geometry, table interpretation and
probabilities (Aubret & Blanchard, 1992). We have left out the test codes since these
tests are part of national or international assessments (i.e. PISA). These tests are
grouped into three categories of four subtests: Arithmetic (alpha = .73), Algebra
(alpha = .72) and Geometry (alpha = .60). Cronbachs alpha is .85 for all subtests.
Arithmetic. The arithmetic is mainly basic mental arithmetic skills (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). The four subtests include mental arithmetic, calculations in tables and calculating schedules. The total score for the Arithmetic
category is 22 points. For example, the subtest CP5A: (Mental Arithmetic calculations) including nine operations; i.e.: 6530, 62 0.5. A second example is the subtest TAM N2 which is calculated in a table. These exercises require a
proportionality calculation by referring to the example on the rst row of the table
(see Table 2).
Algebra. The Algebra category has four subtests, inequality, fractions, probabilities
and proportionality logic. The Highest score is 10. For example, the subtest JFC
inequality is to tick a correct answer among three choices. For example: A:
4.3 < 4.6 < 4.12; B: 4.12 < 4.3 < 4.6; C: 4.6 < 4.3 < 4.12. A second example is the
subtest DIAG08-35b which is an equivalence problem between decimal fraction
forms. Among the three capacities, two are equal. Check them; for example:
A: 0.25L; B: 0.4L; C: 1/4L.
Geometry. Geometry category has four subtests: on the nature of geometric gures
(i.e. equilateral triangle), units of measurement, the calculation of a geometric
gures dimension and nally calculating the area of a triangle. The maximum score
is 13. For example, the LOLF subtest is a geometric gure surface calculation
embedded in a rectangle whose length and width is given. The instruction is:
Calculate the area of the triangle. Students must check the correct answer from
three choices: 5, 6 and 3 cm. Another subtest, the DEP cip, is a measuring unit
knowledge test, area, volume, etc. The students must calculate the size within the
missing box with the new unit of measurement (on the right of the Table 3).
Table 2. Examples of the subtest TAM N2: calculation in a table.
A machine wraps 15 boxes per minute. Complete the following table:
Number of machines
Number of boxes
1
2
15
150
Time (in minutes)

1
1
5
Note: The student is provided with a rough draft to do operations.
Table 3. Examples of the subtest DEPcip: measurement units.

1,4 m=
centimetres
25, 31 m=
314 mm3
cm
cm3
A. Lieury et al.
Lexis: encyclopaedic memory test (school knowledge)

The Lexis test comes from research showing that the encyclopaedic memory (longterm memory for specic vocabulary in school subjects: history, biology, math )
is highly predictive of school success (Lieury, Van Acker, Clevede, & Durand,
1992), until four years later (Lieury & Lorant, 2013); the test is also more predictive
than working memory (Van Acker, Vrignaud, & Lieury, 1997). The Lexis test is presented as a MCQ with a simple instruction choose the closest meaning to avoid
long denitions. The sequence consists of 48 items, four belonging to each six
subjects in the 6th grade, and four items in the 9th grade. The six subjects are
Geography, History, Biology/Geology, Physics/Chemistry; Math and French.
Phonetic or semantic distractors are placed (see Table 4). The answer I dont know
is added this way the student doesnt have to check a wrong answer. The highest
score is 8 per subject and 48 total. Cronbachs alpha is .82 for all six subjects.
From the point of view of researchers working in the eld of intelligence, the
encyclopaedic memory test can also be considered as a crystallised intelligence test
(Cattell, 1963; Undheim, 1981).
RCC: reasoning test
The RCC is a reasoning test with playing cards (RCC; Chartier, 2012). This situation is composed of 30 reasoning exercises, (G factor type) which have to be solved
in a limited amount of time (total of 20 min). The aim is to nd the value of a card
which completes a logical sequence. The ace counts for 1. The kings, queens and
jacks are removed so as to propose sequences from 1 to 10. There are three subtests,
corresponding to three cognitive dimensions: digital, spatial and arithmetic. The
maximum score is 10 per size and 30 in total. Cronbachs alpha is .78 for the three
subtests.
Table 4. MCQ examples from the Lexis encyclopaedic memory test.

Geography Lexis6-G
The Andean Cordillera
1
2
3
4
Biology Lexis6-B
Batrachian
1
Math Lexis6-M
Decimeter
1
History Lexis3-H
Sputnik
Desert
Lake
Mountain
I dont know
1
2
3
4
1st Russian satellite

Revolutionary party
Russian city
I dont know
Frog
Chimpanzee
Shell
I dont know
Physics/Chemistry Lexis3-P
Mg
1
Micro gamma
2
Magnesium
3
Manganese
4
I dont know
1/100th m
10 m
1/10th m
I dont know
French Lexis3-F
Vicomte
1
Noble person
Lawyer
Future king
I dont know
Procedure
In order to control the lling of MCQs, the students pass the MCQs in small groups
(about 56 students) in each establishment sampled throughout France. The test control responsibility is given to the guidance counsellor or psychologist. According to
the missing data, the sample size varies from 27,131 to 27,309, and we will generalise N = 27,000 in our graphs and tables.
Results and discussion
The leisure activities ranking
The top ten ranking of leisure activities
Although this study focuses on video games and reading, here is the ranking of the
10 most frequent answers (corresponding to the answer Everyday or almost).
Ranked in decreasing order of preference, the two activities most frequently preferred
by adolescents were: listening to current music: rock, hip-hop, etc. (79%) and phoning or sending texts (78%). Then comes the Internet communication with their
friends (73%), for example, Facebook. The fourth activity above 50% of performed
activities is surng the net (61%). Other activities, above 50%, include using internet
for non-school subjects, watching action/crime movies, etc (see Appendixes 1 and 2).
However, some leisure activities are difcult to practise every day such as those
which require displacement: physical exercise or sports, cinema, etc. So the most
representative classication is probably to add the most frequency answers (%), per
day (every day or almost) and per week (about 12 times a week.). Here is the
list of the most frequent activities (equal to or greater than 50%) and some representative activities in descending order (see Figure 1). Four activities dominate around
90%, listening to current music, phoning and texting, Internet communication and
surng the Internet followed, by around 75%, physical and sports activities, reality
shows and action movies.
Finally, in descending order, here are some examples of teenagers activities:
meeting with friends (68%), listening to French music (58%), watching movies or
comic series (56%), cartoons (53%), sports (on TV, 47%), playing action video games
(44%), etc. Reading does not appear as a favourite activity, reading newspapers or
news magazines are preferred (34%), followed by comics (and/or mangas, 31%)
which are read more frequently than history and science magazines (22%) or literary
works of famous French and foreign writers (16%). Finally, other activities are almost
unusual, like being a member of youth organisations or going to the theatre.
Video games frequency and reading frequency

At a rate of once per day or almost, the frequency of playing video games is not
very high (see Figure 2). The most every day (or almost) practised video games
are action games, ghting and platform (21% of students; see Figure 2). Sports
games are also practised by about one-fth of the students (17%), while other
games, strategies and gambling games are infrequent. At a daily rhythm, reading is
less frequent. The comics (and mangas) which are usually read every day or almost
(14%) are followed by the reading of crime/thriller/fantasy novels (12%). Other
types of reading are infrequently read daily by teenagers, such as reading science or
history books which is declared by 2% of students.
10
A. Lieury et al.
Figure 1. Ranking of the teenagers leisure activities, practised everyday or almost + once
or twice a week, in decreasing order for representative activities (n = 27,000).
Figure 2. Ranking of the teenagers leisure activities (N = 27,000), practised everyday or

almost for the Video Games and Reading (n = 27,000).
11
Figure 3. Ranking of the teenagers leisure activities (N = 27,000), practised everyday or

almost + once or twice a week, for the Video Games and Reading (n = 27,000).
However, leisure activities that we have chosen to study, video games and reading, can also be highly appreciated but sometimes performed in the week. So the
most representative ranking for the present study is to add the most frequent answers
(in %), by day (every day or almost) plus per week (about 12 times per week).
Here is the ranking by decreasing order of the video game categories and the different kinds of reading (see Figure 3).
In descending order, the video games most frequently performed (everyday or
almost + once or twice a week; Figure 3) are action, ghting, platform video
games (44%) and sport video games (43%). Reading is less frequent and the most
common is the reading newspapers (34%), followed by comics (and/or mangas,
31%). Books are read less frequently and the preferred themes are Crime, Thriller or
Fantasy novels (24%) more than International or French literature by famous writers
(16%).
Boys and girls favourite leisure activities
Boys play more video games than girls (see Figure 4). Given the large sample size
of this study (N = 27,309), the statistical signicance of a sampling error test would
not make sense. So we took the criterion of an effect size (Cohens d) for Students
test (Cohen, 1977; Corroyer & Rouanet, 1994). This size effect is a fraction of standard deviation: the size effect was small above .20, medium between .50 and 1, and
large beyond 1.00. The difference in favour of boys in action, ghting and platform
games is huge; 75% of boys vs. only 14% of girls (d = 1.71). The second most
preferred games by boys are sport video games (racing, soccer: 65% vs. 21%,
d = 1.06). The boys also play more strategy games than girls (d = .52), as well as
board games (cards, chess) and gambling games, but the frequency is low (<20%)
12
A. Lieury et al.
Figure 4. The differences between boys and girls for video games and reading: The percentages are related to leisure activities performed Every day or almost + once or twice a
week, (n = 27,000).
and the difference in favour of boys is also small (d = .21 to .35 for board games
and gambling games).
For reading, the preferences are varied. For the most frequent reading activities,
comic books are more read by boys than girls (37% vs. 25%) but the size effect is
small (d = .30). Boys and girls read magazines equivalently (for example, newspapers 33% vs. 36% for girls, d = .09) and size effects are very small (.10). In contrast, girls read books more often, crime/thriller/fantasy novels (30% girls vs. 19%
boys, d = .34). Girls read novels written by famous writers twice as often as boys
(21% girls vs. 10% boys, d = .52). However, boys are not completely uneducated
and read science and history books twice often as girls (10% vs. 5%, d = .33), the
frequency is low (only 10% of boys).
To sum up, boys are much more action, action/ghting and sport video gamesoriented (racing, soccer ), while girls are mostly interested in reading novels.
Results for school/cognitive tests
Descriptive statistics for the tests
The proportions of success in cognitive and academic tests are the following means
(see Table 5). Among the tests, the most successful is the phonological test, which
is normal since the students are teenagers, having acquired the basic reading process.
The encyclopaedic memory test seems to be the most difcult, with 44% success
13
Table 5. Descriptive statistics for school/cognitive tests.
Phonological test
Reading/comprehension
Math
Encyclopaedic memory
Reasoning
SD
27,131
27,267
27,203
27,197
27,309
.82
.54
.65
.44
.60
.18
.18
.22
.26
.21
Table 6. Differences (mean) between boys and girls and the difference estimation by the
size effects ().
Phonological test
Math
Reasoning
Boys
Girls
.82
.52
.68
.46
.59
.83
.55
.62
.42
.60
.00
.00
.02
.00
.00
rate on average. In this article (see Table 5 and the following), we have averaged the
two reading/comprehension tests: incomplete texts and silent reading, which are
highly consistent (Cronbachs alpha = .73).
Differences between boys and girls for school/cognitive tests
The distribution boys/girls is well balanced (49.62% boys vs. 50.38% girls = ns).
We analysed the differences between boys and girls for the tests by ANOVA. Recall
that according to the criterion of an effect size for ANOVA ( = Eta squared, Cohen,
1977; Corroyer & Rouanet, 1994), the effect size was small after .01, medium after
.06 and large after .20. There is only a difference in math (see Table 6), in favour of
boys ( = .02), the benet is only + 6% which is low. In the detail of the three math
test categories, the size effect is negligible (<.01) or small for algebra ( = .01).
Relations between school/cognitive tests
Before analysing the relation between leisure activity and cognitive and school tests,
let us briey review intercorrelations between cognitive and school tests to check
Table 7. Correlations between verbal tests: reading/comprehension, encyclopaedic memory;

math and reasoning test (n = 27,131 n = 27,309).
Phonological test
Reading/
comprehension
Math
Reasoning
Phonological
test
.48
.46
.45
.37
.65
.70
.51
Math
Encyclopaedic
memory
.70
.64
.51
14
A. Lieury et al.
their sensitivity. Apart from the intruder test which is a phonological test, the other
tests are correlated between .51 and .70. The best correlations are between the encyclopaedic memory test (Lexis) and Reading/Comprehension (.70) and Math (.70)
tests. As expected, the reasoning test (RCC) is better correlated with Math (.64) than
with comprehension (.51) or encyclopaedic memory (.51) tests. (Table 7).
Video/reading activities and school/cognitive tests
The main objective of our study is to analyse the relations between video games vs.
students reading activities and their test scores. For example, we can assume that
reading novels is correlated with reading/comprehension and encyclopaedic memory
tests. Obviously, the correlations do not necessarily express a causal link. But in our
study, it is plausible that it is the frequent practice of an activity that will have an
inuence on a cognitive and school test rather than the contrary. Logically, the correlation can express three possible types of relationships. First, in a correlation
between A and B, A inuences B: for example, it is plausible to assume intensive
video game practice will improve uid intelligence. Rather than the opposite, high
levelled reasoning students will choose action video games. Secondly, B inuences
A: for example, it is possible that it is the opposite for strategic games: high levelled
reasoning students or that are interested in logical problems are more likely to
choose strategy games. Thirdly, another factor C affects both A and B: for example,
students with verbal ability enjoy reading (A) and are good students in Literature
(B). However, in this study, we are concerned with a fourth case, the learning process. So, a frequently practised activity (video games and reading) will produce a
learning effect that will make the student more efcient in this activity (transfer
effect). So, although the correlation itself does not necessarily reect a causal link,
we can assume that frequent practice will enable learning and/or transfer between
the leisure activity practice, and performance in cognitive/academic tests.
Correlations between video games/reading activities and school/cognitive tests
First, we present the correlations between video games on average, reading activities
on average and school cognitive tests. To test the Cost on time hypothesis, we also
added correlations between cognitive/school tests with the most frequent leisure
activities and on the other hand with the less frequent leisure activities. Under this
assumption, frequent leisure activities could be associated with a lower school performance because the time spent playing is less time for homework. So we averaged
the ve most frequent leisure activities (daily + weekly), such as listen to current
music and phone or text (Appendix 2); in contrast, we averaged the ve least frequent leisure activities, for example, to be part of a youth association and go to a
show (see Table 8). Finally, we added the activity I daydream, I do not do anything specic, I rest (AC45). According to the Cost on time hypothesis, this rest
period is taken on school work, like any activity, and it should be negatively correlated with performance in cognitive and academic tests. On the contrary, if rest and
relaxation are benecial (i.e. more attentive, better memorisation ), the correlation
should be positive.
Given the large sample size of this study (N = 27,309), the statistical signicance
of a sampling error test would not make sense as we have already shown. So we
took the criterion of an effect size for correlations (Cohen, 1977; Corroyer &
15
Table 8. Correlations between video games, reading activities (day + week), frequent and
non-frequent leisure activities, and the school/cognitive tests for ninth-grade students (mean
age = 14.5).
Phonological Reading/comEncyclopaedic
test
prehension Math
memory
Reasoning
Video games
General
Boys
Girls
Reading
General
Boys
Girls
.13
.13
.12
.10
.19
.20
.18
10
.13
.13
.11
.16
.18
.12
.12
.17
.10
.16
.20
.13
Frequent leisures (ex. AE1:

Phone and text )
General
Boys
Girls
No frequent leisures (ex.
AE45: theatre)
General
Boys
Girls
Rest, relaxation, day-dream
(AC45)
General
Boys
Girls
.10
.11
.11
.14
.11
.14
Note: For clarity, the correlations <.10 are not reported.
Rouanet, 1994). The effect size is small for correlations between .10 and .29, medium between .30 and .50 and large beyond .50. With this criterion, it is clear that the
correlations are either zero or negligible (r < .10), or small (see Table 8). As boys
play more video games compared to girls, particularly action/sport video games, we
have computed the correlations in general (boys and girls together) and on the other
hand, the boys correlations (n = 13,396 13,415) and girls correlations (n = 13,624
13,638) separately.
Results show (see Table 8) for Video Games that there is no correlation at all.
The correlations for boys and girls are not very different from the general correlations, often some hundredths. For Reading, there are in general small positive correlations (.13 .19). The most correlated test is the encyclopaedic memory with
reading activities (from .18 to .20). These results are somewhat compatible with the
transfer hypothesis. This is why we will detail the results by analysing the correlations by genre for video games and reading. The most frequent activities do not
present any correlation higher than .10, but the less frequent leisure activities are
slightly negatively correlated (.10 .14) with the cognitive/school tests. In total
the cost on time hypothesis is not conrmed. To frequently practise leisure activity
doesnt necessarily mean taking time off school work. Finally, the rest/relaxation/
16
A. Lieury et al.
Table 9. Correlations between the cognitive/school tests average and the leisure activity
categories ranked by practice frequencies.
Leisure activity categories ranked by frequency of practice (day or week)
General
Boys
Girls
>70%
6050%
4030%
2010%
<10%
.05
.08
.00
.05
.02
.08
.08
.13
.08
.13
.10
.16
.15
.19
.10
day-dream activity is slightly positively correlated especially until .17, .18 and .20
among boys. Thus, to rest is as efcient as reading. Those results show that resting
is positive for cognitive/school performances and does not conrm the Cost on
time hypothesis.
We have completed this analysis with a correlation between the cognitive tests
average and leisure activities grouped in ve categories ranked by decreasing order
of frequency (see Table 9): more than 70% of students (per day + per week),
between 60 and 50%, between 40 and 30%, between 20 and 10% and nally the
ones less than 10%. This analysis conrmed that the most frequent activities (>70%
and between 60 and 50%) are not negatively correlated with cognitive/school tests,
or else very smaller (<.08). We note a negative correlation (.19) among boys that
never (or almost) practise leisure activities.
Table 10. Correlations between video game activities (day + week) and the school/cognitive
tests for ninth-grade students (mean age = 14.5). The correlations are reported in this order:
rst line indicates the general correlation (n = 27,197), the second line is the boys correlation
(n = 13,437) and the third line indicates the girls correlation (n = 13,649).
Phonological
Reading/
Encyclopaedic
test
comprehension Math
memory
Reasoning
Video games
AE16-Action video games
Boys
Girls
AE17-Sport video games
Boys
Girls
.10
.12
AE18-Strategy video games

Boys
Girls
.16
.18
.10
.11
.17
.11
.22
.11
.14
.14
.13
.16
AE19-Board games (cards )

Boys
Girls
AE20-Gambling games
Boys
Girls
.10
.12
.12
.10
.10
12
10
.11
.12
.15
.10
17
Correlations between the video games genres and school/cognitive tests

First of all lets look at the relation with video games. Results show (see Table 10)
that there is no correlation or small (max = .14) with cognitive/school tests in general. For Action video games and Board games, there is no correlation. For Sport
video games, there are small but negative correlations (.10 .11 in general); for
boys (that are more frequent players than girls), the correlations are a little higher
until 22 for encyclopaedic memory. On the other hand, the correlations, still small,
are positive for strategic games, the highest are with math (.14) and reasoning (.15),
which could be explained by common skills or interests between this genre and
these cognitive activities; but the correlations are also similar with encyclopaedic
memory (.16). As for gambling games, again, the correlations are negative from
.10 to .12, including girls, for the reading/comprehension and encyclopaedic
memory tests. These results, for sport and gambling video games, favour the Cost
on time hypothesis, but the correlations are small.
Table 11. Correlations between reading activities (day + week) and the school/cognitive
tests for ninth-grade students (mean age = 14.5). The correlations are reported in this order:
rst line indicates the general correlation (n = 27,197), the second line is the boys correlation
(n = 13,437) and the third line indicates the girls correlation (n = 13,649).
Phonological
Reading/
Encyclopaedic
test
comprehension Math
memory
Reasoning
Reading
AE49-Newspapers
Boys
Girls
.10
AE50-Musical/leisure
magazines
Boys
Girls
AE51-TV Magazines
Boys
Girls
AE52-Literature (novels,
poetry)
Boys
Girls
.19
.10
.20
.16
.19
.12
.13
.20
.22
AE53-History/science books
Boys
Girls
AE54-Crime/thriller/fantasy
novels
Boys
Girls
.10
.11
.10
.24
.14
.24
.13
.10
.10
.20
.25
.15
.18
.24
.28
.11
.15
.15
.17
.11
.11
AE55-Comics or mangas
Boys
Girls
.11
18
A. Lieury et al.
According to the Transfer hypothesis, video games could improve some cognitive skills, especially reasoning (or uid intelligence), and that the results invalidate
this hypothesis. There are no correlations (<.10) for Action video games and small
correlations (<.16) with strategy video games. Moreover, the correlations (small) are
negative for sport and gambling games.
Correlations between the reading genres and school/cognitive tests
By contrast, some reading activities are better correlated, although slightly, with
cognitive/school tests (Table 11). Thus, we observe correlations of .10 to .28 with
the tests. The most numerous and high correlations are due to reading books and
especially literature (famous writers): .19 with the Reading/Comprehension Test and
.20 with Encyclopaedic Memory test, but also Crime/Thriller/Fantasy books (.24
and .24). The correlations are even slightly higher among girls who read more often
these two books genres, for example, for the Crime/Thriller/Fantasy books, .25 with
the reading/comprehension test and .28 with encyclopaedic memory test. Note that
the comics sometimes considered as subliterature (especially in France) give .15 in
general and .17 among boys with Encyclopaedic Memory test. However, overall, the
size effect for correlations remains small (<.30).
Relations between Socio-Professional Categories, video games/reading activities
and the school/cognitive tests
Before going further, it is necessary to analyse the parents socio-professional category effect (SPC). Indeed, the positive (or negative) relations between Video
Games/Reading activities and tests could be more related to the social environment
of the student. So we conducted regression analyses, taking the fathers SPC (the
mother is less documented in the survey). For the regression, we have chosen the
three video games and the three reading activities best correlated with school/cognitive tests (see Table 12). We did not do the regression for the phonological test,
supposed to be low discriminative on adolescents.
All variables explain a small or medium proportion of the variance (R from .05 to
.13). What is important in these results is that the SPC does not contribute to school/
cognitive tests ( = .01 and .02) for Reading/Comprehension, Math and Reasoning
Table 12. Standardised partial regression coefcient (Beta) for school/cognitive tests
(n = 23,885/23,945).
Reading/
comprehension
R = .10
Socio-professional
category
Action video games
Sport video games
Strategy video games
Reading literature
(novels )
Reading crime/thriller
Reading comics
Encyclopaedic
memory test
R = .13
Math
R = .07
Reasoning
R = .05
.01
.02
3.35
.03
.00
.02
.00
.01
2.04
3.22
1.51
1.78
.02
.02
.01
.00
.02
3.06
.02
.01
.00 ns
.00
.00 ns
.85
Note: Every coefcient is signicant at p < .01 besides the ones indicated ns.
.00 ns
.01
.02
.00 ns
19
tests. The Socio-Professional category has a strong contribution with the encyclopaedic memory test ( = 3.35) but equivalent to the reading frequency (i.e. = 3.06) and
the video game practice frequency (i.e. = 3.22 for sport video game).
Relations between video game, reading themes and school/cognitive tests
Relations between video games and school/cognitive tests
Some school/cognitive tests had specialised dimensions; mathematics, encyclopaedic
memory and reasoning. We describe here the genres and relations with those video
games and reading. For these analyses, we only give the general correlations as
these correlations are not very different from the specic correlations among boys or
girls. Indeed, we can assume that action video games may be more correlated with
geometry subtests in math tests and the reasoning tests spatial dimension. For reading, we can assume that reading literary work (famous writers) will be correlated
with the French subject in the encyclopaedic test and possibly with the history
subject.
Generally, practising video games is not related to math performance (see
Table 13). Action games are correlated with only arithmetic subtests. Strategic
games are often correlated, but the correlations are low, .11.13. Therefore, overall,
the correlations between math and video games, including action and strategy, do
not show correlations other than small (recall that the size effects must reach .30 for
medium and .50 for a large effect).
With encyclopaedic memory (specialised academic knowledge), it is again action
and strategy video games which present some correlations, but still low (see
Table 13), and especially with History and Geography. But conversely, playing sport
video games is associated with negative correlations, especially with the French
Literature (.16).
Table 13. Correlations between math, memory, reasoning categories and video game
activities.
AE16
Action
Math
Arithmetic
Algebra
Geometry
Geography
History
Biology/geology
Physics/chemistry
Math
French literature
AE17
Sport
AE18
Strategy
.11
.12
.13
.11
.10
.11
.11
.13
Reasoning
Spatial
Digital
Arithmetic
.10
.10
.16
.10
.10
.11
20
A. Lieury et al.
Contrary to the assumption that frequently playing video games could improve
cognitive capacities, especially reasoning (uid intelligence), there is no correlation
or a slight one (see Table 13). The only two correlations equal or superior to .10 are
with strategic games and they remain low (.10 and .11). Note that we would expect
a correlation between action games and spatial reasoning but in fact, it is close to
zero (.04). Similarly, we could assume that sport games or strategy could be correlated with spatial reasoning. However, the correlations are negligible (<.10, not
shown in Table 13).
Relations between reading themes and school/cognitive tests
Reading crime/thriller/fantasy novels correlates positively with the three mathematics subtests categories (see Table 14), but with low correlations (.10.14). Only
algebra skills are correlated, but weakly, with reading literary works (.10).
Only reading books, Literature, History, Crime/Thriller/Fantasy correlates
although weakly with specialised subjects of the Lexis test. Reading magazines is
not correlated to school knowledge (correlations <.10). Among the correlations with
reading books, the best correlations are with literary works written by famous writers as well as crime/thriller/fantasy books. As it is consistent to think, the French
literature is better correlated with reading books with correlations of .21.25.
Reading crime/thriller/fantasy books provides slightly higher correlations (ve
correlations above .15) than reading literary works written by famous writers
(two above .15). The highest correlation (.25) is between crime/thriller/fantasy
reading and French subject of the encyclopaedic memory test. Maybe contemporary literature brings more modern and varied vocabulary than great writers
books (sometimes the nineteenth century, i.e. Victor Hugo). However, according
to the size effects, criteria for (Cohen, 1977; Corroyer & Rouanet, 1994) these
are low (<.30).
Table 14. Correlations between math, memory, reasoning tests and reading activities.
AE52
Literature
Math
Arithmetic
Algebra
Geometry
Geography
History
Biology/geology
Physics/chemistry
Math
French literature
Reasoning
Spatial
Digital
Arithmetic
AE53
Books history/science
.10
.13
.14
.10
.11
.17
.13
AE54
Crime/thriller/fantasy
.14
.15
.20
.16
.10
.17
.21
.25
.10
.10
.10
.13
21
Very few correlations above .10 appear with the Reasoning dimensions (RCC).
Reading literary works is only correlated with the arithmetic dimension, and crime/
thriller/fantasy books with Spatial and Arithmetic. These results do not support the
hypothesis that reading detective novels could improve logical thinking in general
(Larive Fortier, & Filiatrault, 2009).
To sum up, there are more positive relations between the reading activities and
the cognitive and school tests. Activities with the best correlations are reading
books.
Practice frequency of video game/reading activities and school/cognitive tests
While we are primarily interested in the effect of a high video game practice
frequency, the correlation calculation takes into account all of the Likert scale ranks.
Take the example of the relation between reading literature books and
Encyclopaedic Memory test: the test score is low (35%) for the answer Never (i.e.
the students who have never read a book all year) and increases to 53% for the
response every day: a 17% difference. However, there are 9062 students who
never read all year (answer Never) vs. 3264 students who read every day or
almost, while the numbers of students with intermediates responses (Trimester,
Month and Week) are 6214, 5060 and 3364, respectively; 54% of the sample. It is
therefore likely that the score for the students that have a frequent practice is submerged in the total student scores. This is why we have used an ANOVA on the
ve levels of the Likert scale: Never, Trimester, Month, Week or Day.
Practice frequency for leisure activities and cognitive/school tests
First, here is an analysis of the mean score of all the cognitive/school tests (see
Figure 3) for the most representative activity of each category: action games for
Video Games and Crime/Thriller/Fantasy genres for Books. We also added rest/
relaxation/ day-dreaming activities to make a contrast. According to the Cost on
time hypothesis, we should nd that those who practise often any leisure activity
would have lower performances. Otherwise, for the assumption that resting is
benecial, we should nd an improvement in scores for those who frequently rest
compared to those who reported rarely or never rest.
Playing action video games is not associated on average with better
cognitive/school performance: scores oscillate about 60%, regardless of the
practice frequency (F(4-27102) = 58.21, p = .0001); the effect size ( = .008) is
negligible (see Figure 5). On the contrary, frequent reading is associated with
better scores for cognitive/school tests since score increased from 55 to 67%, a
12% difference between students who never read and those who read every day
or almost (F(4-26982) = 420.53, p = .0001); the effect size is medium ( = .06)
Finally, the rest activity scores are intermediates, going from 55 to 63%, an
increase of 8% (F(4-26982) = 200.51, p = .0001); the effect size is small
( = .03). Again, these results do not conrm the Cost on time hypothesis in
this study, and it is rather a specic transfer assumption that is plausible. Note
also that resting is associated with a better performance.
However, from a theoretical point of view, we are more interested in specic
genres of video games and reading activities, and their interactions with specic
cognitive/school tests. Thus, we made comparisons for three kinds of genres in each
22
A. Lieury et al.
Cognitive/School
tests (%)
100
Book (Crime, Thriller)
80
Rest
60
Action video game
40
20
0
Video Game
Book
Rest
Never
Trimester
Month
Week
Day
59
55
55
64
62
59
62
63
61
62
63
63
60
67
63
Figure 5. Relations between practice frequency of two leisure activities (Action video
games and Crime/Thriller Reading) and cognitive/school tests mean.
category that has the highest correlations with cognitive/school tests. As we cannot
detail the results and make graphs for all of the tests, we took two cognitive/school
tests which results have more theoretical implications. For the assumption of a
knowledge transfer, encyclopaedic memory test (Lexis) is the most appropriate test,
while the reasoning test (RCC) is the most appropriate to test a potential association
with uid intelligence.
Again we are interested in the size effect. As our very large sample, (N = 27,000),
the sampling error is unlikely. Recall that according to the criterion of a size effect
for ANOVA ( = Eta squared, Cohen, 1977; Corroyer & Rouanet, 1994), the effect
size was small after .01, medium after .06 and large after .20. Thus, in the table (see
Table 15), we do not show the less than .01, we consider negligible. According to
these criteria, all size effects are negligible or small for the video games. The two
highest effects (medium) are between the encyclopaedic memory and reading crime/
thriller/fantasy books ( = .07) and literature (.06).
Video game practice frequency
Playing action video games is not or slightly associated with better scores in
encyclopaedic memory test (Lexis) (F(4-27075) = 55.44, p = .0001); the size effect
( = .008) is negligible. The apparent increase (see Figure 6) is due to a lower score
(40%) for students who have never played all year long. But the score for those
who play every day or almost (44%) is not better than the scores of the students
who rarely play: 46, 45 and 45% for those who play a few times per trimester, per
23
Table 15. Size Effect of relations between leisure activities and school/cognitive tests ().
Reasoning
Video Games
AE16-Action video games
AE17-Sport video games
AE18-Strategy video games
.03
.02
.03
.02
Reading
AE52-Literature (novels, poetry)
AE54-Crime/thriller/fantasy novels
AE55-Comics or mangas
.06
.07
.03
.02
.03
.01
Note: The < .01 are not shown for more clarity and .06 (medium) in bold.
Figure 6. Relations between practice frequency of three video games and Encyclopaedic
memory (Lexis).
month and per week. Students who frequently play strategy video games have a better score (F(4-26915) = 168.44, p = .0001); the size effect is small ( = .02). But as
for the action video games, the apparent increase is due to the lower score of the students who never play. On the contrary, students who often play sport games (racing,
soccer) have lower scores (34%) compared to students who play only occasionally
(trimester, 50% or month, 47%) with a difference of 16% (F(4-27015) = 222.77,
p = .0001); the size effect ( = .03) is small.
As for the memory test, frequently played action or strategy video games are not
associated with a better score in reasoning test (Figure 7). For example, for strategy
games, students who play every day or almost (62%) do not have a better score than
24
A. Lieury et al.
100
Reasoning (%)
Strategy
80
60
Action
40
Sports
20
0
Action
Sports
Strategy
Never
Trimester
Month
Week
Day
58,76
59,21
55,34
63,31
64,87
62,26
61,66
63,59
62,95
60,52
59,95
62,36
58,8
53,9
61,46
Figure 7. Relations between practice frequency of three video Games and Reasoning test
(RCC).
those who play rarely (trimester, 62%; month, 63%) (F(4-26942) = 173.83,
p = .0001); the size effect is small ( = .02). In contrast, students who often play
sport games (racing; soccer) have lower scores in the reasoning test: 54% compared
to those who play only occasionally (i.e. trimester, 65%) with a difference of 11%
(F(4-27042) = 188.02, p = .0001); the size effect ( = .03) is small.
Reading practice frequency
Reading books (i.e. crime, thriller and fantasy) have the highest association with the
encyclopaedic memory test (Lexis, Figure 8): the scores are 35% for students who
have not read a book during the year, 44, 47 and 48% who read a few times per trimester, per month and per week, and those who read every day or almost have the
highest score of 54%, almost 20% more than those who have not read in the year
(F(4-26959) = 475.19, p = .01); the size effect ( = .07) is medium. Reading literary
works also has a positive association (F(4-26962) = 418.86, p = .01), the size effect
( = .06) is medium. Even reading comics is positively associated with a better
score, although with a small size effect ( = .03): (F(4-26962) = 214.70, p = .01).
Finally, there is a small positive association between reasoning (RCC, see
Figure 9) and reading. The best positive link is observed among students who often
read crime/thriller/fantasy books (F(4-26982) = 181.92, p = .01), but the size effect
is small ( = .02). The positive association is low with reading literary works
(F(4-26987) = 166.39, p = .01); the size effect ( = .02) is small. The relation with
reading comics is still positive, but slightly ( = .02), (F(4-26068) = 104.51,
p = .01). The fact that the link between the reasoning test and reading crime/thriller/
fantasy books is equivalent to the link with other literary works (even comics) does
not conrm the hypothesis that reading detective novels could improve logical
thinking in general (Larive et al., 2009).
25
80
Lexis (%)
Crime
60
Literature
40
Comics
20
0
Literature
Crime
Comics
Never
Trimester
Month
Week
Day
35,35
34,92
37,08
47,85
44,5
44,96
48,11
47,15
47,2
46,92
48,4
47,33
53,17
54,54
47,15
Figure 8. Relations between practice frequency of Reading and Encyclopaedic memory

(Lexis).
100
Reasoning (%)
80
Crime
Literature
60
Comics
40
20
0
Literature
Crime
Comics
Never
Trimester
Month
Week
Day
55,94
55,29
56,54
63,54
62,12
61,89
61,8
62,03
62,64
60,81
62,36
62,16
61,93
63,7
59,95
Figure 9. Relations between practice frequency of Reading and Reasoning test (RCC).
26
A. Lieury et al.
Reading practice frequency and reasoning level

Reading was not our primary objective, but the variety of the tests in that survey
allow us to bring information about the theoretical debate: Is the vocabulary learned
as an environmental opportunity function or as a cognitive efciency function? In
our experiment, the best cognitive efciency indicator is reasoning test score which
is a g factor test (Chartier, 2012; Jensen, 1980) (or uid intelligence). So we made
four groups according to their reasoning performance, according to the distribution
quartiles of the scores to have approximately equivalent samples. From the lower
reasoning group to the highest, here are the four groups: group 1: scores (%) from
0 to 47 (n = 7326; 26% of the general sample); group 2: scores from 47.1 to 63
(n = 5828, 21%); group 3: scores from 63.1 to 76 (n = 6947; 25%); and group 4:
scores from 76.1 to 100 (n = 7208; 26%). First of all, the encyclopaedic memory
score (Lexis) is linked with a very large size effect ( = .22) to these reasoning level
groups: (F(3-27193) = 2628.37, p = .0001), which show the importance of the
cognitive efciency.
Thereafter, we compared the relation between the encyclopaedic memory test
and reading practice (crime/thriller/fantasy books), or the video game practice
(action/platform/ghting) for each four reasoning level groups. As we should see
(see Figure 10a), frequent reading practice is associated with better scores in
Figure 10a. Relations between practice frequency of Reading and Encyclopaedic memory
(Lexis) as a function of reasoning level.
27
Figure 10b. Relations between practice frequency of action video games and Encyclopaedic
memory (Lexis) as a function of reasoning level.
encyclopaedic memory test (Lexis) for all the reasoning groups. The reading effect
is signicant for all the groups (p = .0001), but the size effect increases as a reasoning level function, small for the group 1 ( = .02) and the group 2 ( = .04),
medium for the group 3 ( = .06) and medium but higher for the group 4 ( = .09).
On the contrary, video game practice is not at all associated with increased scores in
encyclopaedic memory test (see Figure 10b). Except a decrease for the students who
never play video games, there were not better scores as a video game practice
function for any groups. The size effect is negligible for any reasoning level group:
group 1 ( = .004); group 2 ( = .008); group 3 ( = .006); and group 4 ( = .006).
Reading practice is thus associated with better scores in encyclopaedic knowledge and vocabulary, but this link is cumulative with the cognitive efciency link,
as measured by the reasoning test. On the contrary, no positive associations appear
for the video game practice, which reinforces the positive effect of reading regardless of cognitive abilities.
Conclusion
The main objective of our study was to analyse the relations between video games,
contrasted to reading activities, and school/cognitive performances. There are several
limitations to this survey. First of all, the leisure activities questionnaire was based
28
A. Lieury et al.
upon self-reported frequencies, so we have to be careful about the conclusions.

However, our results concerning the video game practice frequency were similar to
those found in other researches in other countries (Olson et al., 2007; Punamki
et al., 2007). Likewise, the links with the objective school/cognitive tests data, especially concerning the reading activities, are convergent with other studies; so it
seems that the students responses are realistic. One specic limitation of our study
is that the time spent in an activity is not measured, but only the frequency of the
practised leisure activity is measured (day, week, month, trimester and never). So
we also compared the video game and reading practice with frequently practised or
otherwise rarely practised. Another limitation of this study is that it is a survey and
not an experimental training/transfer design, the results are mainly correlations
between leisure activity and cognitive/school tests. However, we can expect different
results in three main hypotheses mentioned in the introduction. Indeed, even if the
correlation between a game and a test can be interpreted in various ways, the frequent practice leads to learning. For example, a professional musician has a high
virtuosic level thanks to a huge amount of learning time (Ericsson, Krampe, &
Tesch-Rmer, 1993).
Regarding the Cost on Time (or displacement) hypothesis, we compared the
video game and reading activities to the ve most frequent leisure activities averages
(i.e.: listen to current music and phoning or texting) and on the contrary, to the
ve less frequent leisure activities (i.e. be part of a youth association and go to a
show). Finally, we added the activity I rest, I day-dream, I do not do anything
specic, since a resting activity takes time on school work, like any other activity.
But the results mainly show that frequent activities do not present any negative correlations (<.10) while in contrast, infrequent leisure activities are slightly negatively
correlated (.10 to .14) with cognitive/school tests. Thus, the Cost on Time
hypothesis is not conrmed. The frequent practice of leisure activity cannot be considered as less time for school work but may instead be an enrichment opportunity.
Finally, the activity of rest/relaxation/day-dream is slightly positively correlated (.17,
.18, .20) with cognitive/school tests. This result does not conrm the Cost on time
hypothesis but rather shows that resting is positive for cognitive/school performances, as well as reading. The fact that resting is more favourable to cognitive/
school performances may be more pronounced in French middle school students, as
some studies have shown overloaded programmes. For example, an inventory of
technical terms (in addition to the current vocabulary) to 9th grade (i.e. the same
grade level as the students in our study) shows 24,000 words in textbooks, while in
average only 17,000 are memorised at the end of the year (Lieury, 2012; Lieury &
Lorant, 2013).
For the transfer hypothesis of cognitive skills, results show that there are no
positive correlations or small ones between Video games and cognitive/school tests.
For action video games and board games, there is no correlation. For Sport video
games, there is a small negative correlation. There is only a positive correlation,
although it is a small one, for strategy video games. As expected, these correlations
are with Math and Reasoning tests but also with encyclopaedic memory. According
to the Transfer hypothesis, video games could especially improve reasoning (or
uid intelligence). But the results invalidate this hypothesis, there are no correlations, small or even negative (but also small). To sum up, video games do not have
or have very little relations with cognitive and school tests. These results are consistent with researches that shows that it requires a high similarity between video
29
games and learning, so that there is a benecial effect (Baniqued et al., 2013;
Lorant-Royer et al., 2008, 2010; Redick et al., 2013; Shipstead, Redick, & Engle,
2010). Moreover, if the frequent practice of video games had a signicant positive
impact on cognitive and school capacities, boys should be more effective in tests
than girls because boys play much more than girls do (75% vs. 14%). However, our
results on this very large sample of students show no signicant differences in
academic and cognitive performances.
A theoretical reason could explain the low relations with the video game
practice: it is the variety and complexity of the cognitive systems components, visuospatial, lexical, semantic, imaged memories, attention, reasoning, etc. (Lieury,
2010; Shipstead et al., 2010; Logie & Della Sala, 2010; Logie, 2012). In addition,
training in a game (i.e. Action games, Racing games) leads to certain neuron programming that cannot be interchangeable for other activities. For example, playing
the violin leads to neuronal changes in certain auditory and motor areas (Elbert,
Pantev, Wienbruch, Rockstroh, & Taub, 1995), which are very far (including in
terms of spatial distance in the brain) from other areas requested by other capacities
used in games, such as visuospatial memory and sensory-motor coordination. For
example, to change a joystick game console with digital buttons already creates difculties and interferences. It is therefore difcult to believe that training at video
games can facilitate learning subjects such as math or vocabulary in specialised
subjects (i.e. history and physics).
In contrast, reading activities are positively associated with cognition and school
tests. Thus, we observed small correlations with the tests, with reading books (.20
and .24) and encyclopaedic memory tests, i.e. long-term memory of school knowledge. The highest correlations are with reading books and especially reading literary
works (famous writers) with Reading Comprehension tests and the Encyclopaedic
Memory test. Similarly, reading crime/thriller/fantasy books is correlated with the
same tests. According to the transfer specicity hypothesis, book reading has its
most pronounced link with similar subjects; i.e. literature or history school subjects
in the encyclopaedic memory test. On the other hand, very few correlations above
.10 appear with the Reasoning dimensions (RCC). These results do not support the
hypothesis that reading detective novels could improve logical thinking in general
(Larive et al., 2009). On the contrary, note that the comics which are sometimes
considered as subliterature (especially in France) have small positive correlations
with the Encyclopaedic Memory test. But, is it the frequent reading practice which
is primarily associated to the increase of vocabulary and knowledge or is it the cognitive efciency of the students? The control with the reasoning level of the students
show that both the cognitive efciency and the reading practice frequency determined an important variability as already shown by Stanovich and Cunningham
(1993). Also shown by these researchers, the link with cognitive efciency is stronger but cumulative with reading practice. So, except the very low reasoning group
in our study, the best readers performances in school knowledge of the medium
groups (49.5% for group 2 and 59% for group 3) reach or exceed the scores of the
highest reasoning students who never read (49.7%; see Figure 10a).
To conclude, we think that video games are mainly recreational activities and the
cognitive stimulation provided is very different from school learning. On the
contrary, the results of this survey fully justify the educational role of parents and
teachers in promoting reading.
30
A. Lieury et al.
References
Aubret, F., & Blanchard, S. (1992). Valeur prdictive du test analytique de mathmatique
[Predictive value of an analytic test of math]. LOrientation Scolaire et Professionnelle,
21, 449454.
Aubret, J., Blanchard, S., & Sontag, J. C. (2006). Assessing reading skills in 6th and 7th
graders. LOrientation Scolaire et Professionnelle, 35, 446473.
Baniqued, P. L., Lee, H., Voss, M. W., Basak, C., Cosman, J. D., DeSouza, S., , Kramer,
A. F. (2013). Selling points: What cognitive abilities are tapped by casual video games?
Acta Psychologica, 142, 7486.
Barlett, C. P., Vowels, C. L., Shanteau, J., Crow, J., & Miller, T. (2009). The effect of violent
and non-violent computer games on cognitive performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 96102.
Beck, I. L., Perfetti, C. A., & McKeown, M. G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74,
506521.
Boot, W. R., Kramer, A. F., Simons, D. J., Fabiani, M., & Gratton, G. (2008). The effects of
video game playing on attention, memory, and executive control. Acta Psychologica,
129, 387398.
Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of uid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 122.
Chartier, P. (2012). Evaluer les capacits de raisonnement avec les tests RCC [Assessment of
reasoning capacities with the RCC tests]. Paris: Eurotests.
Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). New York,
NY: Academic Press.
Corroyer, D., & Rouanet, H. (1994). Sur limportance des effets et ses indicateurs dans
lanalyse statistique des donnes [Importance of size effects and indicators in statistical
analysis]. Lanne Psychologique, 94, 607623.
Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1992). Tracking the unique effects of print
exposure: Associations with vocabulary, general knowledge, and spelling. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 83, 264274.
Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1998). What reading does for the mind. American
Educator, 22, 815.
Elbert, T., Pantev, C., Wienbruch, C., Rockstroh, B., & Taub, E. (1995). Increased cortical
representation of the ngers of the left hand in string players. Science, 268, 111114.
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. Th., & Tesch-Rmer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice
in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363406.
Gentile, D. A. (2009). Pathological video game use among youth 8 to 18: A national study.
Psychological Science, 20, 594602.
Gentile, D. A. (2011). The multiple dimensions of video game effects. Child Development
Perspectives, 5, 7581.
Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modies visual selective attention.
Nature, 423, 534537.
Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2006). Effect of action video games on the spatial distribution
of visuaspatial attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 14651478.
Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2007). Action-video-game experience alters the spatial resolution of Vision. Psychological Science, 18, 8894.
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short and long-term effects of
cognitive training. Psychological and Cognitive Sciences., 108, 1008110086.
Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. London: Londres Methuen & Co.
Kawashima, R. (2005). Train your brain: 60 days to a better brain. Teaneck, NJ: Kumon
Publishing North America.
Kawashima, R. (2006). Programme dEntranement Crbral du Dr Kawashima: quel ge
votre cerveau ? Mode demploi du jeu sur Nintendo DS [Dr KawashimaBrain Training:
How old is your brain. Nintendo DS manual]. Cergy-Pontoise (France).
Larive, S., Fortier, D., & Filiatrault, F. (2009). Recherche scientique et enqute policire,
une analogie didactique [Scientic research and police investigation, a didactic analogy].
Revue de lUniversit de Moncton, 40, 107123.
31
Le Cam, M., Rocher, T., Lorant, S., & Lieury, A. (2013). Les Enfants du Numrique:
activits extrascolaires et Caractristiques chez 30.000 lves de 6e de Collge [Digital
natives: Leisure activities and students characteristics on 30,000 middle schools
students]. Bulletin de Psychologie, 66, 3760.
Lieury, A. (2010). Doper son cerveau: Ralit ou intox? [Boost his brain: Fact or intox?].
Paris: Dunod.
Lieury, A. (2012). Mmoire et Russite scolaire [Memory and academic success] (4th ed.).
Paris: Dunod.
Lieury, A., & Lorant, S. (2013). Encyclopedic memory: Long term memory capacity for
knowledge vocabulary in middle school. International Journal of Educational Psychology,
2, 5680.
Lieury, A., Van Acker, P., Clevede, M., & Durand, P. (1992). Les Facteurs de la russite scolaire : Raisonnement ou Mmoire smantique? [The academic success factors: Reasoning
or semantic memory?]. Psychologie et Psychomtrie, 13, 3346.
Logie, R. H. (2012). Cognitive training: Strategies and the multicomponent cognitive system.
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1, 206207.
Logie, R. H., & Della Sala, S. (2010). Brain training in schools. Where is the evidence?
British Journal of Educational Technology, 41, E127E128.
Lorant-Royer, S., Munch, C., Mescl, H., & Lieury, A. (2010). Kawashima vs Super Mario!
Should a game be serious in order to stimulate cognitive aptitudes? Revue Europenne de
Psychologie Applique [European Review of Applied Psychology], 60, 221232.
Lorant-Royer, S., Spiess, V., Goncalves, J., & Lieury, A. (2008). Programmes dentrainement
crbral et performances cognitives: efcacit ou marketing? [Brain training and cognitive performances: Efciency or marketing?] De la Gym-cerveau au programme du Dr
Kawashima. Bulletin de Psychologie, 61, 531549.
Mackey, A. P., Hill, S. S., Stone, S. I., & Bunge, S. A. (2011). Differential effects of reasoning and speed training in children. Developmental Science, 14, 582590.
Miller, D., & Robertson, D. (2010). Using a games console in the primary classroom: Effects
of Brain Training program on computation and self-esteem. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 41, 242255.
Octobre, S. (2009). Pratiques culturelles chez les jeunes et institutions de transmission: un
choc de cultures? Retrieved from Culture Prospective, Ministre de la Culture, Dpartement des tudes, de la prospective et des statistiques http://www2.culture.gouv.fr/culture/
deps/2008/pdf/Cprospective09-1.pdf
Octobre, S., Dtrez, C., Berthomier, N., & Merckl, P. (2010). LEnfance des loisirs. Trajectoires communes et parcours individuels de la n de lenfance la grande adolescence
[Children leisure activities: From childhood to adolescence]. Paris: Ministre de la
Culture et de la Communication, La Documentation franaise, coll. Questions de culture.
Olson, C. K., Kutner, L. A., Warner, D. E., Almerigi, J., Baer, L., Nicholi, A. M., Beresin, E.
V., & Beresin, E. V. (2007). Factors correlated with violent video game use by adolescent
boys and girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 7783.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9, 16.
Punamki, R. L., Wallenius, M., Nygrd, C. H., Saarni, L., & Rimpel, A. (2007). Use of
information and communication technology (ICT) and perceived health in adolescence:
The role of sleeping habits and waking-time tiredness. Journal of Adolescence, 30,
569585.
Redick, T. S., Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Fried, D. E., Hambrick, D. Z., ,
Engle, R. W. (2013). No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory
training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 142, 359379.
Ryan, R., Rigby, S., & Przybylski, A. (2006). The motivational pull of video games: A
self-determination theory approach. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 347363.
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2010). Does working memory training generalize?
Psychologica Belgica, 50, 245276.
Sims, V. K., & Mayer, R. E. (2002). Domain specicity of spatial expertise: The case of
video game player. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16, 97115.
32
A. Lieury et al.
Stanovich, K. E., & Cunningham, A. E. (1993). Where does knowledge come from? Specic
associations between print exposure and information acquisition. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 85, 211229.
Sternberg, R. J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In M. G. McKoewn &
M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89105). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Strobach, T., Frensch, P. A., & Schubert, T. (2012). Video game practice optimizes executive
control skills in dual-task and task switching situations. Acta Psychologica, 140, 1324.
Subrahmanyam, K., Greeneld, P., Kraut, R. E., & Gross, E. (2001). The impact of computer
use on childrens and adolescents development. Journal of Applied Developmental
Psychology, 22, 730.
Topping, K. J., Samuels, J., & Paul, T. (2007). Does practice make perfect? Independent
reading quantity, quality and student achievement. Learning and Instruction, 17, 253264.
Undheim, J. O. (1981). On intelligence I: Broad ability factors in 15-year-old children and
Cattells theory of uid and crystallized intelligence. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,
22, 171179.
Van Acker, P., Vrignaud, P., & Lieury, A. (1997). Mmoire de travail, Mmoire encyclopdique et performance scolaire en 3e [Working memory, encyclopedic memory and
academic performance on 9th grade students]. LOrientation scolaire et professionnelle,
26, 571596.
Wallenius, M., Rimpel, A., Punamki, R. L., & Lintonen, T. (2009). Digital game playing
motives among adolescents: Relations to parent-child communication, school performance,
sleeping habits, and perceived health. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30,
463474.
Weis, R., & Cerankosky, B. C. (2010). Effects of video-game ownership on young boys academic and behavioral functioning: A randomized, control study. Psychological Science,
21, 463470.
West, G. L., Stevens, S. A., Pun, C., & Pratt, J. (2008). Visuo-spatial experience modulates
attentional capture: Evidence from action video game players. Journal of vision, 16, 19.
Yee, N. (2006). The demographics, motivations, and derived experiences of users of massively multi-user online graphical environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual
Environments, 15, 309329.
Yee, N. (2007). Motivations of play in online games. Journal of CyberPsychology and
Behavior, 9, 772775.
33
Appendix 1. Questions originales (in French) et rponses les plus frquentes

(jour et semaine) pour les activits des lves de 3e (N = 27,000)
Code
AE1
AE3b
Loisirs des lves de 3e

Communication
1-tlphonez-vous ou envoyez-vous des SMS ou MMS

2-utilisez-vous Internet pour chercher des informations sur des
sujets non scolaires
AE4
3-utilisez-vous Internet pour le travail scolaire
AE5
4-utilisez-vous Internet pour communiquer avec vos ami(e)s
(Facebook, messagerie)
AE6
5-utilisez-vous Internet pour tlcharger (musique, lms)
AE7
6-utilisez-vous Internet pour vous distraire (infos people,
blagues)
AE9
7-utilisez-vous un ordinateur et/ou Internet pour regarder la
tlvision, couter de la musique, regarder un DVD?
AE10 8-utilisez-vous un ordinateur pour une activit de cration
(crire, dessiner)
Sociabilit avec les camarades
AC2 9-voyez-vous vos copains et copines pour bavarder, faire une
fte ou une sortie?
AE15b 10- voyez-vous vos copains et copines pour jouer des jeux
divers y compris les jeux vido?
Jeux vidos, seul ou plusieurs
AE16 11-jouez-vous des jeux daction, de combat ou de plateforme?
AE17 12-jouez-vous des jeux de sport (tennis, foot, course
automobile)
AE18 13-jouez-vous des jeux de patience, de rle ou de stratgie?
AE19 14-jouez-vous des jeux de socit (cartes, checs)
AE20 15-jouez-vous des jeux de hasard (casino, loterie)?
Tlvision, Vido, DVD
AE25 16-regardez-vous des sries et des missions de tlralit?
AE26 17-regardez-vous des documentaires (sciences, histoire)
AE28 18-regardez-vous des varits, des chanes musicales, des
concerts?
AE29 19-regardez-vous des sports?
AE30 20-regardez-vous des dessins anims, des lms danimation?
AE31b 21-regardez-vous des lms, des tllms daction, policiers,
thrillers, science-ction, des sries fantastiques, heroicfantasy?
AE32 22-regardez-vous des lms, des tllms ou des sries
romantiques?
AE33 23-regardez-vous des lms, des tllms comiques?
12Total
Jours Semaine 1 + 2
%
%
78
61
10
25
88
86
16
73
42
15
58
88
39
40
23
28
62
68
49
29
78
20
25
45
24
42
0
66
12
31
43
21
23
0
44
17
25
42
11
4
2
18
12
5
42
5
23
32
19
27
29
16
7
0
74
24
50
22
25
36
25
27
39
47
52
75
14
23
37
20
36
56
(Continued)
34
A. Lieury et al.
Appendix 1. (Continued).
Code

Communication
AE35
24-regardez-vous des lms, des tllms de guerre, western,

arts martiaux?
Lecture
25-lisez-vous un journal, un magazine gnraliste dactualits
(quotidien, hebdomadaire, presse gratuite)?
AE50 26-lisez-vous un journal, un magazine spcialis de loisirs,
culturel (science, arts, histoire, musique?
AE51 27-lisez-vous un journal ou un magazine de radio et de
tlvision?
AE52 28-lisez-vous une uvre littraire de grands auteurs franais
ou trangers (roman, biographie, posie)?
AE53 29-lisez-vous un livre sur lhistoire, les sciences, les
techniques, ?
AE54 30-lisez-vous un roman policier, thriller, de science-ction,
fantastique?
AE55 31-lisez-vous des mangas, des comics, des albums de bandes
dessines, ?
Rencontres sportives, spectacles, cinma, muses et patrimoine
AC37t 32-tes-vous all(e) voir un match de foot?
AC37b 33-tes-vous all(e) voir un match (autre que le foot, une
course, un tournoi, tout autre vnement sportif?
AC33 34-tes-vous all(e) au cinma?
AC35 35-tes-vous all(e) au thtre?
AE45 36-tes-vous all(e) dans un muse ou visiter une exposition,
monument historique, ?
AC32B 37-tes-vous all(e) un concert ou voir un spectacle musical
classique (musique classique, opra, danse classique)?
AC32t 38-tes-vous all(e) un concert ou voir un spectacle musical
moderne (varits, rock, hip-hop, comdie musicale)?
Musique (CD, MP3, radio, ordinateur)
AE22 39-couter-vous des chansons ou varits franaises?
AE23 40-couter-vous dautres musiques modernes ou actuelles
(rock, mtal, hip-hop, rap, slam, techno, lectronique)?
AE24 41-couter-vous de la musique classique, de lopra ou du
jazz?
Engagement social et pratiques en amateur
AC38 42-pratiquez-vous une ou plusieurs activits physiques
(gymnastique, danse, arts du cirque, jogging, piscine) ou des
sports (foot, basket, tennis, )?
AC31 43-jouez-vous dun instrument de musique ou chantez-vous
(chorale, groupe musical)?
AE57 44-pratiquez-vous une activit artistique ou manuelle (dessin,
sculpture, photo, jardinage, modlisme, cuisine)?
AC41 45-pratiquez-vous une activit scientique, technique, de
protection de lenvironnement?
AC36 46-tes-vous engag(e) dans une association de jeunes
(municipale, de quartier) ou dans un mouvement de jeunesse
(scouts, claireurs,)
AE58 47-participez-vous, en tant que reprsentant des jeunes, la
vie citoyenne locale (conseil municipal de jeunes, conseil de
quartier, membre dune association, )?
AC45 48-Je rve, je ne fais rien de prcis, je me repose
AE49
12Total
Jours Semaine 1 + 2
%
%
11
19
30
25
0
34
17
22
17
26
16
12
12
24
14
17
31
2
2
7
9
0
9
11
3
1
1
15
1
2
18
2
3
37
79
21
12
0
58
91
10
26
50
0
76
10
13
23
10
17
27
27
31
58
35
Appendix 2. Loisirs des lves par ordre dcroissant en fonction des rponses les
plus frquentes (jour + t semaine) pour les activits des lves de 3e (N = 27,000)
Code
AE23
40- couter-vous dautres musiques modernes ou actuelles

(rock, mtal, hip-hop, rap, slam, techno, lectronique)?
1-tlphonez-vous ou envoyez-vous des SMS ou MMS
4-utilisez-vous Internet pour communiquer avec vos ami(e)s
(Facebook, messagerie)
2-utilisez-vous Internet pour chercher des informations sur des
sujets non scolaires
7-utilisez-vous un ordinateur et/ou Internet pour regarder la
tlvision, couter de la musique, regarder un DVD?
42-pratiquez-vous une ou plusieurs activits physiques
(gymnastique, danse, arts du cirque, jogging, piscine) ou des
sports (foot, basket, tennis, )?
21-regardez-vous des lms, des tllms daction, policiers,
thrillers, science-ction, des sries fantastiques, heroicfantasy?
16-regardez-vous des sries et des missions de tlralit?
6-utilisez-vous Internet pour vous distraire (infos people,
blagues)
9-voyez-vous vos copains et copines pour bavarder, faire une
fte ou une sortie?
5-utilisez-vous Internet pour tlcharger (musique, lms)
3-utilisez-vous Internet pour le travail scolaire
39-couter-vous des chansons ou varits franaises?
48-Je rve, je ne fais rien de prcis, je me repose.
23-regardez-vous des lms, des tllms comiques?
20-regardez-vous des dessins anims, des lms danimation?
18-regardez-vous des varits, des chanes musicales, des
concerts?
19-regardez-vous des sports?
8-utilisez-vous un ordinateur pour une activit de cration
(crire, dessiner)
11-jouez-vous des jeux daction, de combat ou de plateforme?
10-voyez-vous vos copains et copines pour jouer des jeux
divers y compris les jeux vido?
12-jouez-vous des jeux de sport (tennis, foot, course
automobile)
22-regardez-vous des lms, des tllms ou des sries
romantiques?
25-lisez-vous un journal, un magazine gnraliste dactualits
(quotidien, hebdomadaire, presse gratuite)?
31-lisez-vous des mangas, des comics, des albums de bandes
dessines, ?
24-regardez-vous des lms, des tllms de guerre, western,
arts martiaux?
AE1
AE5
AE3b
AE9
AC38
AE31b
AE25
AE7
AC2
AE6
AE4
AE22
AC45
AE33
AE30
AE28
AE29
AE10
AE16
AE15b
AE17
AE32
AE49
AE55
AE35
12Total
Jours Semaine 1 + 2
79
12
91
78
73
10
15
88
88
61
25
86
49
29
78
26
50
76
36
39
75
42
40
32
28
74
68
24
42
66
39
16
37
27
20
25
23
23
42
21
31
36
27
27
62
58
58
58
56
52
50
22
20
25
25
47
45
21
23
44
12
31
43
17
25
42
14
23
37
25
34
14
17
31
11
19
30
(Continued)
36
A. Lieury et al.
Appendix 2. (Continued).
Code
AE18
AE57
13-jouez-vous des jeux de patience, de rle ou de stratgie?

44-pratiquez-vous une activit artistique ou manuelle (dessin,
sculpture, photo, jardinage, modlisme, cuisine)?
AE51 27-lisez-vous un journal ou un magazine de radio et de
tlvision?
AE26 17-regardez-vous des documentaires (sciences, histoire)
AE54 30-lisez-vous un roman policier, thriller, de science-ction,
fantastique?
AC31 43-jouez-vous dun instrument de musique ou chantez-vous
(chorale, groupe musical)?
AE50 26-lisez-vous un journal, un magazine spcialis de loisirs,
culturel (science, arts, histoire, musique?
AC33 34-tes-vous all(e) au cinma?
AE19 14-jouez-vous des jeux de socit (cartes, checs)
AE52 28-lisez-vous une uvre littraire de grands auteurs franais
ou trangers (roman, biographie, posie)?
AC37b 33-tes-vous all(e) voir un match (autre que le foot, une
course, un tournoi, tout autre vnement sportif?
AE24 41-couter-vous de la musique classique, de lopra ou du
jazz?
AC37t 32-tes-vous all(e) voir un match de foot?
AE20 15-jouez-vous des jeux de hasard (casino, loterie)?
AE53 29-lisez-vous un livre sur lhistoire, les sciences, les
techniques,..?
AC36 46-tes-vous engag(e) dans une association de jeunes
(municipale, de quartier) ou dans un mouvement de jeunesse
(scouts, claireurs,)
AC32t 38-tes-vous all(e) un concert ou voir un spectacle musical
moderne (varits, rock, hip-hop, comdie musicale)?
AE45 36-tes-vous all(e) dans un muse ou visiter une exposition,
monument historique,?
AC32B 37-tes-vous all(e) un concert ou voir un spectacle musical
classique (musique classique, opra, danse classique)?
AC41 45-pratiquez-vous une activit scientique, technique, de
protection de lenvironnement?
AE58 47-participez-vous, en tant que reprsentant des jeunes, la
vie citoyenne locale (conseil municipal de jeunes, conseil de
quartier, membre dune association, )?
AC35 35-tes-vous all(e) au thtre?
12Total
Jours Semaine 1 + 2
11
10
18
17
29
27
17
26
5
12
19
12
24
24
10
13
23
17
22
3
4
7
15
12
9
18
16
16
11
10
2
2
2
7
5
5
9
7
7

2014 923556

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

2014 923556

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

This article was downloaded by: [178.222.11.

Video games vs. reading and school/

Alain Lieury , Sonia Lorant , Bruno Trosseille , Franoise

Champault & Ronan Vourch

Laboratoire de Psychologie Exprimentale, (CRP2C, EA 1285),

Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Sciences de l'Education et de

Direction de lEvaluation, de la Prospective et de la Performance

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Educational Psychology, 2014

Video games vs. reading and school/cognitive performances: a

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

(Received 11 June 2013; nal version received 7 May 2014)

*Corresponding author. Email: a.lieury@uhb.fr

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Cognitive capacities and video games

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Questionnaire about the leisure activities

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

1-Do you phone or

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Time (in minutes)

Note: The student is provided with a rough draft to do operations.

Table 3. Examples of the subtest DEPcip: measurement units.

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Lexis: encyclopaedic memory test (school knowledge)

Table 4. MCQ examples from the Lexis encyclopaedic memory test.

1st Russian satellite

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Video games frequency and reading frequency

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Figure 2. Ranking of the teenagers leisure activities (N = 27,000), practised everyday or

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Figure 3. Ranking of the teenagers leisure activities (N = 27,000), practised everyday or

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Table 5. Descriptive statistics for school/cognitive tests.

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Table 7. Correlations between verbal tests: reading/comprehension, encyclopaedic memory;

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Frequent leisures (ex. AE1:

Note: For clarity, the correlations <.10 are not reported.

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

AE18-Strategy video games

AE19-Board games (cards )

Note: For clarity, the correlations <.10 are not reported.

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Correlations between the video games genres and school/cognitive tests

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Note: For clarity, the correlations <.10 are not reported.

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Book (Crime, Thriller)

Action video game

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Downloaded by [178.222.11.116] at 09:42 10 October 2014

Figure 8. Relations between practice frequency of Reading and Encyclopaedic memory