Review for test on Ecology

The key idea in this unit, as it will be in all units, is to understand the
connections that exist between all of the ideas that we dealt with in class.
It is not good enough to only understand the key terms.

You will be held responsible for all materials assigned and covered in
class. If there were issues addressed in the readings and not discussed in
class you are still responsible for those ideas.

Below you will see the major areas that we have (or will) address in
preparation for the test. Please let me know if you have any questions.

FOOD WEBS
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; however, energy can be converted
from one form to another.
2. Energy enters the Earth system primarily as solar radiation, is captured by
materials and photosynthetic processes, and eventually is transformed into
heat.
a. All solar energy, in order to be usable, has to be captured by plants.
b. Radiation is not matter, but energy-containing waves.
c. Only small portion of solar radiation is captured by plants
d. The original source of all energy in an ecosystem is the sun.

3. The chemical elements that make up the molecules of living things pass
through food webs and are combined and recombined in different ways. At
each link in a food web, some energy is stored in newly made structures but
much is dissipated into the environment. Continual input of energy from
sunlight keeps the process going.
a. Continual input of energy from sunlight keeps the process going.
b. Biomass pyramid
c. Energy pyramid
4. A vital part of an ecosystem is the stability of its producers and decomposers.
a. For the ecosystem to persist, energy must be continually captured by producers, and
materials must be continually recycled by decomposers.
b. If either producers or decomposers are removed, the ecosystem will collapse.
5. At each link in a food web some energy is stored in newly made structures,
but much energy is dissipated into the environment as heat.
a. Food webs show the possible energy flows through organisms (producers, consumers,
decomposers) in an ecosystem.
b. The highest-levels in a food web contain the least energy, and the fewest individuals.
c. Some energy is used by the organism to build structures, and some is energy for the
organism’s activities.
d. Trophic Levels
CHEMICAL CYCLING
1. Explain how chemical and physical processes cause carbon to cycle through the
major earth reservoirs.
• Chemical processes include digestion, photosynthesis and
respiration, decomposition, combustion.
• Carbon cycle reservoirs include: Atmosphere, organisms (producer,
consumer, decomposer), ocean, fossil fuels, rocks.
• Carbon cycle processes include: photosynthesis, respiration,
combustion, eating, decomposition, fossil fuel formation.
2. Explain how solar energy causes water to cycle through the major earth
reservoirs.
• Water cycle reservoirs include: Atmosphere, clouds, oceans and
lakes, organisms, rivers, groundwater, ice.
• Water cycle processes include: evaporation, condensation,
transpiration, runoff, freezing, melting, precipitation.
3. Explain how internal energy of the Earth causes matter to cycle through the
magma and the solid earth.
• Rock cycle reservoirs include: Sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks,
metamorphic rocks, magma, sediments.
• Rock cycle processes include: weathering, erosion, sedimentation,
compaction, cooling, melting.
• How do the convection cells in the mantle help to drive this
process
4. Water, carbon and nitrogen cycle between abiotic resources and organic matter in
the ecosystem and oxygen cycles through photosynthesis and respiration.
• Abiotic resources are nonliving.
• Nitrogen cycle reservoirs include: Atmosphere, organisms (usually
bacteria), soil.
• Nitrogen cycle processes include: Conversion from nonusable to
usable forms.
• Oxygen cycle reservoirs include: Atmosphere, organisms
(producer, consumer, decomposer).
• Oxygen cycle processes include: photosynthesis, respiration.
• What role do N2, NH3, NO2 and NO3 play in the nitrogen cycle
and in the lives of organisms
5. Microorganisms have an essential role in life processes and cycles on Earth.
• Microorganisms include bacteria and other single-celled
organisms.
• Processes include producing oxygen, decomposition, and
transforming nitrogen.
• Root nodules and their role in nitrogen fixation
• Archaebacteria and Eubacteria and their role in matter cycling
• Cyanobacteria's role in the oxygen and carbon cycle
6. If a disturbance such as flood, fire, or the addition or loss of species occurs, the
affected ecosystem may return to a system similar to the original one, or it
may take a new direction, leading to a very different type of ecosystem.
Changes in climate can produce very large changes in ecosystems.
• Ecosystems may change because of disturbances, climate change,
or changes in species dynamics.
• Disturbances include flood and fire, and addition or loss of species.
• After a disturbance, the ecosystem may return to what it was, or
change to a very different type of ecosystem.
7. Stability in an ecosystem is a balance between competing effects
· Stability doesn’t mean static. = dynamic equilibrium
8. Changes in an ecosystem can result from changes in climate, human activity,
introduction of nonnative species, or changes in population size.
• Changes in climate may change an ecosystem.
• Climate features include temperature, precipitation, sunlight
(latitude).
• Invasive/non native species can change an ecosystem.
• Changes in population size can change an ecosystem.
• Competing effect examples: photo/resp, producer/decomposer,
predator/prey
• Succession refers to more-or-less predictable and orderly changes
in the composition or structure of an ecological community

STABILITY OF ECOSYSTEM / BIODIVERSITY / NATURAL

SELECTION
1. Biodiversity is the sum total of different kinds of organisms and is affected by
alterations of habitats.
a. A change in a habitat or an ecosystem can impact biodiversity positively or
negatively.
2. Natural Selection is the major cause of biodiversity.
a. Limits on population growth, leading to competition, causes survival and
reproduction of the fittest individuals, which can lead to changes in populations
(aka Natural Selection).
b. Different species represent different strategies for obtaining energy. Biodiversity
is the sum total of all the different strategies for obtaining energy. Analogy: A
diverse economy, with many businesses finding many ways to make money, is
more stable than an economy based on just one type of business. Similarly, a
diverse ecosystem, with many organisms finding many ways to obtain energy, is
more stable than an ecosystem with low biodiversity.
3. Changes in the environment may result in the selection of organisms that are
better able to survive and reproduce.
a. Changes in the environment can include natural disasters, climate change, humans, new
species, removal of species.
4. Natural selection provides the following mechanism for evolution: Some
variation in heritable characteristics exists within every species; some of
 these characteristics give individuals an advantage over others in surviving
and reproducing; and the advantaged offspring, in turn, are more likely than
others to survive and reproduce. As a result, the proportion of individuals
that have advantageous characteristics will increase.
a. Selective pressures influence the selection of traits.
5. Natural selection leads to organisms that are well-suited for survival in
particular environments.
a. Fitness is a measurement of an individuals ability to survive and reproduce.
6. Natural selection acts on the phenotype rather than the genotype of an
organism.
7. Natural selection determines the differential survival of groups of organisms.
8. Darwin formulated the theory of natural selection.
9. Living organisms have the capability of producing populations of unlimited
size, but the environment can support only a limited number of individuals
from each species.
a. Populations have the potential to grow very rapidly, but the size of a population cannot
increase indefinitely.
b. Exponential vs. logistic growth.
10. Describe the factors that affect the carrying capacity of the environment.
a. Limiting factors regulate population size.
b. Limiting factors include: Food availability, disease, water, nesting sites, predators, light.
c. Carrying capacity is the number of individuals in a population that an environment can
support indefinitely.
d. Even when population size is stable, it still fluctuates around the carrying capacity (stable
doesn’t mean static).
11. Explain how change in population density is affected by emigration,
immigration, birth rate and death rate, and relate these factors to the
exponential growth of human populations.
a. Population density refers to the number of individuals of a particular species in a defined
area.
b. Population density is affected by birth rate, death rate, immigration, and emigration.
c. Population growth curves are different for exponentially growing populations, than for
populations that have reached their carrying capacity.
12. Ecosystems can be reasonably stable over hundreds or thousands of years. As
any population grows, its size is limited by one or more environmental
factors: availability of food, availability of nesting sites, or number of
predators.
13. Fluctuations in population size in an ecosystem are determined by the
relative rates of birth, immigration, emigration and death

POPULATIONS
1. Living organisms have the capability of producing populations of unlimited
size, but the environment can support only a limited number of individuals
from each species.
a. Populations have the potential to grow very rapidly, but the size of a
population cannot increase indefinitely.
b. Exponential vs. logistic growth.
 2. Describe the factors that affect the carrying capacity of the environment.
a. Limiting factors regulate population size.
b. Limiting factors include: Food availability, disease, water, nesting sites,
predators, light.
c. Carrying capacity is the number of individuals in a population that an
environment can support indefinitely.
d. Even when population size is stable, it still fluctuates around the carrying
capacity (stable doesn’t mean static).
3. Explain how change in population density is affected by emigration,
immigration, birth rate and death rate, and relate these factors to the
exponential growth of human populations.
a. Population density refers to the number of individuals of a particular
species in a defined area.
b. Population density is affected by birth rate, death rate, immigration, and
emigration.
c. Population growth curves are different for exponentially growing
populations, than for populations that have reached their carrying capacity.
4. Ecosystems can be reasonably stable over hundreds or thousands of years. As
any population grows, its size is limited by one or more environmental
factors: availability of food, availability of nesting sites, or number of
predators.
5. Fluctuations in population size in an ecosystem are determined by the
relative rates of birth, immigration, emigration and death
6. The use of resources by human populations may affect the quality of the
environment.
a. Deliberate alteration of ecosystems includes farming, dams, construction,
golf courses, mining.
b. Inadvertent alteration of ecosystems includes pollution, climate change,
fire suppression, hunting, overfishing
7. Human populations grow due to advances in agriculture, medicine,
construction and the use of energy.
a. The human population started to grow exponentially after the change from
hunter-gatherer to agricultural society, and the industrial revolution.
8. Humans modify ecosystems as a result of rapid population growth, use of
technology and consumption of resources.
a. Humans are part of ecosystems.
9. Explain how technological advances have affected the size and growth rate of
human populations throughout history.
10. Human beings are part of the earth's ecosystems. Human activities can,
deliberately or inadvertently, alter the equilibrium in ecosystems.

POLLUTION / ENERGY SOURCES

1. Emission of combustion by-products, such as SO2, CO2 and NOx by industries and vehicles is
a major source of air pollution.
 a. Combustion of fossil fuels produces CO2, and other gases including SO2 and
NOx.
2. Accumulation of metal and non-metal ions used to increase agricultural productivity is a
major source of water pollution.
a. A major cause of water pollution is fertilizer (NPK) and pesticide use by
agriculture.
3. Explain how the accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere increases Earth’s
“greenhouse” effect and may cause climate changes.
a. The greenhouse effect is the capture of solar radiation by atmospheric gases
(including CO2, H2O, and other gases).
b. Excess CO2 production increases the greenhouse effect, causes climate change.
c. Effects of climate change include
i. Increased plant productivity in certain areas
ii. Increased flooding and drought
iii. Melting of poles and increase in sea level
iv. Species migration (move or die)
4. Explain how the accumulation of mercury, phosphates and nitrates affects the quality of
water and the organisms that live in rivers, lakes and oceans.
a. SO2 and NOx may cause acid rain.
b. Bioaccumulation is increasing concentration of chemicals up food chains.
c. Mercury is one example of a chemical that bioaccumulates in aquatic organisms,
also biomagnifies as toxins move through a food chain.
d. High levels of mercury can cause the death of an organism.
e. Excess aquatic phosphates and nitrates from agriculture runoff cause excess algae
growth, leading to depletion of oxygen, and death of aquatic organisms.
5. Explain how land development, transportation options and consumption of resources may
affect the environment
a. Land development destroys ecosystems.
6. Describe human efforts to reduce the consumption of raw materials and improve air and
water quality.
a. Mass transit and fuel-efficient cars reduce consumption of resources and
pollution.
b. Alternative energy sources reduce climate change.
7. Various sources of energy are used by humans and all have advantages and
disadvantages.
a. Fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are a limited resource, they are finite.
b. Fossil fuels include oil, coal, and natural gas.
c. Environmental issues related to nuclear fuels include storage of
radioactive waste, and risk of meltdown.
8. During the burning of fossil fuels, stored chemical energy is converted to
electrical energy through heat transfer processes.
a. During electricity generation, heat is used to boil water, and the moving
steam is used to turn a turbine, which rotates a magnet inside a coil of wire
(or vice versa) and generates electric current.
9. In nuclear fission, matter is transformed directly into energy in a process
that is several million times as energetic as chemical burning.
10. Describe energy transformations among heat, light, electricity and motion.
a. Energy can be converted from one form to another.
11. Explain how heat is used to generate electricity.
a. Heat can be generated by the burning of fossil fuels or nuclear fission.
12. Describe the availability, current uses and environmental issues related to the
use of fossil and nuclear fuels to produce electricity
a. The majority of our energy needs today are met by the use of fossil fuels.
13. At times, environmental conditions are such that land and marine organisms
reproduce and grow faster than they die and decompose to simple carbon
containing molecules that are returned to the environment. Over time, layers
of energy-rich organic material inside the earth have been chemically
changed into great coal beds and oil pools.
a. Millions of years ago, environmental conditions are such that land and
marine organisms reproduce and grow faster than they die and decompose
to simple carbon containing molecules that are returned to the
environment.
b. Oil is not only used for electricity generation, but for creating medicines
and plastics.
14. Alternative energy sources are being explored and used to address the
disadvantages of using fossil and nuclear fuels.
a. Alternative (renewable) energy resources do not rely on fossil or nuclear
fuels.
b. Examples of alternative energy resources include hydrogen fuel cells,
wind, and solar energy.
c. Renewables: Hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass (ethanol, biodiesel,
wood), tidal.
15. Describe the availability, current uses and environmental issues related to the
use of hydrogen fuel cells, wind and solar energy to produce electricity.
a. Electricity cannot be stored on a large scale. Wind and solar energy are
not always available.
b. Wind: Used for electricity generation, limited as to where wind turbines
can be placed.
c. Solar: Used for electricity generation and heating, limited by amount of
solar radiation available (latitude and cloud cover)
d. Hydrogen fuel cells: Used for transportation; requires energy to split water
into hydrogen and oxygen; high cost of storage and distribution.

1. Fundamental life processes depend on the physical structure and the

chemical activities of the cell.
a. The major chemical activities of a cell include transport of materials,
energy capture and release, protein building, waste disposal,
passing information, and movement.
b. In simple cells these activities are carried out in the cytoplasm,
whereas in complex cells these activities are carried out by
specialized structures in the cell.
 c. The structure of each organelle is related to its function. Examples:
folds in ER, folds in mitochondria/chloroplasts, nuclear pores in
nucleus.
2. Many structures increase their activity by increasing Surface Area to
Volume ratio.
a. Surface Area to Volume ratio can be used to explain the structure of
many different organelles.
3. Within the cells are specialized parts for the transport of materials,
energy capture and release, protein building, waste disposal,
passing information, and even movement.
a. Structures of the cell involved in transport of materials include:
cytoskeleton.
b. Structures of the cell involved in energy capture and release
include: mitochondria, chloroplasts.
c. Structures of the cell involved in protein building include: nucleus
(DNA/RNA), ribosomes.
d. Structures of the cell involved in waste disposal include: vacuoles
e. Structures of the cell involved in passing information include:
DNA/RNA, chemical signals
f. Structures of the cell involved in movement include: cell membrane,
cell wall, cytoskeleton, flagella, cilia.
g. Endoplasmic Reticulum
h. Golgi Apparatus
i. Vesicles
j. Lysosomes
k. Peroxisomes
4. The fundamental life processes of plants and animals depend on a
variety of chemical reactions that occur in specialized areas of the
organism’s cells.
5. Most complex molecules of living organisms are built up from
smaller molecules. The various kinds of small molecules are much
the same in all life forms, but the specific sequences of components
that make up the very complex molecules are characteristic of a
given species.
a. Molecules are a collection of atoms bonded together
b. Sequences of small molecules that make up larger molecules are unique
to individuals and to a lesser extent species – and this similarity defines
the unity of all living things
c. The small molecules that are universal include amino acids (which are
combined to make proteins), nucleotides (which are combined to make
nucleic acids).
d. Atoms bond due to an interaction between their electrons
e. Each element has a unique number of electrons that are used when
bonding
 f. Covalent bonding is a chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of
electrons between atoms in a molecule
g. Electron configuration (2-8-8), atomic number, mass number
h. Molecular formulas
i. Structural formulas
j. Monomer
k. Polymer
l. Catabolic
m. Anabolic

6. A living cell is composed of a small number of chemical elements

mainly carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and
sulfur. Carbon, because of its small size and four available bonding
electrons, can join to other carbon atoms in chains and rings to form
large and complex molecules.
a. The four groups of complex molecules common to all organisms are
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
b. Molecules in living things are made up of a small number of specific
atoms (HONCPS)
c. Carbon, because of its unique chemical structure, has the ability to bond
with four other atoms and can create much larger, more complex
molecules in the form of chains and rings

7. Most macromolecules (polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins,

lipids) in cells and organisms are synthesized from a small collection
of simple precursors.
a. Macromolecules are large numbers of small molecules that are bonded
together in a specific pattern
b. Organic macromolecules include: polysaccharides (monosaccharides),
nucleic acids (nucleotides), proteins(amino acids), lipids (glycerols)
c. Dehydration synthesis
d. Hydrolysis
8. In all but quite primitive cells, a complex network of proteins
provides organization and shape and, for animal cells, movement.
a. Many proteins can bond together in a complex network to perform certain
functions. (The whole is greater than the sum of its parts).
b. Cells have a cytoskeleton made of protein that helps in shape, movement
and organization.
9. The work of the cell is carried out by the many different types of
molecules it assembles, mostly proteins. Protein molecules are long,
usually folded chains made from 20 different kinds of amino acid
molecules. The function of each protein molecule depends on its
specific sequence of amino acids and its shape. The shape of the
chain is a consequence of attractions between its parts.
 a. Cells make many different molecules, but mostly makes proteins
b. Protein functions include: Enzymes, structural, communication, transport
across membrane, defense against disease, energy storage.
10. The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus have a role in the
secretion of proteins.
a. Ribosomes on the ER are the site of protein production.
b. Proteins are then shipped to the Golgi where the protein is modified and
prepared for the cell’s use.
11. Proteins can differ from one another in the number and sequence of
amino acids.
a. Protein molecules are long, usually folded chains made from 20 different
kinds of amino acid molecules
b. Each protein has a unique sequence and number of amino acids.
12. Proteins having different amino acid sequences typically have
different shapes and chemical properties.
a. The function of each protein molecule depends on its specific sequence
of amino acids and its shape.
b. The shape of the chain is a consequence of attractions between its parts.
c. While all cells have some of the same proteins, the differences in proteins
present is ultimately what makes cells (and organisms) different.
d. Sequence influences shape and emergent properties of the protein
a. Levels of protein folding – protein processing
13. Complex interactions among the different kinds of molecules in the
cell cause distinct cycles of activities, such as growth and division.
Cell behavior can also be affected by molecules from other parts of
the organism or even other organisms.
a. Cells communicate using chemical signals.
b. Cells use these chemical signals for intracellular communication,
intercellular communication, and even between whole organisms.
c. Intracellular communication involves regulation of cell growth and
replication.
d. The cell cycle includes alternating periods of cell growth and replication.
e. Disruption of this regulation can cause uncontrolled cell growth and
replication and may result in cancer.
f. Carcinogens may cause uncontrolled cell growth and replication
g. Intercellular communication involves the production of hormones by the
brain to regulate the functions in other parts of the body.
h. An example of chemical communication between organisms is dog-butt
sniffing.
a. Pheromones
b. G1, S, G2, M
c. Phases of Mitosis
d. Checkpoints (especially G1 checkpoint)
e. Cyclins
f. Cdk’s
g. p53
14. Most of the chemical activities of the cell are catalyzed by enzymes
that function only in a narrow range of temperature and acidity
conditions.
a. Cells need enzymes to facilitate chemical reactions
b. Examples include saliva working in mouth to break down starch, peptase
in stomach working on digestion.
15. Describe the general role of enzymes in metabolic cell processes.
a. Metabolic processes include digestion, respiration and synthesis of
organic molecules
16. Most cells function best within a narrow range of temperature and
acidity. At very low temperatures, reaction rates are too slow. High
temperatures and/or extremes of acidity can irreversibly change the
structure of most protein molecules. Even small changes in acidity
can alter the molecules and how they interact.
a. Enzymes require specific environmental conditions in order to work
b. Factors influencing enzyme reactions include; pH, temperature.
c. pH is a measure of the acidity of a solution. Acids being 0-7, bases 7-14
and 7 being neutral
d. Ionic conditions (e.g. salt levels) can influence enzymes.
e. High temperature and pH can alter the shape of a protein rendering it
useless.
17. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions without
altering the reaction equilibrium and the activities of enzymes
depend on the temperature, ionic conditions and the pH of the
surroundings.
a. Enzymes are one type of protein
b. Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions.
c. Catalyze is lowering the activation energy, allowing the reaction to occur
faster
d. Enzymes are not incorporated into a reaction, but rather simply maintain
the reaction equilibrium (enzymes are not used up)
e. Enzymes are specific to their substrate (Lock and key)Enzymes are
specific to their substrate (lock and key)
f. Ion
g. Ionic Bonding
h. pH is a measure of the H ion concentration in a solution
i. Substrate / Enzyme interaction at active site
j. Buffers resist changes in pH
18. Every cell is covered by a membrane that controls what can enter
and leave the cell.
a. Fluid mosaic model
b. The cell membrane is made of lipids embedded with proteins and other
molecules.
19. Explain the role of the cell membrane in supporting cell functions.
a. Phospholipid bilayer prevents hydrophilic substances from
crossingPhospholipid bilayer prevents hydrophilic substances from
crossing
 b. The cell membrane is the boundary that separates the controlled internal
environment of the cell from the external environment.
20. Cells are enclosed within semipermeable membranes that regulate
their interaction with their surroundings.
a. Types of membrane proteins- transport proteins, receptor proteins,
enzymes, ID proteins and their functions.
b. Carbohydrate ID tags and cholesterol
c. Polar, nonpolar
d. Hydrogen bonds
e. Properties of water (surface tension, specific heat, universal solvent,
cohesion, adhesion)
f. Diffusion
g. Osmosis
h. Active vs. Passive Transport
i. Polar, nonpolar
j. Hydrogen bonds
k. Properties of water (surface tension, specific heat, universal solvent,
cohesion, adhesion)
l. Active vs. Passive Transport
m. The cell membrane is a semi permeable membrane, regulating what
enters and leaves the cell.
n. Lipids are hydrophobic, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Carbohydrates are
Hydrophilic
o. Hydrophilic, hydrophobic
p. The cell membrane regulates transport of materials into and out of the
cell, facilitates chemical reactions, and aids communication with its
environment.
q. These functions are carried out by cell membrane proteins.
r. The cell membrane is the boundary that separates the controlled internal
environment of the cell from the external environment.
21. The cellular processes of photosynthesis and respiration involve
transformation of matter and energy.
a. Energy exists in different forms and can be transferred from one form to
another
22. Describe energy transformations among heat, light, electricity and
motion.
a. Heat, light, electricity, chemical and motion are different forms of energy
b. Chemical energy is the result of the bonds that exist between atoms
c. Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy into chemical
energy
d. Energy exists in different forms and can be transferred from one form to
another
e. The electromagnetic spectrum includes energy-carrying waves of different
intensities.
f. Usable energy is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be
captured by chloroplasts
g. The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is used by chloroplasts
includes visible light
 h. Energy is stored in chemical bonds
i. Different types of bonds (C-H vs. C-O) have different energy values
23. Usable energy is captured from sunlight by chloroplasts and is
stored through the synthesis of sugar from carbon dioxide.
a. During photosynthesis water and carbon dioxide are converted into sugar
and oxygen
b. Light reactions
c. Dark reactions / Calvin cycle
d. Photosystems
e. Stroma
f. Thylakoid
g. Leaf structure
h. Mesophyll
i. Stomata
j. Epidermis
24. The role of the mitochondria is to make stored chemical-bond energy
available to cells by completing the breakdown of glucose to carbon
dioxide.
a. Respiration is the process of converting chemical energy in food to
chemical energy the cell may use
b. During respiration oxygen and sugar are converted into usable energy,
carbon dioxide and water
c. The breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide results in energy for the cell,
stored in ATP
d. Cellular reactions use ATP as their source of energy
e. NADP / NADPH
f. ETC
g. Chemiosmosis
h. ATP synthase
i. ADP + P = ATP
j. Glycolysis
k. Pyruvate
l. NADH / NAD+
m. Krebs (Citric acid) cycle
n. Oxidative phosphorylation
o. Oxygen as final electron acceptor
p. Mitochondrial structure
q. Matrix
r. Cristae
s. Inner-mitochondrial matrix
t. Relative amount of ATP for each phase of respiration
25. Explain how bacteria and yeasts are used to produce foods for
human consumption.
a. The products of cellular respiration are different depending on the
presence of oxygen
b. No oxygen (anaerobic) – lactic acid or alcohol can be produced
c. Bacteria and some animals can go though lactic acid fermentation.
 d. LAF is used in the production of yogurt
e. Yeast ( a fungus) can go through alcoholic fermentation, which produces
CO2 as a waste product
f. AF is used in the production of alcoholic beverages such as beer and
wine and in bread dough rising.
g. Specific products of Alcoholic Fermentation & Lactic Acid Fermentation
26. Describe significant similarities and differences in the basic
structure of plant and animal cells.
a. Plant and animal cells share the following structures: cytoskeleton,
mitochondria, nucleus, ribosomes, cell membrane, vacuoles.
b. Plant cells have chloroplasts and cell walls, animals do not.
c. Animal cells may have flagella and cilia, plants do not.
d. Plant and animal cell share: ER, Golgi, vesicles
e. Centrioles / centrosomes
f. Nucleoid region
g. Extracellular matrix
h. Plasmodesmata
i. Lysosome
j. Cilia
k. Flagella
l. Smooth v rough ER
m. Nuclear pores
n. Nucleolus
27. Describe the similarities and differences between bacteria and
viruses.
a. Bacteria have a cell membrane, flagella, ribosomes and a cytoskeleton,
viruses do not
b. Viruses have genetic material surrounded by a protein coat
28. Prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells (including those from plants and
animals), and viruses differ in complexity and general structure.
a. Prokaryotic cells are cells that do not contain a nucleus or membrane
bound organelles
b. Eukaryotic cells are cells that do contain a nucleus and membrane bound
organelles
29. In addition to the basic cellular functions common to all cells, most
cells in multicellular organisms perform some special functions that
others do not.
a. While all cells share basic structures and functions, in multicellular
organisms there are cells with specialized functions which look very
different from one another.
b. The external structure of these specialized cells is directly related to their
specialized functions.
c. Examples may include things such as:
i. Neurons are long thin cells which facilitate the rapid transmission
of information over large distances in the body.
ii. Red blood cells have high SA:V in order to increase gas exchange
into and out of the cell.
 d. The internal structure of these specialized cells is directly related to their
specialized functions (e.g. cells that use a lot of energy have lots of
mitochondria).

DNA

1. The degree of relatedness between organisms or species can be

estimated from the similarity of their DNA sequences, which often closely
match their classification based on anatomical similarities.
a. All living organisms contain DNA as their genetic information
2. The information passed from parents to offspring is coded in DNA
molecules, long chains linking just four kinds of smaller molecules, whose
precise sequence encodes genetic information.
a. The information passed from parents to offspring is coded in DNA
molecules
b. DNA molecules are long chains of A, T, C, and G nucleotides
c. A DNA molecule has two chains of nucleotides (a double-helix)
d. DNA information is coded in the sequence of A, T, C, and G nucleotides
e. Nucleotide structure (sugar, phosphate, base)
f. Deoxyribose
g. Hershey and Chase experiments
h. Griffith and Avery experiments
i. Watson, Crick, and Franklin experiments
j. Antiparallel Strands
k. Hydrogen Bonds
l. Purine, Pyrimidine
3. The genetic information encoded in DNA molecules is virtually the same
for all life forms.
a. Closely related species have similar DNA sequences
b. Similarity in DNA sequence often closely matches classification
based on anatomical similarities.
4. Gel electrophoresis is used to separate and isolate fragments of DNA. It
is used in forensics, biotechnology, diagnosing genetic disease, paternity
testing, and determining relatedness between species.
a. Gel electrophoresis is used to separate and isolate fragments of
DNA, and is used in forensics, biotechnology, diagnosing genetic
disease, paternity testing, and determining relatedness between
species.
b. Gel electrophoresis includes:
i. Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases
ii. Running fragments of DNA through a gel, where negatively
charged DNA is attracted to positive electrode.
 iii. Fragments separating by size, shortest fragments traveling
farthest.
5. Describe the general role of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis.
a. Genes are a set of instructions encoded in the DNA sequence of
each organism that specify the sequence of amino acids in proteins
characteristic of that organism.
6. The genetic information encoded in DNA molecules provides
instructions for assembling protein molecules.
7. The central dogma of molecular biology outlines the flow of information
from transcription of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus to translation of
proteins on ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
a. DNA molecules are contained in the nucleus, and cannot leave the
nucleus.
b. DNA’s information must be taken to the cytoplasm.
c. DNA must be transcribed into RNA, which carries the genetic
message.
d. The RNA travels out of the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
e. DNA vs. RNA: U vs. T, double vs. single strand
f. DNA vs RNA: Deoxyribose vs. Ribose
8. Base-pairing rules are used to explain the precise copying of DNA
during transcription of information from DNA into mRNA.
a. Transcription: DNA to mRNA, using base-pairing rules and RNA
Polymerase
9. Genes are a set of instructions encoded in the DNA sequence of each
organism that specify the sequence of amino acids in proteins
characteristic of that organism.
a. A gene is a set of DNA which codes for a particular protein.
10. Ribosomes synthesize proteins, using tRNAs to translate genetic
information in the mRNA.
a. The RNA is translated into a protein by the ribosome.
b. tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome
c. tRNA is used to translate mRNA codon into an amino acid
d. The ribosome has enzymes which catalyze the formation of bonds
between amino acids
e. Start/Stop codons
f. Amino Acid attachment site
g. Anticodon
h. rRNA
i. Ribosome binding sites
j. Triplet
k. Initiation, Elongation, Termination
l. RNA Processing
i. 5’ Cap
 ii. Poly-A tail
iii. RNA splicing
iv. Intron
v. Exon
vi. Alternative RNA splicing
m. Promoter
n. 5’ --> 3’
11. The sequence of amino acids in a protein can be predicted from the
sequence of codons in the RNA, by applying universal genetic coding
rules.
a. Using the coding table, RNA sequence can be translated into a
sequence of amino acids.
b. The coding table is universal to all organisms.
12. Some new gene combinations make little difference, some can produce
organisms with new and perhaps enhanced capabilities, and some can be
deleterious.
a. The resulting features from a mutation may help, harm, or have little
or no effect on the offspring's success in its environment. (Natural
Selection)
b. A mutation can change just one or a few nucleotides, or many
nucleotides (as much as a chromosome).
13. Genes are segments of DNA molecules. Inserting, deleting, or
substituting segments of DNA molecules can alter genes. An altered gene
may be passed on to every cell that develops from it. The resulting features
may help, harm, or have little or no effect on the offspring's success in its
environment.
a. Mutations can be caused by inserting, deleting, or substituting
segments of DNA
b. Point Mutation
i. Frameshift Mutation
ii. Base Deletion
iii. Base Insertion
iv. Base Substitution
c. Chromosomal Mutation
i. Chromosomal Deletion
ii. Chromosomal Duplication
iii. Chromosomal Translocation
iv. Chromosomal Inversion
14. Gene mutation in a cell can result in uncontrolled division called cancer.
Exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation increases mutations
and thus the chance of cancer.
a. Gene mutation in a cell can result in uncontrolled division called
cancer.
 b. Mutations can be caused by certain chemicals and radiation.
c. Radiation includes sunlight (UV), X-Rays, Radon, nuclear radiation
15. Explain how the processes of genetic mutation and natural selection are
related to the evolution of species.
d. Mutated genes are passed on to every cell that develops from it.
16. Mutations in the DNA sequence of a gene may or may not affect the
expression of the gene or the sequence of amino acids in an encoded
protein.
a. Mutations can lead to a different amino acid sequence, changing
the shape of the protein and its function.
17. New mutations are constantly being generated in a gene pool
a. A gene pool consists of all the genes present in a population
b. Mutations happen constantly in a gene pool
18. The many body cells in an individual can be very different from one
another, even though they are all descended from a single cell and thus
have essentially identical genetic instructions.
a. All cells in an organism have the same set of DNA
19. Different parts of the genetic instructions are used in different types of
cells, influenced by the cell's environment and past history.
b. Different parts of the genetic instructions are used in different types
of cells
20. Stem cells have no specialized function and can be made to differentiate
into any type of cell.
a. Chemicals in the cell’s environment can affect which genes the cell
uses.
21. Cloning uses stem cells either to create whole organisms or create
specific tissues.
a. Gene expression
b. Transcription Factors
c. Operon: Regulatory gene, Promoter, Operator, Repressor, RNA
Polymerase
d. lac operon
e. Reproductive Cloning
f. Therapeutic Cloning
g. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT)
22. Explain the ethical issues involving embryonic stem cells, and cloning.
a. Many people object to the use of embryonic stem cells for moral
reasons.
b. Many people object to human cloning for moral reasons.
23. Specialization of cells in multicellular organisms is usually due to
different patterns of gene expression rather than to differences of the
genes themselves.
 a. Differentation results from selective gene expression
24. Similarities in the chemical and structural properties of DNA in all living
organisms allow the transfer of genes from one organism to another.
25. The principles of genetics and cellular chemistry can be used to
produce new foods and medicines in biotechnological processes.
26. Describe, in general terms, how the genetic information of organisms
can be altered to make them produce new materials.
a. Bacteria are useful because their DNA is easily accessible (no
nucleus) and has less genes, and they divide very quickly.
b. Plasmid
c. Vector
d. Sticky ends
e. Advantages of using yeast
f. Transgenic organism
g. PCR
27. Explain the risks and benefits of altering the genetic composition and
cell products of existing organisms.
28. The genetic composition of cells can be altered by incorporation of
exogenous DNA into the cells.
29. Genetic engineering (biotechnology) is used to produce novel
biomedical and agricultural products.
a. New foods can be produced by genetic engineering, including
soybeans, corn, golden rice. These new foods can be more
nutritious, drought-tolerant, disease resistant.
b. Medicines can be produced such as insulin, growth hormone.
c. Risks of genetic engineering include unknown side effects of GM
food, superweeds, industry-controlled seeds.
d. Genetic engineering (biotechnology) includes:
i. Isolating DNA from donor and recipient cell
ii. Digestion of donor DNA and recipient cell DNA by restriction
endonucleases
iii. Gel electrophoresis to isolate desired gene
iv. Ligation of exogenous DNA into recipient DNA by DNA
Ligase (to create recombinant DNA)
v. Transformation of recombinant DNA into recipient cell
vi. Recipient cell expresses new protein
30. DNA technology (restriction digestion by endonucleases, gel
electrophoresis, ligation and transformation) is used to construct
recombinant DNA molecules.
a. Genetic engineering involves
i. Removing gene of interest from donor cell
ii. Splicing gene into recipient cell (bacteria or embryonic cell)
to make recombinant DNA
 iii. Replication of recipient cell
iv. Recipient cells produce protein coded for by new gene
31. Exogenous DNA can be inserted into bacterial cells to alter their genetic
makeup and support expression of new protein products.
a. Exogenous DNA is DNA foreign to that organism.
32. Before a cell divides, the instructions are duplicated so that each of the
two new cells gets all the necessary information for carrying on.
a. Every cell must have its own set of DNA information.
b. DNA is duplicated in the nucleus before a cell divides.
c. The two new cells have identical DNA information to the parent cell,
and to each other.
d. DNA Polymerase, Helicase
e. Each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one new
strand (semiconservative replication)
f. 5’ --> 3’, leading and lagging strand, Okazaki fragments, DNA
Ligase
g. Replication Fork
h. Replication Bubbles
i. Antiparallel Strands
33. Base-pairing rules are used to explain the precise copying of DNA
during semiconservative replication.
a. Base-pairing (A-T, C-G)