CHAPTER 2

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

2.1 Introduction
This chapter covers a literature survey conducted in order to gain a better
understanding regarding the origins and history of the development of cement, the
chemistry thereof and the mechanisms involved during the hydration process. As
cement forms part of the conglomerate known as concrete, a further investigation is
done reviewing the history of concrete, the use of concrete throughout the centuries
and the longevity of early concrete structures. Concrete as construction material
exhibits certain limitations and for this reason, steel reinforcing was introduced to
enhance the tensile properties of concrete. Although the addition of steel expanded
the possible use of concrete as construction material it also created certain problems
affecting the durability of structures using steel reinforcement.(7)
An evaluation is made of the various factors that influence the durability of modern
reinforced concrete structures including the degenerative role of external agents such
as carbon dioxide and chloride. Carbonation is investigated and the mechanism of
degradation and the influence thereof on the concrete cover and reinforcing steel is
discussed. The role of cracks in concrete structures and the effect of reinforcing steel
corrosion on the structure serviceability are highlighted to enable an understanding of
the detrimental consequences of concrete spalling.(8, 9)
2.2 Origins of cement
Cements may be defined as substances capable of uniting fragments or masses of
solid matter to a compact whole. This definition embraces a large number of different
substances having little in common with one another but their adhesiveness. The
earliest structures were composed of earth compacted to form the structure of stone
blocks, set one above the other without the aid of any cementing material
Ancient brick walls of the Egyptians were built using dried bricks made from Nile
mud which were stacked on top of each other while each course was covered with a
moist layer of the same mud used in the construction of the bricks. The Egyptians,
Greeks and the Romans are probably known for their superior strength mortar
produced from finely ground volcanic deposits, mixed with lime and sand. The best
variety of this material was obtained from the neighbourhood of Pozzoli resulting in
the name of Pozzolana being extended to the whole class of mineral material of this
type. If volcanic earth did not happen to be available, the Romans used powdered tiles
or pottery to produce a similar effect. The word cement in its Late Latin and Old
French forms was first used to designate such materials, now classed as artificial
pozzolanas.
Hydraulic lime, and the use thereof, made little progress, and the old mixture of lime
and pozzolana still retained its supremacy for a long period. The discovery that
hydraulic cement could be made by calcining nodes of argillaceous limestone was
patented in 1796 and inappropriately called Roman cement. Roman cement gained

popularity, as it was quick setting and used in civil engineering until about 1850 after
which, it was gradually replaced by Portland cement. The most significant hydraulic
cement in terms of historic importance was a material described by the famous patent
no. 5022, dated 21 October 1824, by Joseph Aspdin. This material was named
Portland Cement because at that time Portland stone had a high reputation for
quality and durability and Aspdin also wanted to draw the peoples attention to the
resemblance of the colour and quality of his cement to Portland stone.(10)
The most important event in the history of Portland cement, from the viewpoint of
production technique and quality control, was the development of the rotary kiln that
replaced the shaft kiln. This change to the new process took place at the beginning of
the Twentieth Century and slowly changed cement manufacture from a batch process
to a continuous process. Quality control in modern cement manufacturing is further
improved with the implementation of computer monitoring.
Portland cement, as we know it today, is a synthetic mixture of calcium silicates
formed in a molten matrix in a rotary kiln, from a suitably proportioned and
homogeneously prepared mixture of calcareous and argillaceous components. Modern
Portland cements consist primarily of calcium silicates, which constitute
approximately 80% of the mass. Aluminates, ferrites and other compounds make up
the remaining 20%. An inter ground calcium sulphate is added and used as a setting
retarder in normal Portland cement. Materials such as pulverised fuel ash (PFA) and
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) have similar compositions or give
similar hydration products and are used as alternative cementing agents in conjunction
with Portland cement. The only non-Portland cement used in quantity is high alumina
cement, (HAC) which is composed primarily of calcium aluminates and contains only
small amounts of calcium silicates.(10)
2.3 Historical overview of concrete
The word concrete originates from the Latin concretus meaning compounded, while
the Romans applied the term concretum only to the finished mass. This compounded
mass consisted of an artificial conglomerate of gravel or broken stone with sand and
lime or cement and is of great antiquity. Today concrete is understood to consist of a
graded range of stone aggregate particles bound together by a hardened cement
paste.(3) Concrete dates back to the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans some 2000
years BC who learned to use calcined limestone, lime, water, sand and crushed stone
to create the first concrete in history.
Use of concrete was restricted to compression members since concrete is very strong
in compression but extremely weak in tension. It was soon discovered that the
addition of steel reinforcement increased the effectiveness of concrete. Reinforced
concrete can be defined as a material in which the resistance to compression of wellmixed and hardened concrete is combined with the tensile strength of steel.
Reinforced concrete could be therefore be used for structural members subjected to
tension and shear loads. W.B. Wilkinson took out the first patent for a system of
reinforced concrete in 1854 while the introduction of pre-stressed concrete by
Freyssinet only took place in the 1940s.(3)

The vast majority of concrete structures throughout the world have performed
satisfactorily for many years but progress has not been made without its problems.
Attention today is primarily focussed on environmental attack, which is substantially
reducing the lives of many concrete structures around the world, in many cases due to
the corrosion of reinforcement steel.(11, 12)
2.4 Concrete as construction material
Modern concrete comprises of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together by a
cementitious material, usually Portland cement, which is activated by the addition of a
predetermined amount of water. Mixing Portland cement with water results in the
hydration of the calcium silicates to form calcium silicate hydrated gel. Concretes
strength is derived from the hydration of cement by water where the cement
constituents progressively crystallise to form a gel or paste. Aggregate particles are
dispersed in the cement paste which surrounds the aggregate particles that binds them
together to produce a conglomerate in the matrix of hardened cement paste.(13, 14)
Strength and permeability characteristics of concrete are generally governed by its
water-cement ratio with a low ratio resulting in a high strength concrete with low
permeability. Concrete mixture proportioning involves the selecting of a watercement ratio to provide the required strength and then determining water and additive
content from considerations of workability and aggregate type. The aggregate type
and aggregate-cement ratio must also be taken into account when considering high
strength concrete. It is usual to specify minimum cement content for structural
concrete as the cement provides a high level of alkalinity environment, which inhibits
any form of corrosion of the embedded reinforcing steel. Too high cement content
causes problems with regard to early thermal contraction leading to cracking as a
result from the rise in temperature introduced by the cement hydration.
The effectiveness of reinforced concrete as a structural material depends greatly on
the following three characteristics:
Effective interfacial bonding between the steel and the concrete, which allows it
to act as a composite material.
Passivating effect of the concrete environment to inhibit steel corrosion.
Similar coefficients of thermal movement of concrete and steel.
Concrete has generally been regarded as chemically and dimensionally stable in most
environments leading to the belief that concrete is an inherently durable and versatile
material. It has a high compressive strength, abrasion resistance, fire resistance, it
protects embedded steel from corrosion, and it is durable, economic and perceived to
be relatively maintenance-free during its service life. It is because of this belief that
many buildings in South Africa, including the RAU, have been built using reinforced
concrete as the primary building material.(5)
Concrete should therefore be properly specified to ensure durability to the
environment to which it will be exposed. This means specifying minimum cement
contents, maximum water-cement ratios and concrete strength, which are compatible
with the former two characteristics. Good curing is another pre-requisite.(3)

The use of reinforced concrete has increased dramatically over the past forty years
and it is currently used as the predominant structural material for major building and
civil engineering projects. Although many concrete structures have shown excellent
durability performance throughout the years, there is an increasing number that have
deteriorated rapidly after construction. A survey concluded in 1954 showed that, even
on a moderately exposed site, the trouble free life of reinforced concrete is likely to be
short if the cover to the reinforcement is meagre. In the rapid expansion of the
construction industry during the 1960s such lessons were often forgotten and today
many modern concrete structures need substantial repairs and maintenance during
their service life with the resultant costs to the economy reaching 3-5% of the Gross
National Product in some countries.(15)
Actual deterioration of concrete has only recently been accurately quantified and the
extent of the problems, regarding the premature corrosion of reinforced steel bars,
realised. This premature corrosion of steel reinforcing can be attributed to a number
of factors influencing the durability and degradation of the concrete. Assuming
concrete to be forever durable has proven to be extremely foolish, as it is known
today that maintenance needs to be done on concrete structures in order to ensure the
longevity of the structure.(16, 17)
2.5 Concrete durability
Inadequate durability is by far the most common cause of premature failure of
concrete structures, yet very little attention is devoted to durability in the design
process. Durability may be defined as the ability of a material to withstand the service
conditions for which it was designed over a prolonged period without significant
deterioration. Generally, durability is covered by prescriptive code recommendations
based on previous code clauses, arbitrarily tightened where case histories have shown
problems. Unfortunately the durability performance of concrete structures has not
always shown a corresponding improvement despite these specifications. This
appears to be due to a lack of understanding of what is required to ensure durability
as well as inadequate means of enforcing or guaranteeing compliance with
specifications during construction. Durability performance of materials has long been
a concern for engineers but even more so today as environmental conditions change
constantly.(18, 19)
No material is itself durable or non durable, it is the interaction of the
material with its in-service environment that determines its durability.
Larry Masters
Concrete durability is determined from the earliest stages of the mix design right
through to the construction process. A lack of concrete durability ultimately results in
accelerated deterioration of the concrete. It is therefore clear that due to the complex
nature of environmental effects on structures, improved durability cannot be achieved
by improving the material characteristics alone. Elements of architectural and
structural design, process of execution, inspection and maintenance programs
including preventative maintenance needs to be concerned. The interaction
mechanisms between the main factors influencing durability and performance are
illustrated in Figure 2.1 from which it can clearly be seen that the relationship
between concrete durability and performance is based on structural and durability

design, materials and construction practise and service life closely coupled with
concrete degradation mechanisms.(20)

Figure 2.1.

Relationship between the concepts of concrete durability and

performance.(20)

Quality always has an associated cost implication for owners of structures who will
have to pay for durability at some point in the life of the structure. This cost could be
incurred at the design stage, construction or during the service life of the structure.
Inadequate designs with excessive cost cutting at construction will merely transfer the
savings in capital costs to repairs at a later stage. Economists may suggest the
deferment of capital costs into maintenance but experience suggests that investments
made during construction bring better rewards than investments made later in
maintenance as can be seen from Figure 2.2. Despite this evidence, economic
imperatives that attempt to maximise short-term profits will often dictate capital
investment and discourage durable designs. The quality of construction and the
suitability of designs will largely dictate the durability performance of reinforced
concrete structures. Concrete deterioration will occur as a result of the interaction of
material, structural and environmental effects. Durability can be either influenced at
design, at construction or later in the service life of the structure.(21, 22, 23, 24, 25)

10

Figure 2.2.
Life cycle costs.(21)
2.6 Concrete degradation
In order to understand the role of degradation or deterioration the relationship
between performance, service life, durability and degradation needs to be understood.
Degradation is by definition the gradual decrease in performance over time while the
service life is the period of time after construction during which the performance
requirements are fulfilled. Since reinforced concrete is comprised of concrete and
steel, degradation needs to be defined for both of these materials. Steel and concrete
are interdependent on each other as the steel is effectively protected by electrochemical passivation caused by the high alkalinity levels of the surrounding concrete
while the steel in turn provides tensile strength to the concrete. (26)
There is an increasing awareness that concrete is a complex composite material, that
environmental and service conditions may vary widely and that deterioration
mechanisms interact dynamically with material and structural influences. Concrete as
a porous material may interact with its environment in the form of leaching of
concrete compounds from the concrete or by the penetration of liquids and gasses into
the concrete causing chemical or physical interaction as indicated in Figure 2.3. (27, 28)

Figure 2.3.

Aggressive substances attack the exposed concrete surface and move

towards the reinforcement.(27)

Research regarding concrete degradation and the causes thereof is widely publicized
and additional information can be found in the literature applicable to this chapter.
The main causes of concrete degradation will therefore only be listed and not
discussed. Poor construction practise and detailing and design defects are of
importance where external agencies are allowed to penetrate the concrete through
construction defects in order to reach the unprotected steel reinforcement causing
premature corrosion and deterioration to take place. The most common construction

11

defects are the failure to provide the design cover to the reinforcement, honeycombing
due to low concrete workability or inadequate compaction, cold joints and poor
curing.(29, 30)
Other defects in formed concrete comprise of honeycombing, blowholes, dusting and
pop outs, while mechanical and physical processes influencing durability include
abrasion, erosion, cavitation and repeated freezing and thawing. Sedimentation,
bleeding, shrinkage cracking and settlement cracking and drying shrinkage are the
principle causes of damage to fresh concrete at an early age. Some of the deterioration
mechanisms relate to the concrete ingredients such as alkali aggregate reactions,
chemical attacks and freeze thaw scaling.(31, 32, 33, 34, 35)
Weathering is the deterioration of the concrete outer skin caused by the effects of rain,
frost, sunshine and atmospheric pollution. External agents such as salt crystallization,
acids, soft water, sulphates, frost and seawater all cause concrete deterioration. Fire
damage can also be included in this grouping as it represents a specific external
influence that negatively affects the concrete integrity.(36, 37, 38, 39, 40)
Concrete deterioration caused by external agents leads to the corrosion of the
reinforcing steel encapsulated within the concrete. In temperate climates combined
chloride ingress and carbonation is the dominant corrosive element, hence the
majority of North American and European research on corrosion has been aimed at
this problem. Carbonation was identified to be the principal degradation mechanisms
found in the RAU buildings as RAU is situated far from natural and synthetic sources
of chloride. Although chloride ingress is relevant to reinforcement corrosion and
concrete degradation, the carbonation process is therefore of greater importance to
this study.(41, 42, 43)
Carbonation of Portland cement concrete paste occurs on all exposed surfaces of
concrete structures. Carbonation is a chemical reaction in which atmospheric carbon
dioxide penetrates the concrete and reacts with the alkaline calcium hydroxide and
other cement hydrates in the concrete paste to form carbonates, thereby liberating
water and/or metal oxides depending on the hydration product involved. The major
constituent of hydrated cement paste, calcium silica hydrate gel, is also subject to
carbonation with the gel decomposing into calcium carbonate and an amorphous silica
gel with a porous structure.(27, 44, 45)
Normal air contains 0.03% carbon dioxide but this level may increase dramatically in
heavily polluted areas.(46) The rate of carbonation is largely a function of paste
permeability, temperature, relative humidity and the concentration of carbon dioxide
in the air. Water-cement ratio, amount of moist curing and the degree of densification
of the exposed surface control paste permeability while the carbonation rate is
controlled by the ingress of carbon dioxide into the concrete pore system by diffusion,
with the concentration gradient of CO2 acting as driving force.(47)
Moisture must be present for carbonation to take place as the carbonation reaction
proceeds most rapidly when the relative humidity is between 50% and 75%. At lower
humidity there is insufficient water in the pores of the concrete for significant
quantities of calcium hydroxide to dissolve. Above 75% humidity the situation is

12

reversed and the pores become progressively blocked with water allowing the calcium
hydroxide to freely dissolve but largely preventing the ingress of carbon dioxide. The
carbonation reaction is most rapid at approximately 65% relative humidity, which
allows satisfactory diffusion of carbon dioxide through concrete and sufficient
moisture for the carbonation reaction.(48)
Carbonation takes place very rapidly on the surface of the concrete but diminishes
with depth and the advance of the carbonation front can be described schematically as
1mm in 3 months, 10 mm in 10 years and 20 mm in 30 years. Many different models
have been developed in order to predict the rate of carbonation. Some are based on
gas diffusion laws while others are based on empirical values gained through
experimentation and data. Ficks first law describes an extended diffusion front
formed by the diffusion of water, chlorides and sulphates. Probably the most well
known equation for determining the rate of penetration of CO2 can be described by a
special case of Ficks law resulting in a sharp diffusion front indicated by:
X = (2Dt)0.5

2.1

Where X is the depth of penetration in mm, D is the diffusion coefficient in mm2 per
year and t equals time in years. Since carbonation has been identified as the principle
agent of degradation, a comparison of the different diffusion phenomena will not be
attempted.(49)
Irrespective of the type of cement, the greater the coefficient of permeability the
greater the depth of carbonation.(6) Carbonation may not be harmful to the concrete
directly but it increases the shrinkage and lowers the alkalinity or pH of the concrete.
This reduction of pH by carbonation destroys the protective passivation film around
the steel reinforcing. This loss of passivation protection, in the presence of moisture
and oxygen, promotes ideal conditions for steel reinforcement corrosion.(3)
The following simplified chemical process explains the reduction of concrete
alkalinity:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

2.2

The chemical reaction may occur in three phases. In the first phase CO2 diffuses
inwards. In the second phase CO2 reacts with H2O molecules while in the third phase
the resultant carbonic acid reacts with the alkaline components of the carbonate. CO2
rapidly reacts with hydroxides and it cannot move past the uncarbonated concrete
until all the hydroxide is converted, resulting in a sharply defined carbonation front.
As carbonation proceeds, the carbonation layer becomes thicker and less permeable
than the original concrete. The distance that the CO2 must diffuse to meet the
hydroxide is increased and the carbonated zone gives more resistance to gas flow.(50)
Engineers specify a minimum required amount of concrete cover over reinforcing
steel, assuming that the small depth of carbonated concrete will fall far short of the
steel, during the expected life of the structure. The depth of carbonation reached in
good quality Portland cement concrete is usually of little importance as it rarely
exceeds the depth of concrete cover required by building codes.(51) Carbonation is

13

certainly the most neglected enemy of reinforced concrete due to its assumed
theoretical slow rate of progress. The alarming damage attributed to this form of
deterioration has not been taken seriously until recent times. This expected slow rate
is very rarely achieved in practise due to certain construction defects.(52)
As carbonation reduces the alkalinity of concrete, the protective passive environment
needed to protect the reinforcement from corrosion is destroyed. This passivation can
also be destroyed by the presence of chlorides even if the associated pore solution is
highly alkaline. Passivation lost due to chloride ions will occur at higher pH values
than the pH values required for de-passivation due to carbonation. The pH value at
which the passivation is lost largely depends on the chloride ion concentration.(53, 54,

55)

The harmful effect of chlorides on the durability of both concrete and reinforcement
occurs because chlorides enter the concrete either through direct or indirect exposure
to de-icing salt, exposure to marine environments, through the use of contaminated
material or contamination from other sources such as a leaking swimming pool.
Dissolved chloride in water increases the rate of leaching of portlandite, thus
increasing the porosity of the mortar and concrete. The rate and depth of chloride ion
penetration depend on the ionic diffusion coefficient defined by the permeability of
the concrete. Chloride attack causes the concrete to swell, losing its stiffness and
strength making the concrete more susceptible to other environmental attacks.(40, 53)
2.7 Cracks in concrete
All reinforced concrete structures contain cracks due to the internal stresses that arise
from the response of the constituent materials to their environment. Cracking may
occur in concrete in the plastic or hardened state. Various forms of intrinsic and
structural cracks occur in concrete as explained and summarised in Table 2.1. Cracks
are usually a symptom rather than a fault and can seriously affect the strength function
and appearance of concrete. These cracks indicated in Table 2.1 may generally be
further classified in four main classes based in terms of their effects.(55)
Class 1 cracks are cracks that indicate immediate structural distress, which could lead
to structural failure. Class 2 cracks can be identified as cracks causing corrosion.
Although no unique relationship between crack width and the onset of corrosion, it is
thought that by controlling crack widths, the rate of corrosion can also be controlled.
Cracks parallel to reinforcing steel may have been caused by the corrosion of that bar
and will widen as corrosion proceeds, with eventual spalling taking place, exposing
the corroded reinforcing steel.(55, 56)
Table 2.1.

Intrinsic and structural cracks.(30)

Type of cracking

Identificatio
n

Subdivision

Over
reinforcement
Arching
Change
of
depth
Diagonal
Random

Plastic settlement
B
C
Plastic shrinkage

D
E

Most
common
location
Deep sections
Top of columns
Trough and waffle
slabs
Roads and slabs
Reinforced concrete
slabs

14

Primary cause,
excluding
restraint
Excess bleeding

Secondary
causes
/
factors
Rapid early
drying
conditions

Time
appearance

of

Rapid early
drying

Low rate of
bleeding

Thirty minutes to six

hours

Ten minutes to three

hours

F
Early thermal
contraction

G
H

Long term drying

shrinkage

Crazing

J
K

Corrosion
of
reinforcement

L
M

Alkali-aggregate
reaction

Over
reinforcement
External
restraints
Internal
restraints

Reinforced
slabs
Thick walls

concrete

Thick slabs
Thin slabs and walls

Against
formwork
Floated
concrete
Natural
Calcium
chloride

Fair faced concrete

Slabs
Columns and beams
Pre-cast concrete
Damp locations

Ditto plus steel

near surface
Excess heat
generation
Excess
temperature
gradients
Inefficient
joints
Impermeable
formwork
Over-trowling

Rapid
cooling

One day to two to

three weeks

Excess
shrinkage
Inefficient
curing
Rich mixes
Poor curing

Several
months

Lack of cover
Poor
Excess calcium quality
concrete
chloride
Reactive aggregate plus high
alkali cement

weeks

One to seven days,

sometimes
much
later
More than two years

More than five years

Class 3 cracks can be defined as cracks that affect the functioning of the structure
especially when cracks in this class allow liquid retaining structures to leak.(30) Class 4
cracks are defined as cracks that affect the appearance of the concrete surface.
Defining an acceptable crack width based on an aesthetic basis is extremely difficult,
as various previous attempts have indicated that there is no rational basis for aesthetic
decisions. Objections to aesthetic cracks can be summarised as follows:
Cracks cause alarm about the safety of the structure.
Cracks lower the visual acceptance of the structure by modifying the surface
textures, damaging the visual effect intended by the designer and by giving an
appearance of cheapness or bad building quality.(57, 58, 59)

15

or

Continued deterioration may also lead to further cracking of the concrete due to
expansive forces initiated by corrosion of reinforcement. These cracks will have
considerable influence on the transport of substance into the concrete.(22) Class 2 and
Class 4 cracks are the most relevant for this study as carbonation depths increase at
cracks as indicated in Figure 2.4. One of the main concerns pertaining to the RAU
buildings is the aesthetical appearance of its off shutter finish. The RAU
environmental conditions can be classified as mild when considering the widespread
shallow spalling that has become evident in the last five years. This statement is
supported by the fact that little evidence is available of serious area reducing
corrosion of reinforcing steel bearing in mind that the structure is nearly 30 years old
with prevailing unacceptable concrete cover.

Figure 2.4.

Increase in carbonation depth attacks.(32)

2.8 Corrosion of reinforcement

Cement paste within freshly cast concrete is highly alkaline with a pH greater than
12.5. The alkalinity is derived from calcium hydroxide and other compounds that are
products of the hydration reaction of cement. This inherent high alkalinity of concrete
protects embedded reinforcing steel from corrosion by causing a passive and noncorroding protective oxide film to form on the steel surface. The oxide layer prevents
propagation of corrosion through a phenomenon called passivation. Concrete protects
the steel further by providing a physical barrier against agents that promote corrosion
such as water, oxygen and chlorides. Protection of the passive layer can rapidly
disappear when there is insufficient concrete cover to the embedded reinforcement or
if the concrete is of a high permeability enabling salts, oxygen, moisture or carbon
dioxide to penetrate the concrete cover.
Any unprotected steel exposed to water and oxygen will corrode at a rate influenced
by other chemical substances in the surrounding environment. Exactly the same can
be said for reinforcing steel used in concrete. In normal concrete structures exposed to
the environment, corrosion of reinforcement takes place only when changes occur in
the concrete surrounding the steel. The changes may either be physical or chemical.
Physical changes include cracking and disintegration, exposing part of the steel
surface to open air and leaving it without the physical and chemical protection of the
16

concrete. Chemical changes taking place in the concrete surrounding the steel include
carbonation and the penetration of aggressive ions and the effects thereof as indicated
in Figure 2.5.(23)

Figure 2.5.

Fault tree for the corrosion of reinforcement.(23)

Corrosion of steel reinforcing in concrete occurs when carbonation or the presence of

chlorides has reduced the steel passivation to such a level that the electrochemical
corrosion process can take place. Steel corrosion in any environment is a process that
involves the progressive removal of atoms of iron (Fe) from the steel being corroded.
The electrochemical reaction removes the iron by dissolving it in the surrounding
water solution as ferrous (Fe2+) ions finally converting the metallic iron to hydrated
ferric oxide. In steel embedded in concrete this dissolution takes place in the limited
volume of water solution present in the pores of the concrete surrounding the steel,
resulting in a loss of steel mass and associated loss of cross-section of steel
reinforcement.(60) The stress on the remaining load-bearing cross-section will
necessarily increase for steel that forms part of reinforced structure under load. In
extreme cases such a stress increase may impose a safety risk or may even lead to
failure highlighting the obvious risk associated with steel corrosion in concrete.(61, 62)
The electrochemical process of corrosion involving chemical reactions as well as the
flow of electric current is well known and thoroughly researched. Additional
information regarding the corrosion process may be found in the references listed in
the back of this thesis. Corrosion rate is dependent on the electrical resistance of the
circuit and the relative sizes of the anodic and cathodic areas. The most harmful
situation will be that of a small anode and a large cathode because the corrosion will
then be concentrated in a small area. Adequate oxygen supply also plays an important
role with regards to the corrosion rate as can clearly be seen from the limited
corrosion taking place on steel permanently placed in water.(63, 64, 65)

17

Unhydrated ferric oxide Fe2O3 has a volume of about twice that of the steel it replaces
when fully dense but expands further and becomes more porous when it is hydrated.
This relates to a volume increase at the steel concrete interface of between two and
ten fold. This volume increase leads to the cracking and spalling observed as the usual
consequence of corrosion of steel in concrete with the associated red/brown flaky rust
on the reinforcing steel or the rust stains seen at cracks in the concrete indicated in
Figure 2.6.(32, 66)

Figure 2.6.

Corrosion of reinforcement and resulting cracking.(32)

2.9 Spalling
Cracking and spalling of the concrete cover caused by reinforcement corrosion
usually occurs long before there is any significant loss of cross section of the
reinforcing steel and is usually considered as an early warning sign rather than an
indication that the structure is in danger of imminent collapse. In extreme cases, such
as very extensive spalling of concrete or where the reinforcement is particularly badly
corroded, the structural implications of the reduction in cross section of the concrete
and steel have to be considered.(67, 68)
Most problems related to the corrosion of steels in concrete are not due to the loss of
steel but due to the growth of the oxide, which leads to cracking and spalling of the
concrete cover. Structural collapse of reinforced structures due to corrosion are rare
while the injuries caused by falling pieces of cover concrete has led to the building of
metal canopies around the lower floors of high rise buildings where corrosion has led
to the risk of falling concrete. Investigators are then able to collect the fallen concrete
at regular intervals to weigh it in order to determine if the corrosion rate is stable,
increasing or decreasing.(62, 69)
2.10 Concluding remarks
This chapter provides valuable information regarding the origins and history of
cement as well as the use thereof in the creation of concrete. Concrete has played a
very important role in the construction of infrastructure as is shown in this chapter.
This chapter further investigates the introduction of steel reinforcing into concrete and
the role thereof in concrete degradation and associated durability problems.
Although many different standards and specifications have been established to
effectively design concrete structures, the framework of design codes has caused
certain durability problems. This is because the main purpose of design was structural
safety while the degradation of structures over a period of time was not regarded as a
serious problem. It is now quite obvious that structural design and durability design

18

should be rationally integrated to comply to the ever rising needs of the construction
industry, building owners and the building users.(70)
The inclusion of durability requirements in national codes and standards is probably
the surest way to get uniform acceptance of these requirements by both designers and
constructors. There is a definite need for shorter code and standard revision cycles,
including more definition of the environment in which a concrete structure will have
to perform. Realistic service life requirements are needed for every structure with an
emphasis on the performance criteria based on the transport properties of concrete as
the ingress of the environment into the concrete is the major problem as indicated
throughout this chapter.(71)
Combinations of both performance and prescriptive specifications are necessary to
ensure adequate durability. It is suggested that concrete performance should be
evaluated using national standards whenever possible instead of using the vast array
of test proposed by many different researchers. The need to include the durability
considerations into the project planning is essential and changes in the education
process, both at the university level and for experienced engineers would help remove
resistance to changes in the design process. Close collaboration of the designers and
the constructors is needed in view of eliminating structural details that could lead to
durability problems. Rigorous quality control and quality assurance on projects are
required to ensure satisfactory durability in the future.(71)
These actions will unfortunately be too late for many buildings that are currently in
the process of degradation and continually deteriorating with time. Although
prevention is better than cure, certain measures need to taken as a matter of urgency
to prevent further damage to existing structures by providing a repair methodology.
Chapter 3 is therefore devoted to investigating concrete repair methodology, repair
materials and repair techniques.

19