Pipe Stress Analysis

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Table of Contents
1

Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7

19

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

19
20
24
29
31
32
32

Introduction
Material properties
Material classification system and specifications
Piping specifications
Material selection
Quality control, testing and material certification
Summary

Codes Governing Piping Design and Pipe Stress Analysis

33

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

33
34
35
36

3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10

Philosophy, objectives and intent of piping codes

Role and scope of piping codes
Information available from piping codes
ASME B31.3 Process Piping
ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid
Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Systems
Other ASME B31 Codes
AS 4041 2006: Pressure piping
Codes governing long distance pipelines
Summary

Principal Stresses and Failure Theories

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

1
2
3
6
12
15
17

Piping Materials

3.6

Need for stress analysis in piping systems

Consequences of overstressing in piping systems
Fundamental physical parameters used in stress analysis
Physical quantities and units used in pipe stress analysis
Tensile testing and stress-strain curves
Thermal effects and flexibility of piping systems
Summary

Longitudinal, Circumferential and Radial stresses in pipe

walls
Principal axes and Principal stresses
Failure theories
Maximum Principal stress failure theory
Maximum Shear stress failure theory
Shear strain energy theory
Maximum strain energy theory
Summary

37
38
39
39
41
42

45
45
48
49
49
49
50
51
51

Design Conditions and Allowable Stresses

53

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

53
54
56
57
60

Design pressure and design temperature

Basis for code allowable stresses
Allowable stress data
Primary and secondary stresses
Summary

Design of Pipe Wall Thickness for Internal Pressure

63

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

63
67
69
69
71

Loads on Piping Systems and Code Criteria for Design

73

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10

73
74
74
74
75
75
76
78
78
80

81

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8

Stresses due to thermal expansion and contraction

Thermal expansion and contraction of materials
Thermal fatigue and cyclic stress reduction factor
Design criteria for expansion stress
Code allowable stress range for thermal expansion
Flexibility and stress intensification factors (SIF)
Calculation of expansion stress range
Summary of code requirements for safe design of piping
systems
Summary

81
82
84
85
86
86
88

Pipe Stress Analysis SoftwareIntroduction to CAESAR II

93

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8

10

Primary and secondary loads

Self-limiting and non self-limiting characteristics of loads
Sustained and Occasional loads
Static and dynamic loads
Load cases used in stress analysis calculations
Bending stresses in pipes
Total longitudinal stress in pipes
Torsional stress in pipes
Code criteria for design
Summary

Thermal Stresses in Piping Systems

8.9

Wall thickness design equations

Maximum allowable working pressure
Pressure-temperature class ratings for flanges
Determination of pressure class ratings for flanges
Summary

91
91

Introduction to pipe stress analysis software

93
Overview of CAESAR II stress analysis software
94
Piping input spreadsheet and creation of the stress model 95
Static analysis
97
Dynamic analysis
98
Building the load cases and running the analysis
99
Output and Results
100
Summary
103

CAESAR II Practical Exercises

105

Appendix A: Exercises

109

Appendix B: Answers to Exercises

115

Appendix C: Practical Problems

117

Appendix D: Answers to Practical Problems

119

Appendix E: Pipe Data and Fitting Dimensions

125

Preface
Piping and piping components are subjected to different types of stresses just like other
mechanical components. Overstressing can result in premature failure of piping and piping
components and it is therefore important to ensure that piping stresses are kept within
allowable limits. This is precisely why piping systems are subjected to stress analysis. Piping
stress analysis involves those calculations that address static and dynamic loading in piping
that result from various factors such as internal and external pressures, changes in temperature
and fluid flow rate and changes due to gravity and seismic activity, to name a few. There are
various codes and standards that establish the minimum requirements for carrying out stress
analysis in piping. Some of the important parameters that can be addressed through stress
analysis include piping safety, safety of related components and connected equipment, piping
deflection etc.
Material selection is quite critical to ensuring the efficiency and long service life of piping
systems. Selection of appropriate piping material ensures the safety and integrity of piping
systems. In this context, it is essential that a clear understanding of various material properties
such as hardness, strength and toughness be obtained. Aiding in the process of material
selection are the various material classification systems and standard piping specifications and
classes.
Piping codes define requirements regarding design, fabrication, materials, tests and inspection
of pipes and piping systems, while piping standards define application design and
construction rules and requirements for piping components such as flanges, elbows, tees,
valves etc. Piping design and stress analysis are governed by important piping codes such as
ASME B31.3, ASME B31.4, ASME B 31.8 and AS 4041-2006. The intent and scope of these
codes must be properly understood, since they provide guidelines for safe design and
construction of piping, fabrication, material use and testing and inspection criteria.
Another very important aspect of piping stress analysis is to understand the fundamentals
related to pipe stresses and more specifically the principal stresses that include longitudinal,
tangential and radial stresses. In order to predict the load levels that a structure can actually
withstand, the stress values must be used in conjunction with failure criteria that are further
defined by failure theories of the likes of maximum principal stress and maximum shear stress
theories.
After the system functions, service conditions, materials and codes have been finalized, the
design conditions of pressure and temperature must be established. These refer to the
conditions that the system will work under, during its design life. This data is further used to
calculate parameters such as piping stresses and piping wall thickness. Allowable stresses can
be determined from data available in codes. It is obvious that the calculated stresses for a
system at design conditions should be below code allowable limits.
Another important aspect of piping design is the calculation of pipe wall thickness. This
assumes great significance considering that the pipe wall must have sufficient thickness to
overcome the internal pressure that is generated. Maximum allowable working pressure is
another critical parameter related to piping design. Various code equations are employed in
order to determine this pressure for a given pipe wall thickness. Also, piping flanges in a
piping system are subjected to various forces during operation and must therefore possess the
required diameter and thickness to withstand the same. Piping flanges are categorized under

different classes, based on their ability to withstand a given pressure at set temperature
conditions.
Piping systems are subjected to different load types. These various load cases are taken into
account, when calculating the stresses in a piping system. The nomenclature and terminology
used in describing the different load cases are explained during the course of the discussion
and this is the same as the one used in the CAESAR II stress analysis program.
Piping systems experience thermal stresses on account of thermal expansion and contraction.
These are caused due to restraints present in the system. They are cyclical in nature and may
lead to fatigue and ultimate failure of the piping component. Calculations involving thermal
stresses must take into account the stress reduction and stress intensification factors and these
are adequately explained in the manual.
In view of the wide variety of loads that piping systems are subjected to and also taking into
account their various sizes and complexities, a quick and accurate analysis is very much
essential. This is where the role of stress analysis software programs assumes importance.
There are various softwares that are used for carrying out stress analysis in piping systems,
but CAESAR II is considered the industry standard against which all others are measured and
compared. CAESAR II incorporates a wide range of capabilities and tools and these are
extensively touched upon, during the course of the discussion. To enable a better
understanding of how the software works, the various tools and procedures involved in the
creation of the stress model are outlined along with a detailed discussion on the procedures
adopted to run the analysis and ways of interpreting the output and results.

1
Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis

This chapter provides a brief introduction to pipe stress analysis and explains the need for stress
analysis in piping systems. The phenomenon of overstressing in piping systems and its
consequences are touched upon in detail. An attempt is also made to obtain a clear understanding
of the fundamental physical parameters used in stress analysis such as force, stress and strain and
modulus of elasticity. Details of the various physical quantities and units used in pipe stress
analysis are also discussed along with a description of the concepts of tensile testing and yield
strength of materials. The various aspects related to the thermal expansion / contraction and
flexibility of piping systems are also adequately covered during the course of the discussion.

Learning objectives

1.1

Need for stress analysis in piping systems.

Consequences of overstressing in piping systems.
Understanding of the various fundamental physical quantities used in pipe stress
analysis: Force, Stress, Strain, Modulus of Elasticity and Linear Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion.
Tensile testing of materials and Stress Strain curve.
Yield Strength of materials.
Hookes Law.
Thermal effects and flexibility of piping systems.
Practical Exercises.

Need for stress analysis in piping systems

Piping systems need to be analyzed for stresses, to ensure that the components of the system are not
overstressed. Piping systems typically consist of straight pipes, fittings (elbow, tees, reducers),
flanges, valves and accessories such as actuators. The stresses on equipment nozzles where the pipe
connects to the equipment also need to be analyzed. The pipe wall resists both the internal and
external forces experienced by the piping system. The force per unit metal area of the pipe wall is
the resulting pipe stress. The objective of pipe stress analysis is to ensure that the stresses do not
exceed allowable values specified by the design codes. Pipe stress analysis provides the necessary
techniques and methods for designing piping systems without overstressing the piping components
and the connected equipment.
Piping stress analysis applies to calculations that address the static and dynamic loading arising on
account of the effects of temperature changes, gravity, external and internal pressures and changes
in fluid flow rate.

2 Pipe Stress Analysis

Some of the important reasons why piping stress analysis is needed include:

1.2

Complying with legislation.

Ensuring that the piping is well supported and does not sag or deflect under its own weight.

Ensuring that the loads and moments imposed on the machinery as well as the vessels due
to the thermal expansion of the attached piping are not excessive.

Ensuring that deflections are kept under control when thermal and other loads are applied.

Ensuring that stresses in the pipe work in both the cold and hot conditions are below
permissible values.

Ensuring that the piping meets intended service and loading condition requirements while
optimizing the layout and support design.

Ensuring the safety of piping and piping components.

Ensuring the safety of connected equipment and supporting structures.

Consequences of overstressing in piping systems

Overstressing can lead to premature failure of the piping system, causing leaks and safety hazards.
Overstressing can lead to cracks, breakages and other secondary failures and failures such as
bowing and opening of flanges. In some cases, the failure can be catastrophic, causing the collapse
of the system and with the potential for loss of life and property. Some situations may even require
the entire plant to be shut down. Thus, the objective of pipe stress analysis is to ensure the safe
operation of piping systems within a plant, while simultaneously meeting the performance
requirements of the plant.
Overstressing in piping can result in the following:
-

Permanent deformation of the piping.

Cracking and breakage of piping.

Degradation of material with time.

Higher creep rate resulting in premature piping failure.

Excessive plastic deformation leading to failure.

Fatigue related failures due to cyclic loading.

In general, overstressing can result from many different sources. Common examples include
inadequate input such as insufficient pipe thickness, over-constraint, excessive thermal expansion
or presence of other loads. The remedy for overstressing can be both, to add or in certain instances
remove constraints such as releasing degrees of freedom of pipe supports or hangers. Although this
process is often carried out on a trial and error basis, major piping layout related problems can
usually be anticipated by experienced piping engineers during the design stage itself.

Introduction

1.3

Fundamental physical parameters used in stress analysis: Force,

stress, strain, modulus of elasticity and linear coefficient of
thermal expansion

1.3.1

Force

Force is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction. It can be defined as a push or pull
on an object resulting from its interaction with another object. Force is no longer experienced when
this interaction ceases. Piping systems experience both tensile and compressive forces. Forces
experienced by piping systems are also known as piping loads. Commonly used units for force
are: Newton (N), kilogram force (kgf) and pound force (lbf). The units of force are explained here.
Newton is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram-mass at 1 m/s2. Thus,

1 N = 1 kg m 1

m
s2

Kilogram force is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram-mass at 9.81 m/s2. Thus,

1 kg f = 1 kg m 9.81

m
s2

Pound force is the force required to accelerate a one pound-mass at 32.2 ft/s2. Thus,

1 lbf = 1 lb m 32.2

ft
sec 2

The definition of pound force creates a need for using the conversion constant gc while performing
calculations in the US Customary System (USCS).

gc =

32.2 lbm-ft
lbf-sec 2

The conversion factors for force units are:

1 kgf = 9.81 N
1 kgf = 2.205 lbf
1 lbf = 4.4462 N
The concept of force can be better understood with the help of the following exercise.

Sample Exercise
Problem
A 5 kg .object is moving horizontally at a speed of 10m/sec. Determine the Net force required to
keep the object moving at this speed and in the same direction.

4 Pipe Stress Analysis

Solution
Zero N. This is because, an object in motion will maintain its state of motion and the presence of
an unbalanced force results in a change in its velocity.

1.3.2

Engineering stress
Engineering stress S is the force per unit area of the metal cross section. A stress may be normal,
shear or torsion, leading to corresponding deformations. While stress cannot be measured directly,
deformations can be measured.
Units for engineering stress:
N/m2 (Pascal, Pa)
lbf/in2 (psi)
kgf/cm2
Commonly used units for stress:
Kilo pounds per square inch (ksi) = 103 psi
Megapascals (MPa) = 106 Pa
Commonly used conversion factors for stress:
1 lbf/in2 (psi) = 0.0703 kgf/cm2 = 6.896 kPa
1 lbf/in2 (psi) = 6.896 kPa
1 MPa = 145 psi
1 ksi = 6.88 MPa

1.3.3

Deformation of materials and engineering strain

When the elements of materials are subjected to tensile or compressive loads, they undergo small
deformations. These deformations can be elastic or plastic. Within the elastic limit, the
deformation is elastic, i.e. the material springs back to its original shape when the load is
removed. Thus, elastic deformation is temporary in nature and exists only when the load is present.
After the material begins to yield, the deformation is permanent and remains even after the load is
removed. This is called plastic deformation. Figure illustrates the manner in which deformation
of a material occurs, when it is subjected to tensile and compressive loads.

Introduction

Load, P

Load, P

L/2

L/2

Lo

Area
Ao

Lo

Area
Ao

L/2

L/2

P
Tension

Compression
Figure 1.1
Deformation of a material when subjected to tensile and compressive loads

Engineering strain is the change in length divided by the original length, i.e.

L
Lo

Where
L is the change in length
Lo is the original length
Units of strain: in/in or mm/mm.
While an object in tension has resulting tensile strain, an object in compression has resulting
compressive strain. The above equation for strain is only valid if the deformation of the object is
uniform throughout its volume.

1.3.4

Modulus of elasticity (E)

Modulus of Elasticity E is a material property that is indicative of the strength of the material. The
modulus of elasticity values for steel and aluminum are given here. The values indicate that steel is
about three times stronger than aluminum.
Esteel = 30 x 106 psi = 2.07 x 105 MPa
Ealuminum = 10 x 106 psi = 0.70 x 105 MPa
The modulus of elasticity of materials decreases with increase in temperature. This is due to the
thermal expansion of materials. At higher temperatures, thermal expansion results in a lesser force
being required to cause a given amount of strain, resulting in a lower modulus of elasticity. The

6 Pipe Stress Analysis

modulus of elasticity for different materials and at various temperatures is listed in Table 1.1.
Modulus of elasticity is also referred to as Youngs Modulus.
Table 1.1
Modulus of Elasticity of Different Materials at Various Temperatures
(Modulus of Elasticity is given in 105 MPa. The values in parenthesis are in 106 psi)

Material

1.4

-130C

20C

260C

540C

810C

(-203F)

(68F)

(500F)

(1004F)

(1490F)

Carbon steels (<3% C)

2.03
(29.5)

1.92
(27.9)

1.82
(26.4)

1.06
(15.4)

Low, Intermediate alloy

steels

1.96
(28.5)

1.88
(27.4)

1.79
(26.0)

1.57
(22.8)

Austenitic stainless steels

2.06
(29.9)

1.95
(28.3)

1.80
(26.1)

1.56
(22.7)

1.23
(17.9)

Monel
(67Ni, 30Cu)

1.83
(26.6)

1.79
(26.0)

1.75
(25.4)

1.10
(16.0)

Cupro-Nickel
(70Cu, 30Ni)

1.49
(21.6)

1.40
(20.3)

Aluminum
Alloys

0.750
(10.9)

0.695
(10.1)

0.530
(7.7)

Copper

1.15
(16.7)

1.10
(16.0)

1.01
(14.7)

Brass
(66Cu, 34Zn)

1.01
(14.7)

0.963
(14.0)

0.874
(12.7)

Bronze
(88Cu, 6Sn, 4.5Zn, 1.5Pb)

0.945
(13.8)

0.894
(13.0)

0.805
(11.7)

Physical quantities and units used in pipe stress analysis

The different physical quantities of force, stress, strain, modulus of elasticity and their respective
units have already been discussed. Let us go ahead and discuss some of the other physical
quantities used in pipe stress analysis.

Introduction

1.4.1

Density ()
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. It is represented by the symbol . Density
for a given substance can be calculated from the following equation,
Density () = Mass of the substance (m) / Volume of the substance (V)
Density has the units, lbm/ft3 or kg/m3.
If equal masses of cotton and lead are taken (say 1 kg each), we will find that the volume of cotton
is much larger than the volume of lead. This is because lead is heavier (denser) than cotton. The
particles of lead are closely packed while those of cotton are more diffused.
Density tends to change with change in temperature.

1.4.2

Specific Gravity (SG)

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some
standard substance. The standard substance is usually water (at 4C) for liquids and solids, while
for gases it is usually air. Specific gravity is also known as Relative Density.
Relative density for liquids and solids (s) = Density of substance
Density of water at 4C
Relative density for gases (s) =

Density of substance
Density of air

Density of substance = Density of water at 4C Relative density of liquid or solid

i.e.:

(for liquids and solids) = 1000 s and

(for gases) = 1.29 s

Specific gravity is a dimensionless number.

1.4.3

Specific Weight ()

The specific weight of a substance is the weight per unit volume. It has units of kN/m3 or kgf/m3 or
lbf/ft3. The specific weight of water at standard conditions is 9.81 kN/m3 or 1000 kgf/m3 or 62.4
lbf/ft3. The specific weight of any substance is the product of the specific gravity of the substance
and the specific weight of water at standard conditions.

8 Pipe Stress Analysis

Table 1.2
Specific Gravity, Density and Specific Weights of Materials

Material

1.4.4

Specific
Gravity

Density
kg/m3

Density
lbm/ft3

CS (<0.3% C)

7.84

7840

Intermediate Alloy
Steels (5% Cr, Mo
to 9% Cr, Mo)

7.84

Austenetic
Stainless Steel

489

Specific
Weight
kN/m3
76.91

Specific
Weight
kgf/m3
7840

Specific
Weight
lbf/m3
489

7840

489

76.91

7840

489

7.98

7980

498

78.28

7980

498

Brass (66% Cu,

34% Zn)

8.75

8750

546

85.84

8750

546

Aluminum Alloys

2.77

2770

173

27.17

2770

173

Poissons Ratio
When a material is subjected to a tensile load, it elongates. Since the volume of the material is
constant, the elongation in the longitudinal direction results in compression in the lateral direction.
Similarly, compression along the longitudinal direction is accompanied by elongation along the
lateral direction. Poissons ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain and is
mathematically represented as

= - lateral / longitudinal
In the case of a perfectly incompressible material that is deformed elastically at small strains, the
Poisson's ratio would be exactly 0.5. Most practical engineering materials have values between 0
and 0.5. While cork has a value close to 0, most steels have values around 0.3. Rubber has a value
of almost 0.5. Some materials, mostly polymer foams, have a negative Poisson's ratio. A value of
0.3 is used for most materials. Typical Poissons Ratio values for some common materials are
given in table 1.3.

Introduction

Table 1.3
Typical Poissons Ratio Values for Different Materials

Material
Rubber
Lead
Phosphor Bronze
Copper
Magnesium
Molybdenum
Magnesium alloy
Beryllium Copper
Wrought Iron
Nickel Silver
Aluminum
Clay
Zinc
Brass (70-30)
Titanium
Stainless steel 18-8
Mild steel
High carbon steel
Nickel steel
Cast steel
Glass Ceramic
Glass
Cast iron - grey
Concrete
Bronze
Cork

1.4.5

Poissons
Ratio
0.48 0.50
0.431
0.359
0.355
0.350
0.307
0.281
0.285
0.278
0.322
0.334
0.3 - 0.45
0.331
0.331
0.320
0.305
0.303
0.295
0.291
0.265
0.290
0.240
0.211
0.200
0.140
0.000

Linear coefficient of thermal expansion ()

Thermal expansion and contraction of piping systems is an important aspect of pipe stress analysis.
The Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion is useful in determining the thermal displacements
of piping systems and connected equipment.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion is defined as the thermal strain per unit degree change in
temperature. Thermal strain is the change in length (L) divided by the original length(Lo).

L
L
= o
T

in./in.
mm/mm

or
Units:

F
C

Table 1.4 gives the Thermal Expansion Coefficients for different materials.

10 Pipe Stress Analysis

Table 1.4
Thermal Expansion Coefficients for Selected Materials at 21C (70F)

(mm/mm)/C
10.93

(in./in.)/F
6.07

Intermediate Alloy Steel

5 Cr-Mo Through 9 Cr-Mo

10.30

5.73

Austenitic Stainless Steel

18 Cr-8 Ni

16.40

9.11

Copper

16.68

9.27

Aluminum

22.85

12.69

Material
Carbon and Low Alloy Steel
Through 3 Cr-Mo

Sample Exercise
Problem
A steel rod of 10 mm diameter is subjected to a tensile load of 5000 N. Calculate the following:
A. Stress in the rod.
B. If the original length of the rod is 3 m, calculate the increase in length of the rod due to the
load. The modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.03 x 105 Mpa.
Solution
A.

Cross section area of the rod =

Stress =

d 2 ( 0.01m )
4

=7.85 x 10-5 m 2

Force
Metal Area
5000 N
1 MPa

-5
2
7.85 x 10 m 106 Pa

= 63.69 MPa

B.

Strain, =

S
65.69 MPa
=
= 3.14 x 10-4 mm / mm
E 2.03 x 105 MPa

Introduction 11

Increase in length,

mm

L = ( )( Lo ) = 3.14 x 10-4
( 3000 mm ) = 0.942 mm
mm

The physical quantities used in pipe stress analysis and their units are listed in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5
Physical Quantities and Units Used in Pipe Stress Analysis

Physical
Quantity
Length
Diameter
Thickness
Mass
Weight
Time
Temperature
Area
Volume
Density
Acceleration
Force
Pressure
Stress
Strain
Work
Energy
Modulus of
Elasticity
Moment
Moment of
Inertia
Section
Modulus

Symbol

SI System

USCS

L
D
x
M
W
t
T
A
V

a
F
P
s

W
E
E

Meter (m)
Millimeter (mm)
Millimeter (mm)
Kilogram (kg)
Newtons (N)
Seconds (s)
Degree Celcius (C)
Square meter (m2)
Cubic meter (m3)
kg / m3
Meters/sec2 (m/s2)
Newton (N)
Pascal (Pa)
Megapascal (Mpa)
mm/mm
Newton-meter (N.m)
Joule (J)
MPa

Feet (ft)
Inch (in)
Inch (in)
Pound mass (lbm)
Pound force (lbf)
Seconds (sec)
Degree Farenheit (F)
Square feet (ft2)
Cubic feet (ft3)
lbm / ft3
Feet/sec2 (ft/sec2)
Pound force (lbf)
Pounds/in2 (psi)
Pounds/in2 (psi)
in/in
Foot pound force (ft-lbf)
British thermal unit (Btu)
Kilopounds / in2 (ksi)

M
I

N.m
mm4

ft-lbf
in4

mm3

in3

Unit Prefixes:
Kilo (k) = 103
Mega (M) = 106
Giga (G) = 109

Micro () = 10-6
Nano (n) = 10-9
Milli (m) = 10-3

12 Pipe Stress Analysis

1.5

Tensile testing and stress strain curves

Tensile tests are conducted on material specimens to determine material properties such as modulus
of elasticity and yield strength. The yield strength of a material is frequently used in determining
allowable stresses for piping systems. Tensile tests are conducted using procedures and guidelines
established by the American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM). Tensile tests are carried
out using Universal Testing Machine or UTM.
The result of tensile testing is a Stress Strain Curve.
ductile material such as mild steel is shown in Figure 1.2.

The stress strain curve for a typical

Figure 1.2
Stress Strain Curve for a Ductile Material (Source: Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis, Sam Kannappan, John
Wiley & Sons, 1986)

The following points can be observed from the Stress Strain Curve for the ductile material shown
in the figure.

The stress strain curve is linear until the yield point of the material. Until the yield
point of the material, the strain or deformation is elastic. Hence, yield point is known
as the elastic limit of the material. Beyond the yield point, the deformation is
plastic. The characteristics of elastic and plastic deformations have already been
described in the preceding discussion.

The stress at the yield point is known as the Yield Strength of the material.

The Allowable Stress for materials (to be discussed in detail later) at different
temperatures is a fraction of the yield strength of the material. Therefore, yield
strength forms the basis for determining the allowable stresses as per the codes.

As the load or stress is further increased beyond the yield point, the stress-strain
curve becomes non-linear. The stress continues to increase and reaches a maximum
value. The maximum stress in the stress-strain curve is known as the Ultimate

Introduction 13

Tensile Strength (UTS) of the material. Most often, the UTS of a material is simply
referred to as the Tensile Strength of the material.

Beyond the UTS, the stress decreases slightly until the point of failure, where the
material fractures. The stress at failure is known as the Fracture Strength.

Figure 1.3 illustrates the stress-strain curve for a non-ductile material such as cast iron. In the case
of a ductile material, there is significant plastic deformation after yielding and before failure. In
contrast, failure occurs without significant plastic deformation in the case of a non-ductile material.
The area under the stress-strain curve is a measure of the energy required to cause failure. It is
clear that this area is much larger for ductile materials as compared to non-ductile materials.

Figure 1.3
Stress Strain Curve for a Non-Ductile Material (Source: Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis, Sam Kannappan, John
Wiley & Sons, 1986)

1.5.1

Yield strength based on 0.2% offset

Sometimes, the results from tensile testing of materials do not exhibit a sharp, well-defined yield
point. In such cases, the 0.2% Offset Method is used in determining the yield point. This is
based on the observation that most materials can have a plastic strain of 0.2% without failing.
0.2% strain is equivalent to a strain of 0.002. The technique involving the 0.2% offset method is
illustrated in Figure 1.4. A strain value of 0.002 is used as the starting point and a line parallel to
the linear portion of the stress strain curve is drawn. The intersection of this line with the stress
strain curve gives the yield point.

14 Pipe Stress Analysis

Figure 1.4
Yield Strength Based on the 0.2% Offset Method

The Yield Strength and Tensile Strength of selected piping materials are given in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6
Yield Strength and Tensile Strength of Selected Piping Materials

TS
(ksi)

TS
(MPa)

YS
(Ksi)

YS
(MPa)

Material

Specification

Carbon Steel

A106 Gr.B

60

414

30

207

Carbon Steel

API 5L Gr.B

60

414

35

241

Carbon Steel

API 5LX Gr.X52

66

455

52

359

Low and
Intermediate
Alloy Steel

A333 Gr.3

65

448

35

241

Low and
Intermediate
Alloy Steel

A334 Gr.8

100

689

75

517

Low and
Intermediate
Alloy Steel

A369 Gr.FP1

55

379

30

207

Stainless Steel

A312 Gr.TP304

75

517

30

207

Stainless Steel

A312 Gr.TP310

75

517

30

207

Stainless Steel

A312 Gr.TP316L

70

483

25

172

Introduction 15

1.5.2

Hookes Law
This law states that
Within the elastic limit, the strain of a material is proportional to the applied stress. This can be
represented as

S
Using the reciprocal of Modulus of Elasticity as the constant of proportionality, Hookes Law can
be mathematically written as

S
E

S = E

or

From Hookes Law, it can be concluded that for a given applied stress, the engineering strain will
be lesser for a material having higher Modulus of Elasticity.
Along with this, various pipe properties such as DN (or Nominal Diameter), wall thickness and
pipe schedule play a very significant role in Stress Analysis.

Sample Exercise
Problem
A steel rod of 25 mm diameter indicates a strain of 0.001 when subjected to a tensile load. Find
the applied load. Esteel is 2.03 x 105 MPa.
Solution

S = E = (0.001)(2.03 x 105 MPa) = 203 MPa

Load = ( S)( A CS ) =

1.6

( 203 x 10

kPa ) ( / 4 )( 0.025 m ) = 99.65 kN

2

Thermal effects and flexibility of piping systems

Piping systems should have the flexibility to expand or contract as required, due to differences
between the operating and installation temperatures. This flexibility is achieved by providing loops
in the pipe routing as shown in Figure 1.5 or by providing expansion bellows as shown in Figure
1.6. The stiff piping system illustrated in Figure 1.7 lacks flexibility. This will result in
overstressing of the system due to thermal expansion.

Figure 1.5
Providing Flexibility for Piping Systems by Using Expansion Loops (Source: Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis, Sam
Kannappan, John Wiley & Sons, 1986)

16 Pipe Stress Analysis

Figure 1.6
Providing Flexibility for Piping Systems by Using Expansion Bellows (Source: Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis, Sam
Kannappan, John Wiley & Sons, 1986)

Figure 1.7
Piping System that Lacks Flexibility (Stiff Piping) (Source: Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis, Sam Kannappan, John Wiley
& Sons, 1986)

1.6.1

Calculating thermal growth

Tables in piping codes provide thermal data in the form of thermal expansion/ contraction, in
mm/m and in/100 ft, between 21C (70F) and indicated temperatures. This data is used for
determining the displacement in piping systems on account of thermal expansion/contraction. The
thermal data for common piping materials is presented in Table 1.7.
Table 1.7
Total Thermal Expansion between 21C (70F) and Indicated Temperatures for Common Piping Materials

Temperature
C
-184
-129
93
204
316
427
538
649
760

F
-300
-200
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400

Carbon Steel
mm/m

-1.90
-1.40
0.80
2.20
3.80
5.60
7.40
9.20
11.10

in./100ft

-2.24
-1.71
0.99
2.70
4.60
6.70
8.89
11.10
13.34

Inter. Alloy Steel

mm/m

in./100ft

-1.70
-1.30
0.80
2.10
3.50
5.10
6.70
8.30
10.00

-2.10
-1.62
0.94
2.50
4.24
6.10
8.06
10.00
12.05

Austenitic SS
mm/m

-3.00
-2.30
1.20
3.20
5.20
7.30
9.60
11.80
14.10

in./100ft

-3.63
-2.73
1.46
3.80
6.24
8.80
11.48
14.20
16.92

Introduction 17

Sample Exercise
Problem
The vertical leg of a piping system carrying high temperature gas is 8 m long. Calculate the
thermal growth of this pipe if the design temperature of the system is 800C. The pipe material
is Austenitic SS with a total expansion of 15 mm / m at 800C.
Solution

Thermal expansion of the vertical leg

L
=
(Length in m)
m
15 mm
=
(8 m)
m
= 120 mm or 4.72 in.

1.7

Summary
Stress analysis of piping systems is required to ensure that the system is not overstressed. If the
system experiences excessive stresses, it can fail, causing leaks and other safety problems. A good
understanding of physical quantities such as force, stress, strain and their units is essential for
performing the stress analysis.
Tensile testing of material specimens is conducted to determine important material properties such
as yield strength and modulus of elasticity. Most often, the allowable stresses specified by the
codes are based on the yield strength of the material. Piping systems also need to be configured to
handle thermal expansion or contraction. It is important to understand that lack of flexibility in
piping systems can result in overstressing.

18 Pipe Stress Analysis