Introduction Albert Hourani

notes:

3 November 2011

Turkey, Iran, & Israel & the Arab states from Egypt eastwards (unity of historical
experience)
region where Islam first appeared, developed a distinctive society
formed new links between countries of Indian Ocean and Med.
Greek & Persian art and thought given new forms
acceptance of the Islam religion & Arabic as the language of high culture
-

Ottomans (West)
Sunni Islam

Safevids (East)
Shiism

New technology: consequent accumulation of greater resources

- international trade
- new kinds of communication
- education
- new forms of administration & law
history of Muslim societies which have their own inherited norms of behavior.
foreign powers impose an artificial order upon society
ulama - those who study, transmit, interpret & administer the sharia (only formal
legal system)
- held the keys of legitimacy: recognizing him as a just Muslim ruler -> turn power
into legitimate authority.
Some provinces -> Saida in Syria, Baghdad in Iraq, and Cairo
- power was in the hands of the local military groups (mamluks)
Central Arabia - Al Saud
- founded a state which expanded to include much of the Arabian peninsula
- religious reformer: Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab
- return to purity of the first century of Islam
- rejected the kind of Islam which the Ottomans supported.
- beg. 19thC -> Saudi ruler occupied the holy cities of Mecca and Medina
Iran: rule of the Safavids ended in early 18thC
- brief attempt at unification: Nadir Shah - expanded rule to Iraq & N. India ended
when he died
Last 1/4 of 18thC: relations bet. the Middle East and Europe were changing.
Russia expanded to the Black Sea
-

1774: War with Ottoman empire ended with treaty (loss of Muslim territory - the
Crimea)
East: British East India Company took over Bengal (province of 3rd Muslim
Empire: Mughals) & extending influence to the Persian Gulf & Southern Iraq
1830s onwards: goods carried by steamships
1850s + 60s: extension of telegraph brought Middle East closer to Europe &
America
Middle East countries produce raw materials for factories in Europe (ex: highgrade cotton - Egypt 1830s onward) - able to pay for imported goods
-

New idea of nationalism (ex: Greece independence 1833)

freedom of action of the central govt was limited
countries under Ottoman control: former ruling dynasties were eliminated but
urban notables continued to be influencial
1860 till outbreak of WWI
- new methods of communication - railways, telegraphs & steamships
- establish direct administration at the expense of local chieftains
- 1869: opening of the Suez Canal & building of the Hijaz (early 20thC) railway
made possible for Ottomans to extend to Hijaz and Yemen
Finance changes: indigenous govt fell into debt to Eur. bankers (supported by
govt)
Egypt: the imposition of rule by Great Britain
Suez Canal: communication with India, East Asia and Australia
1882: Britain occupied Egypt and continued south to Sudan
1881: France occupied Tunisia
1912: France established protectorate over kingdom of Morocco
1911: Italy occupied Ottoman province Tripoli (Libya)
-

Ottoman govt maintained some freedom of action in central provinces. But Eur.
powers all expressed interest in various areas.
discovery of oil in Iran: Britain had new interest in the country
1914: British govt had controlling interest in Anglo-Persian Oil Company
-

New Element:
modern education: what was happening in the outside world
Govts creating network of schools & American + European religious missions
also established schools

higher colleges & schools for girls

Printing becoming widespread - translations or adaptations from Eur. literature
newspapers & periodicals - news from outside world (more influential than books)

Ottoman Nation
- developed in 2 directions
- toward constitution & control by ppl
- idea of Islamic unity around Ottoman sultan
1876: constitution granted (but soon suspended) and restored after revolution
(1908)
1906: Iran granted constitution
1914: most Eur. powers absorbed into nation-states
WWI: Ottomans sided with Germany & Austria-Hungary
1914: Britain made Egypt a protectorate
League of Nations (mandate system)
- French: Syria & Lebanon
- British: Iraq, Palestine & Transjordan (special obligation to Palestine - facilitate
creation of a Jewish national Home
- Anatolia & area surrounding Istanbul became Turkey
- Arabian Peninsula: Hijaz & Yemen became independent states.
- 1920s: Hijaz absorbed in Saudi Arabia
Turkey:
- only one fully independent
- began policy of radical change - national state
- main ethnic minorities: Greeks & Armenians eliminated (massacre & expulsion)
- to be a secular state - principles of modern civilization of Eur.
- deriving laws from popular will & national inerest
- acquire strength through industrialization, national education & emancipation of
women.
Egypt:
- Britain reached agreement with nationalist party: Wafd - treaty 1936
- recognized independence but preserved British military presence for some
years.
Similar treaty with Iraq
French tried with Syria & Lebanon but failed because of weak French govt
Palestine: impossible because of the British commitment to a Jewish national
home

1930s: rise in German & Italian power challenged British & French control in
Middle East
WWII:
- Syria occupied by British & Free French forces (fear of Germany & Italy)
- Italian & German threats to British position in Egypt (defeated: 1943)
- Iraq: similar fear led to British military occupation
- Turkey remained neutral
- Iran (neutral) - important channel of communication bet. Western Allies &
Russia: occupied by British & Russian armies
-

landowners & merchants - strengthened by increased control of govt over

society. spread of education - expanding middle class (professional men & women)
- dominated nationalist movements against foreign rule
Turkey & Egypt: modern industry expanding.
- population expansion (many ppl moving to the cities)
Saudi Arabia & Yemen:
- new changes imminent - oil resources around the Gulf became more important
in economic life of the world.
- after 1945 exploitation of wells in Kuwait & the east of Saudi Arabia began on a
considerable scale.
- increasing strategic interest by Eur. & USA
- royalties to producing countries made economic development possible &
training technicians added new element to the educated class.
Nationalism: creation of independent states
- Some Arab countries (not Egypt): idea of reuniting former Ottoman provinces.
- end of WWII: creation of a League of Arab States
- Saudi Arabis: state based on strict version of Islam
- Egypt: emergence of the Muslim Brothers (lower ranks of urban literate pop.)
- Iran: Shii ulama still had great influence but were no longer centre of political
power
- Turkey: ulama disappeared.
1946: France withdrew from Syria & Lebanon.
1948: Britain withdrew from Palestine
1953: Iranian nationalization of oil company was thwarted by Anglo-American
intervention
1956: nationalization of the Suez Canal Company
1958: Iraqi revolution ended monarchy & British ultimate domination
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2 factors dominated changes in society

1.
rapid growth of population everywhere (better public heath & medical services &
changes in patterns of marriages and child-bearing)
Important consequences:
exodus of pop. from countryside
change in age- structure (majority under 20) had implications for views of past
and expectations of the future
2.
rapid and vast expansion of the oil industry
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates and others
Iran & Iraq: large proportion of known oil reserves
1970s: strong cartel (OPEC) - influence over prices, producing wealth
shift in power: those countries who had oil and those who did not.
large scale migration to the richer countries which needed labour (Yemenis,
Egyptians and Palestinians moved to Saudi Arabia and other states in the Gulf)
Socialism
became important together with nationalism
social justice, national strength & genuine independence
control of the productive resources of the state by the govt
devision of wealth -> greater equality. (lol)
Nasirism: Arab unity, socialism & neutralism
1970s: 2 major changes
rejection (Egypt & other Arab countries) of tendency towards state control of
economic life. Anwar Sadat: made peace with Israel in exchange for land.
1979: downfall of autocratic govt of the Shah in Iran. Repercussions in Islamic
world. Overthrown by mass uprising. Restore Islamic law and social morality in society.
Leader: Ruhullah Khomeini (became head of govt)
Fundamentalism or Islamic Conservatism: preserve moral heritage of the past
and relate change to unchanging principles. Social justice for the poor and hostility to
the super-powers.
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1980-1988: war between Iran & Iraq ended in military stalemate.

Iraq gained a lot of military strength - occupied Kuwait
threat to 2 interests of USA: security of Saudi Arabia & Israel