A

PROJECT
ON

ISLAMIC
CULTURE

YEAR: - 2009

ANJUMAN-I-ISLAMS
AKBAR PEERBHOY COLLEGE

MUMBAI
Group members

roll no

1). AVEZ QURESHI

29

2). AWAIS ANSARI

02

3). KHAN SHADAB

17

4). ABDUL MUTALLIB

35

5). MEHRAJ SHAIKH

37

6). HARDICK KHANDHAR

20

7). SAYYED WASIM

33

8). ANSARI SIDDIQUE

07

9). ASIF SHAIKH

26

Professors name:
MRS. SEGUE RATAN KAUR
Year 2009

Preface

This project of ISLAMIC CULTURE submitted by students of

S.Y.BMM in partial fulfillments for the syllabus of history subject in the
academic year 2009.
Thus considering the enthusiasm for activity of students of this age
group and many opportunities for learning through laborious work has
been provided in this project. This project has also been designed, so that
the activities and project provide useful information bringing about the
students potential as well as skills in the field of culture.
This project was assessed by many friends, professors and internet
websites and thus it is flawless and useful as possible.
We hope that this project will receive a warm welcome from teachers,
students and university professors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to articulate my profound gratitude

and indebtedness to my project Guide MRS. SEGUE
RATAN KAUR who has always been a constant
motivation and guiding factor throughout the project
time in and out as well. It has been a great pleasure
for me to get a opportunity to work under him and
complete the project successfully.
An undertaking of this nature could never have
been attempted with our reference, to and inspiration
from the works of others whose details are
mentioned in references Section. I acknowledge my
indebtedness to all of them. Last but not the least,
my sincere thanks to all of my friends who have
patiently extended all sorts of help for
accomplishing this undertaking.

Index

1.) Etymology and meaning

2.) Terminological disagreement
3.) Religious practices and beliefs
4.) Language,festivals,marriage and architecture in islam
5.) Use of geometric shapes and repetitive art
6.) Late Medieval and Early Modern Medicine
(Arabesque).
7.) Understanding Muslim Culture
8.) Muslim traditions
9.) Roles of men and women in Islam
10.) Muslim charity in Islam
11.) Muslim forbidden foods
12.) Muslim religious observances
13.) Religious intolerance
14.) Articles of faith
15.) Qur'an
16.) Angels
17.)

Muhammad

18.)

Resurrection and judgment

19.)

Predestination and free will

20.)

Duties and practices

21.)

Law

22.)

Religion and state

23.)

Etiquette and diet

24.)

Jihad

25.)

History

26.)

Demographics of islam

27.)

Mosques

28.)

Family life

29.)

Calendar

30.)

Denominations

Introduction
Islamic culture is a term primarily used in secular academia
to describe all cultural practices common to historically Islamic
peoples. As the religion of Islam originated in 6th century
Arabia, the early forms of Muslim culture were predominantly
Arab. With the rapid expansion of the Islamic empires, Islam
expanded and integrated much with a muslim's own culture. The
most common ones are the Persian, Turkic, Mongol, Indian,
Malay, Berber and Indonesian cultures.
Islam (Arabic: al-islm, its an, Abrahamic religion
based on the teachings of the Quran, a religious book
considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God
(Arabic: , Allh), and the Islamic prophet Muhammad's
personally demonstrated examples (collected through narration
of his companions in the volumes of Hadith) for implementing
them. The word Islam is a homograph, having multiple
meanings, and a triliteral of the word salam, which directly
translates as peace. Other meanings include submission, or the
total surrender of oneself to God (see Islam (term)). An adherent
of Islam is a Muslim, meaning "one who submits (to God)". The
word Muslim is the participle of the same verb of which Islm is
the infinitive. Muslims regard Islam as the completed and
universal version of an original monotheistic faith revealed to
peoples before, including to Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and
other prophets. Islamic tradition holds that previous messages
have changed and the revelations were distorted.

1.)

Etymology and meaning

The word Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m,
and is derived from the Arabic verb Aslama, which means "to accept, surrender or
submit." Thus, Islam means acceptance of and submission to God, and believers
must demonstrate this by worshipping him, following his commands, and avoiding
polytheism. The word is given a number of meanings in the Qur'an. In some verses
(ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God
desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam." Other verses connect islm and
dn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dn)
for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your
religion." Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God more than
just a verbal affirmation of faith. Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is
as one part of a triad of islam, imn (faith), and ihsn (excellence); where it
represents acts of worship (`ibdah) and Islamic law (sharia).

2.)

TERMINOLOGICAL DISAGREEMENT

Muslim culture is itself a contentious term. Muslims live in many different

countries and communities, and it can be difficult to isolate much that unifies them
other than the religion of Islam. However, secular macademia does not
acknowledge this distinction, since it views religion as one aspect of cultural
anthropology and history.
The noted historian of Islam, Marshall Hodgson, noted the above difficulty
of religious versus secular academic usage of the words "Islamic" and "Muslim" in
his three-volume work, The Venture Of Islam. He proposed to resolve it by only
using these terms for purely religious phenomena, and invented the term
"Islamicate" to denote all cultural aspects of historically Muslim peoples.
However, his distinction has not been widely used, and confusion remains in
common usage of these words.

3.)

Religious practices and beliefs

Islamic culture generally includes all the practices which have developed
around the religion of Islam, including Qu'ranic ones such as salah and nonQu'ranic such as divisions of the world in Islam. It includes as the Baul tradition of
Bengal, and facilitated the peaceful conversion of most of Bengal.

4.) LANGUAGE,Festivals,Marriage and

Architecture in islam
ARABIC

Early Muslim literature is in Arabic, as that was the language of

Muhammad's communities in Mecca and Medina. As the early history of the
Muslim community was focused on establishing the religion of Islam, its literary
output was religious in character. See the articles on Qur'an, Hadith, and Sirah,
which formed the earliest literature of the Muslim community.
With the establishment of the Umayyad empire, secular Muslim literature
developed. See The Book of One Thousand and One Nights. While having no
religious content, this secular literature was spread by the Arabs all over their
empires, and so became part of a widespread culture.

Festivals
See articles on Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, Ashurah (see also Hosay and
Tabuik), Mawlid, Lailat al Miraj and Shab-e-baraat.

Marriage

Marriage in Islam is considered to be of the utmost importance. The final

prophet of Islam, Muhammad, stated that "marriage is half of religion"; there are
numerous hadiths lauding the importance of marriage and family.
In Islam, marriage is a legal bond and social contract between a man and a woman
as prompted by the Shari'a.

Art
Islamic art, a part of the Islamic studies, has throughout history been mainly
abstract and decorative, portraying geometric, floral, Arabesque, and calligraphic
designs. Unlike the strong tradition of portraying the human figure in Christian art,
Islamic art does not include depictions of living things, including human beings.
The lack of portraiture is due to the fact that early Islam forbade the painting of
human beings, including Muhammad, as Muslims believe this tempts them to
engage in idolatry. This prohibition against human beings or icons is called
aniconism. Over the past two centuries, especially given increased contact with
Western civilization, this prohibition has relaxed to the point where only the most
orthodox Muslims strongly oppose portraiture.
Islamic art is centered usually around Allah, and since Allah cannot be
represented by imagery ["All you believe him to be, he is not"], geometric patterns
are used. The patterns are similar to the Arabesque style, which also involves
repeating geometric designs, but is not necessarily used to express ideals of order
and nature.
Calligraphy

Forbidden to paint living things and taught to revere the Qur'an, Islamic
artists developed Arabic calligraphy into an art form. Calligraphers have long
drawn from the Qur'an or proverbs as art, using the flowing Arabic language to
express the beauty they perceive in the verses of Qur'an.

Elements of Islamic style

Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements,

which were inherited from the first mosque built by Muhammad in Medina, as well
as from other pre-Islamic features adapted from churches and synagogues.

Large courtyards often merged with a central prayer hall (originally a feature
of the Masjid al-Nabawi).
Minarets or towers (which were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers for
example in the [[Great Mosque of Damascus]]; hence the derivation of the
word from the Arabic nur, meaning "light").*a mihrab or niche on an inside
wall indicating the direction to Mecca. This may have been derived from
previous uses of niches for the setting of the torah scrolls in Jewish
synagogues or the haikal of Coptic churches.

Domes (the earliest Islamic use of which was in the eighth century mosque
of Medina).

Use of iwans to intermediate between different sections.

5.) Use of geometric shapes and repetitive art

(Arabesque).

Use of decorative Arabic calligraphy.

Use of symmetry.

Ablution fountains.

use of bright color.

focus on the interior space of a building rather than the exterior.

Interpretation

Common interpretations of Islamic architecture include the following:

The concept of Allah's infinite power is evoked by designs with repeating

themes which suggest infinity.
Human and animal forms are rarely depicted in decorative art as Allah's
work is matchless. Foliage is a frequent motif but typically stylized or
simplified for the same reason.

Calligraphy is used to enhance the interior of a building by providing

quotations from the Qur'an.

Islamic architecture has been called the "architecture of the veil" because the
beauty lies in the inner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are not visible
from the outside (street view).

Use of impressive forms such as large domes, towering minarets, and large
courtyards are intended to convey power.

Music
Islamic music is Muslim religious music, as sung or played in public services or
private devotions. The classic heartland of Islam is Arabia and the Middle East,
North Africa and Egypt, Iran, Central Asia, and northern India and Pakistan.
Because Islam is a multicultural religion, the musical expression of its adherents is
diverse. The indigenous musical styles of these areas have shaped the devotional
music enjoyed by contemporary Muslims:

Arab classical music

Religious music in Iran

North Indian classical music.

6.) Late Medieval and Early Modern Medicine

As the Islamic world became increasingly fragmented, the patronage and
accompanying prestige and security enjoyed by the leading physicians declined.
Spain was lost, European crusaders made repeated invasions into the central lands,
and in the 13th century Mongol invasions from the east disrupted life. The Mamluk
rulers in Egypt managed to hold off the Mongol invasions, and it is no doubt for
that reason that the medical community there remained active longer than
elsewhere, with the exception of Safavid Iran.
The hospitals were dependent upon charitable endowments for their
maintenance, and with time these funds became insufficient to support them, or,
not infrequently, the lands supporting the endowment were confiscated.
Consequently, the hospitals tended to deteriorate and eventually fall into disuse,
except for a few such as the Nuri hospital in Damascus which continued to operate
as a hospital until the end of the 19th century. With the expansion of the
population, the remaining hospitals and dispensaries proved inadequate.
Nonetheless, the learned medical community remained quite productive through
the 14th century, particularly in Syria and Egypt. Within two more centuries,
however, vitality and creativity had disappeared, the medical literature had
stultified, and the practice of medicine deteriorated to the point where it no longer
represented the medieval tradition at its best. In the latter half of the 16th century,
Islamic medicine then became receptive to some of the ideas, techniques, and drug
therapies developing in Europe.
Early modern European influence can first be seen in the earliest Islamic
treatise on syphilis. This was written by `Imad al-Din Mas`ud Shirazi, a physician
at the hospital in Mashhad in northeast Iran. In his Persian treatise on syphilis
written in 1569 (977 H), he followed the European practice of advocating for its
treatment the use of China Root (Chub-chini), the rhizome of an Old World species
of Smilax found in eastern Asia. This new drug for treating a new disease was
rapidly incorporated into Arabic medical writings. For example, Da'ud al-Antaki, a
Syrian physician who died in 1599 (1008 H), included a similar description of
syphilis and China Root in his Arabic medical encyclopedia. Da'ud al-Antaki also
relied heavily upon medieval Islamic writers and earlier Greek sources, for which
he learned Greek so as to study them directly.

The illuminated opening of the Arabic treatise on Paracelsian medicine, The

Culmination of Perfection in the Treatment of the Human Body (Ghayat al-itqan fi
tadbir badan al-insan), written in the 17th century by Ibn Sallum. A provincial
Ottoman copy finished 26 October 1749 (2 Sha`ban 1162 H) by scribe Sami`
Mustafa Efendi al-Sha`ir. NLM MS A13, fol. [5b].

In the 17th century, early modern European medical theory had an impact
upon Islamic medicine through the writings of the Paracelsians, followers of
Paracelsus (d. 1541), whose `chemical medicine' employed mineral acids,
inorganic salts, and alchemical procedures in the production of remedies. Sali ibn
Nasr ibn Sallum, a physician born in Aleppo, Syria, and later court physician in
Istanbul to the Ottoman ruler Mehmet IV (ruled 1648-1687/1058-1099 H) was
greatly influenced by these writings.
Ibn Sallum incorporated into his book The Culmination of Perfection in the
Treatment of the Human Body (Ghayat al-itqan fi tadbir badan al-insan) Arabic
translations of several Latin Paracelsian writings, such as those by Oswald Croll
(d. 1609), professor of medicine at the University of Marburg, and Daniel Sennert
(d. 1637), professor of medicine at Wittenberg. Therapy was primarily a drug
therapy, with diseases explained in terms of salt, quicksilver and sulphur rather
than the Galenic theory of the balance of humors. Many of the medicaments
required distillation processes and plants that were indigenous to the New World,
such as guaiacum and sarsaparilla. The treatise not only reflects the new chemical
medicine of the European Paracelsians, but also described for the first time in
Arabic a number of `new' diseases, such as scurvy, chlorosis, anaemia, the English
sweat (a type of influenza), and plica polonica (an eastern European epidemic of
matted and crusted hair caused by infestation with lice).
Occasionally bloodletting and cautery figures, clearly derivative from
similar illustrations in medieval European manuscripts, are found in some Islamic
manuscripts of about the 17th century or later. By the 17th century it appears that
Vesalius's Latin treatise The Fabric of the Human Body (De humani corporis
fabrica) printed in 1542-3 was also known in the Safavid and Ottoman empires, for
a number of preserved ink sketches of the 17th through 19th century indicate
familiarity with illustrations from the Fabrica.

, In the 17th century not only did early modern European medical ideas filter
into the Middle East, but Europeans became interested in learning of the medical
practices then current in the Islamic world. One example is Joseph Labrosse, who
was born in Toulouse in 1636 and entered the order of Discalced Carmelites, taking
the name of Fr. Angelus of St. Joseph. In 1662 he went to Rome and studied Arabic
for two years, and then in 1664 went to Isfahan and studied Persian. While in Iran,
he used medicine as a means of propagating Christianity and in the process read
many Arabic and Persian books on medicine and "visited the houses of the learned
people of Isfahan and paid hundreds of visits to the shops of the druggists, the
pharmacists, and the chemists."

After Labrosse returned to France, he published his Pharmacopoea Persica

and a few years later a Gazophylacium linguae persarum, which was a dictionary
of Persian words with Italian, Latin and French definitions, with much attention
paid to medical terms. The Pharmacopoea Persica ex idiomate Persica in Latinum
conversa, published in Paris in 1681, consists of a Latin translation made by Father
Angelus de Sanctu Josepho (Joseph Labrosse) of a Persian book on compound
remedies by Muzaffar ibn Muhammad al-Husayni (d. 1556/663 H), with additional
comments by Labrosse.
In the middle of the 18th century the plague befell Istanbul, and the
traditional Islamic medicine seemed to do little to combat it. Consequently, the
Ottoman sultan Mustafa III ordered a Turkish translation to be made of two
treatises by Hermann Boerhaave (d. 1738), a Dutch medical reformer and advocate
of bedside instruction. The Turkish versions were completed in 1768 by the court
physician Subhi-Zade `Abd al-`Aziz with the assistance of the Imperial Austrian
interpreter Thomas von Herbert. Subhi-Zade attempted not only to translate
Boerhaave's ideas but to reconcile and harmonize them with traditional Islamic
medicine.
It was not until the 19th century that profound changes occurred in the
teaching of medicine in the Near East. In 1825 Antoine-Barthelemy Clot was
appointed surgeon-in-chief to the Egyptian army. Clot had been a physician at
Montpellier prior to coming to Egypt, and by 1828 he established a medical school
near Cairo at which French, Italian and German professors taught. In 1850 a
military medical school, the Dar al-Funun, was founded in Tehran in Iran, where
instruction was given in French by professors from Austria and Italy. A number of
European medical texts were translated into Persian at this school.

The most recent Islamic manuscript in the collections of the National

Library of Medicine is an important document for the nature of medical care in one
region of the Middle East just prior to the establishment of medical schools on a
European model. It is an autograph copy of a Miscellany on the Art of Medicine
(Khalitah fi sina`at al-tibb) completed on the 6th of January 1814 (14 Muharram
1229 H) by a North African physician Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Salawi.
Following 48 years of experience, he discussed the diseases most common in
North Africa in his day, warning against the use of some drugs approved by older
authorities and occasionally advocating the methods used by European doctors.
Then, as now, however, aspects of traditional medieval Islamic medicine
continued to coexist alongside the modern European medicine. In the late 19th
century treatises of Ibn Sina, al-Majusi, and Ibn al-Baytar, among others, were
printed at the Bulaq press in Cairo because they continued to represent a vital
tradition, which the Yunani medical colleges of Pakistan and India are continuing,
at least in part, to maintain today.

7.) Understanding Muslim Culture

Muslim culture represents the unification of all the cultures influenced by

common beliefs and practices. The guiding religious phenomena and cultural
aspects bind its people historically. The religious practices and beliefs of Muslims
are centered around the religion of Islam. The original Muslim literature is in
Arabic, the prophet's language. Most of the literature is religious in nature. It
comprises communication and documentation of the belief system from the Qur'an,
Sirah and Hadith. Secular Muslim literature developed in the Umayyad empire. It
was taken by the Arabs to distant lands and became part of a popular culture. In
due course of time, Persian became one of the main languages of the civilization.
In the sub-continent, syncretist poetry from the Sufis propagated the foundations of
Muslim culture.

8.)

Muslim traditions

Islam beliefs and traditions are sourced from the teachings of the prophet
Mohammed. The term Muslim means 'submission to God'. Islam is now
recognized as the second-largest world religion. Muslims believe that the Quran is

the outcome of dialogs between the God and prophet. The two popular sects in the
religion are the Sias and the Sunnis. The latter believe that Mohammed is the
restorer of the faith, promoted by previous prophets like Abraham and Jesus Christ.
The Sunnis on the other hand, believe in the 'words' of the prophet; words that
were spoken by him. This comprises his teachings and revelations. Islam
propagates the five laws that are fundamental duties to unite Muslims in spirit.
These are:
Shahadah or the worship of one God only.
Salah or prayer, at least five times a day.

Zakat, or donation of alms.

Sawm, or fasting during Ramadan.

Haj, the pilgrimage to the Holy City of Mecca.

Sufism is a mystical form of Islam. The Sufis believe in a direct experience of God
via devotion.

9.) ROLES OF MEN AND WOMEN IN ISLAM

1) Wives are considered the sexual property of their husbands .

Qur'an 2:223 Your wives are a tilth (cultivated land) for you, so go into your
tilth when you like, and send beforehand for yourselves.

2) Muslim wives are to be totally dependent and obedient to their

husbands.
Qur'an 4:34 Men are the maintainers of women, with what Allah has made
some of them to excel others and with what they spend out of their wealth. So the
good women are obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded. And those on
whose part you fear desertion, admonish them, and leave them alone in the beds
and chastise them. So if they obey you, seek not a way against them.

3) Men can divorce and remarry the same women many times.
Qur'an 2:230 So if he divorces her (the third time), she shall not be lawful to
him afterwards until she marries another husband. If he divorces her, there is no
blame on them both if they return to each other (by marriage), if they think that
they can keep within the limits of Allah. And these are the limits of Allah which He
makes clear for a people who know.

4) Men can marry up to four women if they can support them

currently.
Qur'an 4:3 And if you fear that you cannot do justice to orphans, marry such
women as seem good to you, two, or three, or four; but if you fear that you will not

do justice, then marry only one or that which your right hands possess. This is
more proper that you may not do injustice.

5) Childbearing Muslim women should be fully covered in public.

Qur'an 24:31 And say to the believing women that they lower their gaze and
restrain their sexual passions and do not display their adornment except what
appears thereof. And let them wear their head-coverings over their bosoms. And
they should not display their adornment except to their husbands or their fathers, or
the fathers of their husbands, or their sons, or the sons of their husbands, or their
brothers, or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or those
whom their right hands possess, or guileless male servants, or the children who
know not women's nakedness. And let them not strike their feet so that the
adornment that they hide may be known. And turn to Allah all, O believers, so that
you may be successful.

6) Only old women can go out in public without being fully

covered.
Qur'an 24:60 and women past childbearing, who hope not for marriage, it is
no sin for them if they put off their clothes without displaying their adornment.
And if they are modest, it is better for them.

10.)

MUSLIM CHARITY IN ISLAM

1) Spending your money is considered as

donations in Islam.

Qur'an 2:261 The parable of those who spend their wealth in the way of
Allah is as the parable of a grain growing seven ears, in every ear a hundred grains.
And Allah multiplies for whom He pleases. And Allah is Ample-giving, Knowing.

2) Muslim charity is focused on Allah and self

not others.
Qur'an 2:265 And the parable of those who spend their wealth to seek Allah's
pleasure and for the strengthening of their souls is as the parable of a garden on
elevated ground, upon which heavy rain falls, so it brings forth its fruit twofold;
but if heavy rain falls not on it, light rain suffices. And Allah is Seer of what you
do.

3) Muslim charity is best if seen by all.

Qur'an 2:271 If you manifest charity, how excellent it is! And if you hide it
and give it to the poor, it is good for you. And it will do away with some of your
evil deeds; and Allah is Aware of what you do.

4) Muslim charity is for Muslims only.

Qur'an 2:273 Charity is for the poor who are confined in the way of Allah,
they cannot go about in the land; the ignorant man thinks them to be rich on
account of their abstaining from begging. You can recognize them by their mark they beg not of men importunately. And whatever good thing you spend, surely
Allah is Knower of it.

11.)

MUSLIM FORBIDDEN FOODS

1) Faithful Muslims cannot eat bacon or sausage for breakfast in the

name of Jesus Christ.

Qur'an 2:173 He has forbidden you only what dies of itself, and blood, and
the flesh of swine, and that over which any other name than that of Allah has been
invoked.

2) Faithful Muslims cannot eat a ham sandwich for lunch in the

name of Jesus Christ.
Qur'an 5:3 Forbidden to you is that which dies of itself, and blood, and flesh
of swine, and that on which any other name than that of Allah has been invoked,
and the strangled animal, and that beaten to death, and that killed by a fall, and that
killed by goring with the horn, and that which wild beasts have eaten - except what
you slaughter; and that which is sacrificed on stones set up for idols, and that you
seek to divide by arrows; that is a transgression.

3) Faithful Muslims cannot eat pork chops for dinner in the name of
Jesus Christ.
Qur'an 6:146 Say, I find not in that which is revealed to me nothing
forbidden for an eater to eat thereof, except that it be what dies of itself, or blood
poured forth, or flesh of swine - for that surely is unclean - or what is a
transgression, other than the name of Allah having been invoked on it.

12.) MUSLIM RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES

1) Allah changed his mind so it's OK to eat, drink, and have sex
during Ramadan but only at night.

Qur'an 2:187 It is made lawful for you to go into your wives on the night of the
fast. They are an apparel for them. Allah knows that you acted unjustly to
yourselves, so He turned to you in mercy and removed the burden from you. So
now be in contact with them and seek what Allah has ordained for you, and eat and
drink until the whiteness of the day becomes distinct from the blackness of the
night at dawn, then complete the fast till nightfall, and touch them not while you
keep to the mosques. These are the limits of Allah, so go not near them. Thus does
Allah make clear His messages for men that they may keep their duty.

2) Muslim employees will suddenly disappear on Friday afternoons

for the mosque.
Qur'an 62:9 O you who believe, when the call is sounded for prayer on Friday,
hasten to the remembrance of Allah and leave immediately for the mosque.

3) Muslim men must make a pilgrimage to Mecca regardless of

hardship.
Qur'an 22:27 And proclaim to men the Pilgrimage: they will come to you on foot
and on every lean camel, coming from every remote path.

4) Muslims are to perform animal sacrifices as a duty to Allah.

Qur'an 22:37 Not their flesh, nor their blood, reaches Allah, but to Him is
acceptable observance of duty on your part.
Qur'an 108:2 So pray to your Lord and sacrifice.

13.)

RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE

1) Allah is the only true god and Islam is the only true religion.
Qur'an 3:82 Seek they then other than Allah's religion? And to Him submits
whoever is in the heavens and the earth, willingly or unwillingly, and to Him they
will be returned.

2) Islam will prevail over all religions, cultures, and countries.

Qur'an 9:33 He it is Who sent His Messenger with guidance and the Religion of
Truth, that He may cause it to prevail over all religions, though the polytheists are
averse.

3) Muslims are warned against converting to Christianity.

Qur'an 3:99 O you who believe, if you obey a party from among those who have
been the Book (the Bible), they will turn you back as disbelievers after your belief.

4) Religious dialog with Muslims will be almost impossible.

Qur'an 61:8-9 They (Christian apologists) desire to put out the light of Allah with
their mouths (not with guns), but Allah will perfect His light, though the
disbelievers may be averse. He it is Who sent His Messenger with the guidance
and the true religion, that He may make it overcome the religions, all of them,
though the polytheists may be averse.

14.)

Articles of faith

The Qur'an states that all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his
angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment".Also, there are other beliefs
that differ between particular sects. The Sunni concept of predestination is called
divine decree, while the Shi'a version is called divine justice. Unique to the Shi'a is
the doctrine of Imamah, or the political and spiritual leadership of the Imams.

Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through the
Islamic prophet Muhammad via the archangel Gabriel (Jibrl). For them,
Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the holy book of revelations
he received over more than two decades. In Islam, prophets are men selected by
God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not
divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic
prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are
uniquely the recipients of divine revelation either directly from God or through
angels. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in
Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others. Islamic
theology says that all of God's messengers since Adam preached the message of
Islam submission to the will of God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the
primordial nature upon which God created mankind",and the Qur'an states that the
proper name Muslim was given by Abraham.
As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in Arabia in the early 7th
century. Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor
traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians
"People of the Book" (ahl al-kitb), and distinguishes them from polytheists.
Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah)
and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted either in interpretation, in text, or
both.

Islam's fundamental theological concept is tawhd the belief that there is

only one god. The Arabic term for God is Allh; most scholars believe it was
derived from a contraction of the words al- (the) and ilh (deity, masculine form),
meaning "the god" (al-ilh), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic Alh.] The
first of the Five Pillars of Islam, tawhd is expressed in the shahadah (testification),
which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's
messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension;
Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a

protector. Although Muslims believe that Jesus was a prophet, they reject the
Christian doctrine of the Trinity, comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology,
Jesus was just a man and not the son of God . God is described in a chapter (sura)
of the Qur'an as "God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He
begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."

15.)

Qur'an

Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central
religious text of Islam. Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed
to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610
and his death on June 8, 632. The Qur'an was reportedly written down by
Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime

method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the
first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third
caliph. From textual evidence Islamic studies scholars find that the Qur'an of today
has not changed significantly over the years. The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras,
or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 yt, or verses. The chronologically
earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual
topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to
the Muslim community. The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than
legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and
values". Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Muhammad's
life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of
Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir. The word Qur'an means
"recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually
mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any
translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original
Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the
fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired
style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or
"interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.

16.)

Angels

Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel
(malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek
(angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship
God in perfect obedience. Angels' duties include communicating revelations from
God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at
the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an
describes angels as "messengers with wings two, or three, or four (pairs): He
[God] adds to Creation as He pleases"

17.)

Muhammad

Muhammad (c. 570 June 8, 632) is the prophet of Islam. He was a

religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam. Muslims
view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original,
uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and others. In
Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of

prophets as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues. For the
last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving
revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was
memorized and recorded by his companions.
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to
abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his
followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of
preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the
city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan
converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established
his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought
against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and
the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan
Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death,
and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade
routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his
control. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of
Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the Arabian Peninsula. In
Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally
"trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith
("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics.
The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the
Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's
actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation
of the Qur'an.

18.)

Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", yawm al-Qiymah (also known as yawm

ad-dn, "Day of Judgment" and as-s`a, "the Last Hour") is also crucial for
Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiymah is preordained by God but
unknown to man.

The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiymah are described
in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of Islamic scholars. The
Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian
understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering
of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.
The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as
disbelief, usury and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (jannah) as a place of joy
and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical
pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy acceptance by God
(ridwn). Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context
of an ecstatic awareness of God.

19.)

Predestination and free will

In accordance with the Sunni Islamic belief in predestination, or divine

preordainment (al-qad wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all
that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen
to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'" For Muslims,
everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing
can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although
events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose
between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to
Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfz,
the "Preserved Tablet".The Shi'a understanding of free will is called "divine
justice" (Adalah). This doctrine, originally developed by the Mu'tazila, stresses the
importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni
deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and
foreknowledge of all things.

20.)

Duties and practices

Five Pillars
The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: ) are five practices essential to
Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to different sets of pillars which substantially
overlap with the Five Pillars. They are:

The shahadah, which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "'ahadu 'al-l
ilha ill-llhu wa 'ahadu 'anna muammadan raslu-llh", or "I testify that there
is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the
Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and
practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims
wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed. Salah, or ritual prayer,
which must be performed five times a day. Each salah is done facing towards the
Kaaba in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a
personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is
compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances.
In many Muslim countries, reminders called Adhan (call to prayer) are broadcast
publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the
Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.
Zakat, or alms-giving. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated
wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent
to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is
considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off
owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The
Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary
alms-giving (sadaqah). Sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims
must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month,
and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to
God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on
him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for
several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others,
flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be
made up quickly. Some Muslim groups do not fast during Ramadan, and instead
have fasts different times of the year.

The Hajj, which is the pilgrimage during the Islamic month of Dhu alHijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must
make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the
pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in Ihram clothing,
which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include
walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the Black Stone, running
seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning
the Devil in Mina. The pilgrim, or the hajji, is honored in his or her community,

although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion
to God instead of a means to gain social standing.

21.)

Law

The Sharia (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law
formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In
Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of
duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance
and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the

punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of

unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The
Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for
injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However,
these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice
varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the
basis of these rules and their interpretations. Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as
the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use
to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of
jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots,
which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and
sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical
reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than
pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a
theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence
(including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Rislah.

22.)

Religion and state

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church"

and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In
practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system
of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim
world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded
in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the
reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatrk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution

replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah
Khomeini.

23.)

Etiquette and diet

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This

includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying
bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for
eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of
personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. Islamic
burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed
and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, as with Jews, are

restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and
alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of
God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has
hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.

24.)

Jihad

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the
"Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities. Jihad, in its
broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts,
endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending
on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self,
different categories of Jihad are defined. Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is
understood in its military aspect. Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain
religious and moral perfection. Some Muslim authorities, especially among the

Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual
self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare. Within Islamic
jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim
combatants in the defense or expansion of the Islamic state, the ultimate purpose of
which is to universalize Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in
Islamic law, may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent
groups, un-Islamic leaders or states which refuse to submit to the authority of
Islam. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the
external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the
Islamic norms of justice.
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty
(fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for
those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an
individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a
general mobilization. For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a
divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended
since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 AD.

25.)

History

Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and

military effects inside and outside the Islamic world. Within a century of
Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an, an Islamic empire stretched from the
Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. This new polity soon broke
into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However,
Islam continued to spread into regions like Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and
Southeast Asia. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world
during the Middle Ages, but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and
military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties

such as the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the sway of European imperial
powers. In the 20th century new religious and political movements and newfound
wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.

Rise of the caliphate and Islamic civil war

(632750)
Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina,
from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious
polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would
succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a
prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was
Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu
Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's
companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been
designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat
by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down
a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of
Apostasy".

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed
by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulaf'
ar-rshidn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim
rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories. When Umar was
assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing
opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph.
After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was
assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of
the Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to
schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the

three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and
believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.
After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil
war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for
seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian
Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul in the west as
well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia. While
the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to
question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing, rather, poverty,
humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout
Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that
would evolve into Sufism. For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a
religion for Arabs only; the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the
assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the
minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was
supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these
new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the
Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied
discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and
overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim,
inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750. Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization
flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of
Baghdad.

Golden Age (7501258)

Muslim Agricultural Revolution
By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various
regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and
Central Asia emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab
empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia
Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the Seljuq
Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued
to respect the caliph's titular authority. During this time expansion of the Muslim

world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam
and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central
Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.
The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments.
The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs
were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th
century jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a
topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars. Philosophers Ibn
Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic
theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali
argued against them and ultimately prevailed. Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both
underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism became a full-fledged
movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots,
while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams. The spread
of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian
authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new
Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted
Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.
In the medieval period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a
critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted
Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.

Crusades, Reconquista and Mongol invasion

Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be
reversed. The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia,
and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century
onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of
wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within
the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially
successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states, these gains were later
reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured
Jerusalem in 1187. In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid
dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran the Muslim lands in a

series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in

an uprising in 1250 and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol
armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. But Mongol rule extended across the breadth of
almost all Muslim lands in Asia and Islam was temporarily replaced by Buddhism
as the official religion of the land. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates
converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age
of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia,
eastern Europe and the Indian subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the
strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century. The Black
Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century. It is probable
that the Mongols and merchant caravans making use of the opportunities of free
passage offered by the Pax Mongolica inadvertently brought the plague from
Central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. Plague epidemics kept returning to the
Islamic world up to the 19th century.

Turkish, Iranian and Indian empires (1030

1918)
The Seljuk Turks conquered Abbassid lands and adopted Islam and become
the de facto rulers of the caliphate. They captured Anatolia by defeating the
Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, thereby precipitating the call for Crusades.
They however fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to
various semi-autonomous Turkic dynasties. In the 13th and 14th centuries the
Ottoman empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these "Ghazi
emirates" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the
Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the
Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, which succumbed
shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman
troops and to a lesser extent, cannonry. Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism
underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to

legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order
a community of spiritual teachers and students. Also of importance to Sufism
was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century
Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of
Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.
In the early 16th century, the Shi'i Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia
and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic
setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk
Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign
which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529. After the invasion of Persia,
and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, Delhi became the most important
cultural centre of the Muslim east. Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian
subcontinent starting from the 12th century. The prominent ones include the Delhi
Sultanate (12061526) and the Mughal empire (15261857). These empires helped
in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early-18th century the Maratha
empire became the pre-eminent power in the north of India. By the mid-18th
century the British empire had formally ended the Mughal dynasty,and at the end
of the 18th century overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 18th
century the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the
preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that
condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic. By the
17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization,

Modern times (1918present)

By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the
Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European
powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also
parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the
20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and
new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed
prominence. During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants,
from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim
populations by percentage in the Americas. Additionally, the resulting urbanization
and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread
their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869
and 1914. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of
Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of
the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist"
movements. Groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami
in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political
ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat,
and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private
question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the Taliban),
revolutionary movements replaced secular regimes with Islamist states, while
transnational groups like Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to
further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to
reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human
rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts,
and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".

26.)

Demographics of Islam

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from 1.3 billion
to 1.8 billion. Approximately 85% are Sunni and 15% are Shi'a, with a small
minority belonging to other sects. Some 3040 countries are Muslim-majority, and
Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. South Asia and
Southeast Asia contain the most populous Muslim countries, with Indonesia, India,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh having more than 100 million adherents each. According
to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in China. In
the Middle East, the non-Arab countries of Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslimmajority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim
communities. Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many
European countries.

27.)

Mosques

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its

Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings
dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the
smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid
jmi`). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer,
it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern
mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and
contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.

28.)

Family life

The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the
obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially
responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division
of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the
immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the
making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a

man with the same rights of succession.[119] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract
which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the
presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the
bride, as stipulated in the contract.
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally,
while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process
of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing
the word "divorce". Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional
Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th
century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as
polygamy, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have
attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with
outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue
traditional law as applied to women.

29.)

Calendar

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE,
which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of
this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly
made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354
days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot
be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be
made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the
Christian calendar.
The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE.
Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they
occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most
important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: ) on the 1st of Shawwal,
marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic:
)on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.

30.)

Denominations

Islam consists of a number of religious denominations that are essentially similar

in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary
division is between the Sunni and the Shi'a, with Sufism generally considered to be
a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most
sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately
15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other Islamic sects.

Sunni
Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In Arabic, as-Sunnah literally means
"principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded
in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that
the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not
specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected.
Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or madhhabs: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i,
and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose
any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have
departed from the majority by introducing innovations (bidah). There are also
several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For

example, the recent Salafi movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to
derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.

Shi'a
The Shi'a, who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the
political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib,
who according to most Shi'a are in a state of ismah, meaning infallibility. They
believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his
rightful successor, and they call him the first Imam (leader), rejecting the
legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shi'a, an Imam rules by right
of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims,
having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shi'a Islam has several
branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers which the label Shi'a generally
refers to. Although the Twelver Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the
two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific
collections of hadith. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari
jurisprudence. Other smaller groups include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from
Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.

Sufism
Not strictly a denomination, Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By
focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct
experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one
must be trained to use. Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be

complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an
unjustified religious innovation. Most Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as
either Sunni or Shi'a.

LIST OF REFERENCES
As per my project I have referred the following
websites:-

1.) WWW.WIKEPEDIA.COM
2.) WWW.CONSERVAPEDIA.COM
3.) WWW.UNCYCLOPEDIA.ORG