WhatDoesItMeanToBeHuman?

Classical,Medieval,andRenaissanceViewsontheHumanCondition

JustinStone
August11,2011

Thehumanities,theacademicdisciplinesthatstudythehumancondition,have
deliberatedwhatitmeanstobehumanformillennia.TheMedievalandRenaissanceperiods
ofhistoryfurtherthestudiesstartedintheClassicalageandusethewisdomoftheancient
culturestosupportmoremodernideas.Aprogressionofideas,tracedthroughtheseages,
explainsthehumanconditionthroughmansacquisitionofknowledgeandwisdom,hisneed
forbalanceinlife,andhisuniquesenseofnostalgia.TheRenaissanceandMedievalperiods
bothuseClassicalwisdomonthesetopicstofurtherthestudyofwhatitmeanstobehuman.

BythedawnoftheMedievalperiod,ChristianityandtheCatholicChurchareatthe

epicenterofWesternculture.Oneofthemostinfluentialandimportantphilosophersofthe
earlyMedievalageisThomasAquinas.AquinasusesAristotletosupportandprovehis
theologiandoctrinesandfindingsonthehumancondition.Hisworksbecomesoimportant,
thatheisconsideredtobeamodelpriestandoneofthe33DoctorsoftheChurch.

OneofthemostimportantquestionsaChristiantheologianandphilosophermust

answerishowtoprovetheexistenceofGod.Whatscientificproofcanmanofferthat
illustratesadivinecreatorexists?Aquinasanswers,
Thefirstandmostobviouswayistheargumentfrommotion.Itiscertainandevident
tooursensesthatthingsareinmotioninthisworld.Everythingthatmovesismovedby
somethingelse,fornothingcanmoveunlessithasthepotentialityofacquiringthe
perfectionofthattowardswhichitmoves.Tomovesomethingistoact,sincetomove
istomakeactualwhatispotential.Nownothingcanbechangedfromastateof
potentialitytoactualityexceptbysomethingthatitselfisinastateofactuality.Afire
thatisactuallyhotmakeswoodthatispotentiallyhotbecometotallyhot,andsomoves
andchangesit.Nowitisimpossibleforthesamethingtobebothinactualityandin
potentialityatthesametimeandinthesamerespectonlyindifferentrespects.What
isactuallyhotcannotatthesametimebepotentiallyhot,althoughitispotentiallycold.
Therefore,itisimpossibleforathingtobeboththemoverandthethingmovedinthe
sameway,orforittomoveitself.Thereforeeverythingthatmovesmustbemovedby
somethingelse.Ifthatbywhichitismovedalsomoves,itmustitselfbemovedby
somethingelseandthatbysomethingelseagain.Butthingscannotgoonforever

becausethentherewouldbenofirstmover,andconsequentlynosubsequentmover
sinceintermediatethingsmoveonlyfromthemotiontheyreceivefromthefirst
moverjustasastaffmovesonlybecauseitismovedbyahand.Therefore,itis
necessarytogobacktosomefirstmoverwhoisnotmovedbyanyone,andthis
everyoneunderstandsasGod.1

AquinasusesClassicalwisdomtoprovetheexistenceoftheChristianGodthroughconnections
withthelawsofmotion.Aristotlebeforehim,whomAquinascallsthephilosopher,makesa
similarargumentabouttheexistenceofasingulareternalfirstmover,
Motion,thenbeingeternal,thefirstmover,ifthereisbutone,willbeeternalalso;if
therearemorethanone,therewillbeapluralityofsucheternalmovers.Weought,
however,tosupposethatthereisoneratherthanmany,andfiniteratherthanan
infinitenumber.Whentheconsequencesofeitherassumptionarethesame,weshould
alwaysassumethatthingsarefiniteratherthaninfiniteinnumber,sinceinthings
constitutedbynaturethatwhichisfiniteandthatwhichisbetterought,ifpossible,to
bepresentratherthanthereverse;andhereitissufficienttoassumeonlyonemover,
thefirstofunmovedthings,whichbeingeternalwillbetheprincipleofmotionto
everythingelse.Thefollowingargumentalsomakesitevidentthatthefirstmovermust
besomethingthatisoneandeternal.2

TheClassicalideaofthefirstmoverasdescribedbyAristotleisusedbyThomasAquinasto
scientificallyprovethereisaGod,Heiseternal,andHeisthecreatorofallthings.This
philosophicalconclusion,rootedinancientwisdom,elevatestheChristianfaithaboveallothers
intheWesternworldatthattime.Godsroleintheuniverseisacentralthemethatis
constantlyexploredinnotonlytheMedievalperiod,butduringtheRenaissanceaswell.Now
thatmanknowsthereisaGodandHeismanscreator,manisabletofurtherexplorethe
humancondition.

However,knowingwheremancamefromisonlypartofthepuzzle.Theideaofthesoul

isattheverycenterofwhatmakesmanhuman.Butwhatisthesoulandwhatisitsfunction?

1
2

Aquinas,Thomas.OnPoliticsandEthics.Ed.andTrans.byPaulE.Sigmund(NewYork:NortonandCo,1988),30.
Aristotle.ANewAristotleReader.Ed.byJ.L.Ackrill(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1987),124.

Aristotleclaimsthatthesoulisnotconnectedtoanytypeofsense,butratherasubstance,
For,iftheeyewereananimal,sightwouldbeitssoul;forthisaneyessubstancethat
correspondingtoisprinciple.3Theideathatthesoul,unlikethebody,iseternalalsocomes
fromAristotlesviewonthesoul,

Intellectseemstobeborninusasakindofsubstanceandnottobedestroyed.Forit
wouldbedestroyedifatallbythefeeblenessofoldage,whileasthingsarewhat
happensissimilartowhathappensinthecaseofthesenseorgans.For,ifanoldman
acquiredaneyeofacertainkind,hewouldseeaswellasevenayoungman.Henceold
ageisnotduetothesoulsbeingaffectedinacertainway,buttothishappeningtothat
whichthesoulisin,asisthecaseindrunkennessanddisease.4

ThomasAquinasalsospeaksofthisintellectthatiscalledthehumansoul.Again,he

usesAristotlesideastoadvancehisChristianideasaboutthesoul.AquinasusestheClassical
ideaofforms,muchthesamewayAristotledid,todescribethesoul.Theformistheprinciple
ofabody.Aristotleclaimsthatifahousewereanaturalbodythantheprincipleofthehouseis
thatofasheltertopreventdestructionfromtheelements.Aquinaselaboratesthatitis
impossibletoremoveaformfromitself,andthereforethesouliseternal,

Inthingsthathaveknowledge,desirefollowsknowledge.Thesensesonlyknowbeing
asitis,hereandnow,buttheintellectknowsitabsolutelyandforalltime.Therefore
everythingthathasintellectnaturallydesirestoexistforever.Howeveranaturaldesire
cannotbeinvain.Thereforeeveryintellectualsubstanceisincorruptible.5

Withanunderstandingofwheremancomesfromandtheexistenceofaneternalpart

ofmanthatmakeshimhuman,Aquinasthenturnshisattentiontoadrivingforceinthehuman
conditionallmenwishtobehappy.Whatishappinessandcanmanachieveit?Hewrites,
Ifthehumanintellectknowstheessencesofcreatedeffectsbutdoesnotknow
anythingmoreaboutGodthanthefacttheHeexistsithasnotyetbeenfulfilledby

Aristotle.ANewAristotleReader.Ed.byJ.L.Ackrill(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1987),158.
Aristotle.ANewAristotleReader.Ed.byJ.L.Ackrill(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1987),157.
5
Aquinas,Thomas.OnPoliticsandEthics.Ed.andTrans.byPaulE.Sigmund(NewYork:NortonandCo,1988),35.
4

attainingtheFirstCausedirectlybutitcontinuestohaveanaturaldesiretofindout
moreaboutthatCause.Thereforeitisnotperfectlyhappy.Tobehappytheintellect
mustreachtotheveryessenceoftheFirstCause.Inthiswayitwillhaveitsfulfillment
bybeingunitedwithGodasitsobjectinwhomalonethehappinessofmanconsists.6

Here,AquinasisreferringtomanswishtoseeGod.Aquinasisproclaimingthatmanmay
nevertrulybehappyuntilthedayheisreunitedwithhisCreator.Thereasoningbehindthisis
explainedbyAristotle.Aristotleproclaimsthatmansfavoritesenseisthatofsightbecauseitis
howhecomparesonethingtoanotherandtrulycomestoknowathing.Thisisalargepartof
thehumancondition,asitexplainshowmanlearnsandsatisfieshiscuriosities.Toobtain
knowledgeandfurtherunderstandingoftheworldaroundhimishowmanobtainshappiness.

Theunderstandingofhowimportantsightistothehumancondition,andhowitis

centralinmansdesiretolearn,isfurtherexploredbytheItalianpoetPetrarchinthemid
1300s.InhislettertoDionisiodaBorgoSanSepolcro,commonlycalledTheAscentofMount
Ventoux,Petrarchproclaimshesetouttoclimbamountainsimplytoseetheview.Inhis
ascentupthemountain,Petrarchexploresmanyaspectsofhumannaturepertainingtowhy
andhowmanseeksknowledge.Hefirstpointsoutthatsocietyisaforcethatopposes
innovation.Thereasonbehindthishumanbehavioristhedesiretoignoreanydiscoverythat
changeswhatmanconsiderstrue.Petrarchembodiesthispartofthehumanconditioninhis
journeywithanoldshepherd.Theshepherdproclaimsthatthereisnothingtobegainedfrom
climbingamountainbutpainandsuffering.Theshepherd,likemanymen,cannotunderstand
whysomeoneelsemayholdvalueinsomethinghedoesnot.Thisconditionisdescribedby
SocratesinPlatosAllegoryoftheCave,

Aquinas,Thomas.OnPoliticsandEthics.Ed.andTrans.byPaulE.Sigmund(NewYork:NortonandCo,1988),42.

Andnow,Isaid,letmeshowinafigurehowfarournatureisenlightenedor
unenlightened:Behold!humanbeingslivinginaundergroundden,whichhasamouth
opentowardsthelightandreachingallalongtheden;heretheyhavebeenfromtheir
childhood,andhavetheirlegsandneckschainedsothattheycannotmove,andcan
onlyseebeforethem,beingpreventedbythechainsfromturningroundtheirheads.
Aboveandbehindthemafireisblazingatadistance,andbetweenthefireandthe
prisonersthereisaraisedway;andyouwillsee,ifyoulook,alowwallbuiltalongthe
way,likethescreenwhichmarionetteplayershaveinfrontofthem,overwhichthey
showthepuppets.7

Here,Socratesexplainsthehumanconditionthatdiscourageschange.Societyisviewedasthe
heavychainsbearingdownonthoselivinginthecave.Mandoesnothavetrueknowledge
becausehecannotseetherealworld,onlyshadows.Furthermore,thoseboundinthecave
findcomfortinignoranceandwishtoremainso.

Whileclimbingthemountain,Petrarchstrivestouncoverwhymanbecomesso

comfortableinhisignoranceandrecallsaninnerstrugglethatalsodescribesanotherpartof
thehumancondition.Hedelvesintothehardshipsthatpresentthemselveswhileseeking
wisdom,
Whilemybrotherchoseadirectpathstraightuptheridge,Iweaklytookaneasierone
whichreallydescended.WhenIwascalledback,andtherightroadwasshownme,I
repliedthatIhopedtofindabetterwayroundontheotherside,andthatIdidnotmind
goingfartherifthepathwereonlylesssteep.Thiswasjustanexcuseformylaziness;
andwhentheothershadalreadyreachedaconsiderableheightIwasstillwanderingin
thevalleys.8

Itistheveryessenceofwhatmakesmanhumanthatdissuadeshimfromtakingtheroadless
traveled.Notonlythis,butitisinmansnaturetotryandfindaneasierway.Thishabitoften
leadstotheavoidanceofthedifficulttasksthatgohandinhandwithseekingwisdomand

Plato.BookVIIofTheRepublic.Accessed082011.http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/platoscave.html.
Petrarch.TheAscentofMountVentoux.Accessed082011.http://fordham.edu/halsal/source/petrarch
ventoux.asp.
8

truth.Thisisalessnobletrait,butstillanimportantpartofthehumanconditionthathelps
mantounderstandwhatmakeshimuniqueamongcreatures.

Petrarchdefeatsthiselementofhumannatureandmakesittothetopofthemountain.

Hethenrealizeswhatittakestofindwisdom.Truthisthelastideatorevealitselfandappears
onlyaftergreateffort.ThisideaisalsoexploredbySocrates,
Mostpeople,includingourselves,liveinaworldofrelativeignorance.Weareeven
comfortablewiththatignorance,becauseitisallweknow.Whenwefirststartfacing
truth,theprocessmaybefrightening,andmanypeoplerunbacktotheiroldlives.But
ifyoucontinuetoseektruth,youwilleventuallybeabletohandleitbetter.Infact,you
wantmore!It'struethatmanypeoplearoundyounowmaythinkyouareweirdor
evenadangertosociety,butyoudon'tcare.Onceyou'vetastedthetruth,youwon't
everwanttogobacktobeingignorant!9

Socratesexplainsthatthesearchfortruthisdifficultandsocietywillattempttodetermanin
hisjourney.However,oncewisdomisattained,nothingwillstophispursuit.
ThroughPetrarchsallegory,withthesupportofPlatosoriginalideas,theearly
Renaissancemanfurthershisunderstandingofhowtoobtainwisdomsightistheprinciple
senseusedandhardworkisnecessary.Althoughsocietywillattempttodissuademanfrom
seekingknowledgethatcouldpotentiallychangethewayheseestheworld,manwhohas
obtainedtruewisdomcannotbedeterredfromseekingmore.

Thereisanotherdangerinseekingwisdomandtruthformankind,though.Thereisa

needforbalanceandmoderationofallthingsinmanslife.Fallingoutofbalanceleadsto
unhappiness,andtotalunbalanceleadstodestruction.Thiswarningisadominantthemein
ChristopherMarlowsplayTheTragicHistoryofDoctorFaustus.Intheplay,Faustusrejects
theancientauthoritiesofclassicalwisdomforthesolestudyofthemodernscienceof

Plato.BookVIIofTheRepublic.Accessed082011.http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/platoscave.html.

necromancy.HealsocastsasidethecommonmoralsofMedievalwesterncultureandsellshis
soultothedevilinexchangeforpower.
Alongsidetheuseofachorus,thereareotherancientreferencesandsimilaritiesinthis
play.EuripidessHippolytuscontainscharacterswithsimilarflawsandunbalancesintheirlives
thatleadtounhappinessanddestruction.LikeMarlowsplay,Hippolytusdoesnothaveatrue
hero,onlytragiccharactersthatwalkdownatreacherouspathofselfdestruction.Hippolytus,
muchlikeFaustuscastsasideauthority,haschosentofavoronegoddessoveranother,andin
doingsogainsthewrathofAphrodite.Hisunbalancedviewsofloveandsexleadtohisdeath.
Similarly,FaustussdeclarationagainstGodisreminiscentofHippolytussattitudetoward
Aphrodite,AndFaustusvowsnevertolooktoheaven,nevertonameGodorpraytohim,to
burnhisscriptures,slayhisministers,andmakemyspiritspullhischurchesdown.10

MarlowportraysthedangersoflivingalifewithoutmoderationthroughtheSeven

DeadlySins.Intheplay,thesesevenoriginsinsaremanifestedintodemonswhopresent
themselvestoFaustus.Thesesinseachrepresentapartofthehumanconditionthatmaylead
toruin.Itispartofthehumanconditiontobetemptedbyandpulledtowardtheseunbalanced
acts.TheseSevenDeadlySinsarethesamecharacterflawsthataregiventoprotagonistsin
Greektragediesaswell.Odysseusisflawedbyhishubris,orpride.Phaedrassuicideiscaused
byherlust.And,Theseusstragiclossisproducedbyhiswrath.

Conversely,oneofthewaysmancanachievebalanceandlivealifeofmoderationis

throughthestudyoftheliberalarts.This,theancientGreeksdeclare,isaneducationworthyof
afreeperson.Therearesevenstudiesalltogether:grammar,logic,rhetoric,arithmetic,

10

Marlowe,Christopher.TheCompletePlays.Ed.byJ.B.Steane(NewYork:PenguinGroup,1986),288.

geometry,music,andastronomy.GiovanniPicodellaMirandola,aItalianRenaissance
philosopherofthelate15thCentury,wrotethediscourseOrationontheDignityofMan.Init,
hehighlightstheimportanceoftheliberalartsaspasseddowntomanbytheancientGreeks,
ThedignityoftheliberalartsandtheirvaluetousisattestednotonlybytheMosaic
andChristianmysteriesbutalsobythetheologiesofthemostancienttimes.Whatelse
istobeunderstoodbythestagesthroughwhichtheinitiatesmustpassinthemysteries
oftheGreeks?Theseinitiates,afterbeingpurifiedbytheartswhichwemightcall
expiatory,moralphilosophyanddialectic,weregrantedadmissiontothemysteries.
Whatcouldsuchadmissionmeanbuttheinterpretationofoccultnaturebymeansof
philosophy?Onlyaftertheyhadbeenpreparedinthiswaydidtheyreceive``Epopteia,''
thatis,theimmediatevisionofdivinethingsbythelightoftheology.11

Picoexplainsthattheliberalartswillnotonlyhelpmanleadalifeofmoderation,butalsofulfill
theverypurposeforwhichGodcreatedmantobeaphilosopher.Man,unliketheanimals
andplants,isabletojudgeandresolvesituationsforhimself.Becauseofthis,manismeantto
beGodsphilosopher,Whothenwillnotlookwithaweuponthisourchameleon,orwho,at
least,willlookwithgreateradmirationonanyotherbeing?12Picocallsmanachameleon
becauseofhisabilitytochange.Thistraitallowsmantounderstandandbecomelikeanything
hesees.Philosophyisthekeytoremovefromamanssoulwhatisnotpleasantintheeyesof
Godandtoseekperfectionthroughtheknowledgeofdivinethings.Inmansmarvelingof
Godsworks,heisachievingbalanceinlifeandfulfillinghishumanisticcravingtounderstand
andgainwisdom.

TheuseofClassicalideasinMedievalandRenaissancehumanisticworksisalsopaired

withtheuseofClassicalcharacterstoinstantlyconveyanideaorconditiontotheaudience.
DantesInfernoisperhapsoneofthebestexamplesfortheuseofancientpersonalities.Virgil,

11
12

Pico,Giovanni.OrationontheDignityofMan.Accessed082011.http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/Mirandola.
Pico,Giovanni.OrationontheDignityofMan.Accessed082011.http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/Mirandola.

theClassicalpoetandauthorofTheAeneid,isDantesguidethroughhell.Themany
depictionsofancientpeopleinhellstirupfeelingsofnostalgia.Nostalgiacomesfromthe
Greekwordnostoianddescribesthehumantraitoflookingbacktobettertimesandwanting
toreturn.Nostoiistheyearninginsideallofmankindtoreturntoatimeandplacethatfeels
morelikehome.

DantesuseofVirgilcausesthereadertoseetheparallelsbetweenInfernoandClassic

epicslikeTheAeneidandTheOdyssey.Homersepiccouldbeviewedasastudyofnostalgia
anditspartinthehumancondition.Nostalgiameansnotonlyknowingwheremanhascome
from,butwhereheisgoingaswell.ForitisthisideathatpushedOdysseusthroughtenyears
ofhardshipsandtrialstoreachhishomeinIthaca.Becauseoftheimportanceofnostalgiain
definingwhatitistobehuman,perhapsoneofthemostfrighteningscenesinTheOdysseyis
OdysseussencounterwiththeLotuseaters,Anycrewmenwhoatethelotus,thehoneysweet
fruit,lostalldesiretosendamessageback,muchlessreturn,theironlywishtolingerthere
withtheLotuseaters,grazingonlotus,allmemoryofthejourneyhomedissolvedforever.13
ThisisoneofthefewoccurrenceswhereOdysseusdoesnotstandandfightorattemptto
conquerhisadversary.TheLotuseaterstakeawaymansnostalgiaandwithit,hishumanity.
Manslossofmemoriesandfreewillishorrifyingandspeakstotheimportanceofnostalgia
whendefiningwhatitmeanstobehuman.
NostalgiabroughtonbythedepictionofClassicalpersonalitiescanbeseenall
throughoutRenaissanceartaswell.RafaelsTheSchoolofAthensisoneofthemost
celebratedandrecognizedpaintingsoftheera.Inthisfresco,PlatoandAristotleareatthe

13

Homer.TheOdyssey.Ed.andTrans.byRobertFagles(NewYork:PenguinGroup,1996),214.

centeroffthemuralw
withAristotleslightlyah
headofhisteeacher.Perh
hapsthisisiinrecognitio
onof
Aristotlesgrandideaas.Tohelpw
withthefee
elingofnostaalgia,theClaassicalfigureesarestandiingin
anancien
ntRomanse
etting.Thisiisadepiction
noftheGooldenAgeo
ofhumantho
ought.

Figure1:Ra
afael,TheSchoo
olofAthens,1510.Fresco,200x300in.VaticannCity,ApostoliccPalace.

Alongwithan
A
ncientGreekkpersonalities,ClassicalcharactersaandscenesffromtheBib
ble
areoften
nthesubjecttmatterofR
Renaissance
paintingss.Rembrand
dt,aDutchR
Renaissancepainter,
oftenuse
edsuchscen
nestodepicttthehuman
condition
n.TheStorrmontheSe
eaofGalileeshows
asmallb
boattossedaaroundinavviolentstorm
m.Men
whoareworkingtossavetheboaatareillumin
natedat
therearoftheboat.However,Jesus,thesaviorof
man,isin
ndarknessaatthehelm.Rembrandtt,
throughanancientsscene,ispoin
ntingoutthaat

F igure2:Rembrrandt,TheStorm
montheSeaof
G
Galilee,1633.Oiloncanvas,63x50in.Unknow
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humanityhasnotchangedovertheages.Mansspiritis,andwas,ofaninquisitiveand
enduringnature.Theboat,representinghumanachievement,isbatteredbytheforcesof
nature.Jesus,adivinepower,waitsformantocallonhishelp.
Conclusively,thecelebratedideasestablishedintheClassicalperiodthathelpdefinethe
humanconditionremainprevalentinboththeMedievalandRenaissanceperiodsofhistory.
Referencingpriorwisdomaidsscholarsofthesetwolatererasinidentifyingwithhumanityand
surroundingworld.MedievalandRenaissancephilosophersgivecredittomodernideas
throughancientwisdomandindoingsomancantraceaprogressionofthoughtthroughthese
threeerasthatexplainsthehumancondition.ThestudyofClassicalworksinsubsequenttimes
offersmananexplanationofwherehecamefromandhisplaceintheuniverse.Mansmethod
oflearningandgainingknowledge,hisneedforbalanceandmoderationinlife,andhisunique
senseofnostalgiaarealldepictedinthehumanstudiesoftheMedievalandRenaissanceeras.
TheideasoftheClassicalworldhaveremainedwithmanthroughouttheages.

Bibliography

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Plato.BookVIIofTheRepublic.Accessed082011.
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