Gland Packing

Slurry Pump Gland Seal Three Body Wear
and the Influence of Particle Properties including

Hardness, Size, Fracture Toughness and Shape
by
Nigel Ian Ridgway

School of Chemical Engineering
The University of Adelaide
A thesis submitted for examination for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
in
Chemical Engineering
January 2010
1.
Introduction
1.1.
General introduction
This research originated from observations of slurry pump seal failures in the field and their impact on
mineral processing costs and the escape of potentially harmful fluids to the environment. In typical
processing plants, minerals or mineral ores are first crushed and then transported between different
processes as slurries (suspensions of solids in water). Each mineral in the slurry can be identified by its
unique crystal structure.
Generally centrifugal pumps are used and they are sealed to prevent the slurry escaping. Three types of
seals are used:
1. Gland with compressed packing;
2. Centrifugal expeller with lip seal or gland packing secondary seal and;
3. Face type mechanical seals.
Of these, gland seals are the most common.
Gland seals are considered to be very basic engineering equipment and they are little studied. They are
normally designed by trial and error based on experience. It is interesting to note the observation by
Buchter: one wonders how industry can be so efficient despite the lack of scientific
reasoning.(Buchter 1979)
There is a need to examine gland sealing from a scientific engineering perspective. There are numerous
uncontrolled variables in the slurry seal system including the components, the external seal water
supply, the slurry properties, and human influence on the performance of the seal during maintenance
and operation. Although there is a reasonable amount of literature published on investigating the
hydraulic performance of gland seals in water systems, gland seal failures and the relationship with
slurry particles and the complex wear mechanisms of two and three body grinding are seldom studied.
Two body wear by definition is a form of abrasive wear in which the hard particles cause wear of one
body are fixed on the surface of the opposing body, and three body wear is caused when particles are
free to move between two contacting surfaces (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Two and three body wear (Stachowiak and Batchelor 2001)
The slurry particles entrained in the gap of a gland seal create a lubricated abrasive wear contact
mechanism and is analogous to the wear of plain bearing journals. (In a process known as lapping,
particles are deliberately introduced into a gap for the purposes of polishing.
The following sections will provide an overview of the current knowledge of gland seals in slurry pumps,
and will identify the scientific principles and methodology for the research.
1.2.
Gland seals
Gland seals have been employed to seal steam engine piston connecting rods and water pump drive
shafts from the 1850s. Early packing was manufactured from organic materials such as hemp and in
some cases the interface was lubricated with tallow. At first wrought iron was normally used for the rod
or shaft materials but this was later replaced with carbon steels. In the 1950s, sacrificial shaft sleeves
were developed using harder materials such as martensitic stainless steel. Modern packing is
manufactured from a mix of synthetic fibres which are woven into a braid for improved mechanical
strength and typically lubricated either with a PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) boundary lubricant or
graphite.
Gland seals are particularly used in mineral processing slurry pumps where the process pressure is high
(up to 7 MPa), the temperature is high (up to 150o C), the solids concentration exceeds 5%, the fluid is
corrosive, or some combination of these.
Common discharge diameters of the slurry pumps range between 25 and 450 millimetres. The
corresponding shaft sizes and speeds are shown in Table 1.1:
Table 1.1 Typical seal size range
Pump discharge size

(mm)
Shaft sleeve diameter

(mm)
Maximum speed
(rpm)
Shaft surface velocity

(m/s)
25
45
4400
10
450
220
400
Under ideal operating and maintenance conditions the useful life of the seal may be in the order of 8000
hours necessitating several replacements of the packing. However, should a deviation in seal conditions
occur, the useful life may be reduced significantly, typically to the order of hundreds of hours.
Functional failure results in slurry leakage possibly creating secondary failures such as corrosion and
early bearing failure. If the slurry is hazardous, seal failure may create an unsafe workplace. This is a
particular risk with the increasing trend to hot acid leach mineral processing. In todays risk-averse
society, such an event is unacceptable. A typical failure and spillage is shown in Figure 1.2
demonstrating slurry discharging from the seal at the back of the pump to atmosphere.
Figure 1.2 Typical gland seal failure
A typical gland seal (Figure 1.3) consists of an annular housing (stuffing box) to contain the packing, a
gland follower to adjust the packing compression, a shaft sleeve as a sacrificial wear element, and a
lantern restrictor or a lantern ring to distribute water from an external supply. The water is fed to the
gland seal to lubricate the packing, to provide heat transfer, and to flush particles from the seal gap
between the packing and the sacrificial shaft sleeve.
Figure 1.3 Typical gland seal components

The gland follower applies an axial stress to the packing which results in a radial pressure which decays
exponentially from the gland follower end to the wet end (Figure 1.4). The radial pressure in the packing
must be equal to or greater than the pumped fluid pressure at the wet end to effect sealing.
Figure 1.4 Seal pressure distribution
1.3.
Impact of wear on reliability
The significance of the gland sealing problem is demonstrated by reliability data from a sample
population of six common pumps in a process thickener underflow duty at a large (9 million tonnes per
annum feed rate) mineral processing operation in South Australia. The pumps are made of standard
modern materials and have a reliable gland water system. The pumps are operated independently but
experience similar conditions including slurry percent solids by weight, pump speed, pressure and flow
rate. The packing material was standard Garlock 20/25 with a synthetic-fibre lattice, braided
construction including PTFE dispersion and other unknown proprietary lubricants. Shaft sleeves were
duplex stainless steel substrates coated with a fused tungsten carbide/nickel chrome 500 micron layer.
When considering the failure of pump components, including seals, the type of failures reported, the life,
and the costs of failure need to be taken into account so that the right maintenance strategy can be
determined.
Functional failure is defined as the inability of any asset to fulfil a function to a standard of performance
which is acceptable to the user (Moubray 1999) Useful life is defined from the Weibull distribution by
the initiation of an increase in conditional probability (t) and locates the parameter for planned
maintenance intervention (Figure 1.5a).
Mean time between failure (MTBF) is when 50% of the population has already failed and is a measure
of the seal reliability.
For the purposes of this research useful life has been defined as the MTBF minus the standard
deviation.
Figure 1.5 Reliability frequency of failure

In mineral processing, the key objectives of reliability improvement are to increase the useful life and to
reduce the standard deviation of the failure distribution at ageing which corresponds to a shape
parameter of the Weibull distribution when 1.0 > < 4.0.
Over a two year period, 17 shaft sleeve and packing replacements were recorded. Assuming that all
parts were at functional failure and that failures were age related, then the cumulative percent failures
were plotted on Weibull probability graph paper.
Results from the investigation confirm that the failures are age related because the beta ratio (shape
parameter) for the Weibull conditional probability function is greater than one (Abernethy 1996). The
Weibull plots were reported from Isograph reliability software Avsim+ 9.0, Weibull 2 parameter fit, 2003.
The beta ratio for the sample of shaft sleeves was 1.01 (Figure 1.6) and for the packing 1.0 (Figure 1.7).
Figure 1.6 Shaft sleeve replacements: Weibull plot
Figure 1.7 Packing replacements: Weibull plot

The mean life from the probability plot did not equal the average life (mean time between failure) and
this is reflected in the coefficient of variance for the data (Table 1.2) ie, the standard deviations were
close to the means for the shaft sleeve and packing data.
Table 1.2 Reliability data ( (Ridgway, O'Neill et al. 2004))
NOTE:
This table is included on page 9 of the print copy of
the thesis held in the University of Adelaide Library.
In the authors experience, maintenance history for gland sealing is difficult to capture from field records
and is a source of unreliable data for a number of reasons including:
1. gland packing is issued from central stores inventory in rolls resulting in uncontrolled local
satellite stores, and packing cut to length may be used during a maintenance intervention but
materials are not issued against the maintenance notification and excess packing is returned to
the satellite store;
2. maintenance can be opportunity-based and parts may be changed out at potential failure rather
than at functional failure. Hence, the investigation was performed over a two year period to
reduce the variation in data and based on the opportunity to source shaft sleeve samples from a
large typical mineral processing plant;
3. business enterprise systems such as SAP (proprietary computer software) and work
procedures were not used to record the pump run time hours at failure or the failure modes.
As the beta (shape factor) ratios were close to unity according to reliability centred maintenance
convention the shaft sleeve failures are age related, and there is a need to review the seal wear and
improve seal reliability. The Weibull plots were discontinuous and this indicates that the failure rate is
not constant and that there was more than one failure mode for the sample. For example, if the gland
follower adjustment is excessive, the radial stress causes increased friction and the packing will burn
resulting in an infant failure. Similarly, the observation that the plots were discontinuous also supports
the case for a mix of potential and functional failures.
From actual maintenance history, the mean time to repair for packing replacement is approximately 2
hours and for a shaft sleeve replacement 10 hours. Hence the pump availability, based on seal reliability
alone, mean time to repair (MTTR) and available operating time, varies between 95 and 99.6% and is
limited by the packing MTBF.
10
Other key performance indicators for sealing are the number or frequency of maintenance interventions,
the cost of the required interventions, and the proportion which is planned. The key point is that the
MTTR for shaft-sleeve replacement and other wet end maintenance such as impeller replacement are
similar. If the shaft sleeve useful life is less than the wet end useful life (which is usually determined by
the impeller and liner life), then the replacement costs for a shaft sleeve is higher, all other things being
equal. All maintenance interventions for the sample pumps were unplanned over a two (2) year period
and this is not surprising considering the variation in the Weibull probability data.
1.4.
Economic significance of wear
The processing of minerals is a significant contributor to Australias export income and slurry pumping
costs, from the authors experience, are a significant part of any wet mineral processing operation. The
total expenditure on pump parts in Australia is approximately $ 200 M per annum while the current total
global spend on pump parts would be in the order of $ 1.5 billion. Assuming 5% of this is for sealing
materials, based on the proportion of seal parts to total wet end parts in a pump, $ 10 M per annum in
Australia and $ 750 M globally is being spent. The life cycle cost of a seal also includes the energy cost
(because there is friction between the packing and shaft sleeve) and the labour cost for maintenance
and operations (adjustment of seals may be executed by operations staff). Standards published by the
European Sealing Association indicate the energy costs alone for some pumping systems are as high
as 25% of the total energy costs in some plants (BHR Group, Hoyes 2005). To this needs to be added
the cost to clean up any leakage resulting from seal failures plus downtime costs and the cost of
damage to other parts of the plant caused by the leakage of corrosive slurry.
To demonstrate the significance of gland seal wear and failure, the life cycle costs were investigated for
the mineral processing operation already mentioned. Within this plant is a counter current decantation
(CCD) slurry filtering circuit with underflow slurry pumps installed for each thickener.
11
The percentage of seal materials allocated to maintenance as a function of total pump materials ranged
between 30 and 40 % for the CCD pumps while absolute costs for seal materials ranged between
25 k AUD and 75 k AUD (over a two year period) per month (Figure 1.8) (Ridgway, O'Neill et al. 2004).
Cost AUD
CCD Gland sealing costs 2001-2002
200000
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
Pump material
Seal material
Pump labour
PU 1
PU 2
PU 3
PU 4
PU 5
PU 6
CCD
Figure 1.8 Gland sealing costs 2001-2002

A review was undertaken for the 220 gland sealed pumps installed (total horizontal slurry pumps
physically installed including the CCD underflow pumps) at the plant over a twelve month period
installed (approximately 100 were in duty with the remainder on standby redundancy). Ten to twenty
shaft sleeves were replaced every month (Figure 1.9a) at a cost of 20 k AUD per month (Figure
1.9b).The spike in costs for month 3 is due to the issue of a large number of spare parts from the central
store which were then stored in satellite stores before actual usage.
12
Figure 1.9a Shaft sleeve usage (quantity)
Figure 1.9b Shaft sleeve usage (cost)

The gland seal must not only perform the function required but its life cycle cost must be minimised and
be consistent with corporate objectives of lowest cash quartile operating cost, including maintenance.
(Mining companies benchmark their operating performance by where they fit in cash costs based on
four quadrants, with a key objective of being in the lowest quartile to be competitive.)
13
All the life cycle cost elements were reviewed for the same twelve month period and normalised against
the milled tonne feed to the plant, which ignores variation in slurry properties, resulting in a cost of
approximately $ 0.17/tonne of milled ore (Table 1.3). The most significant element was the cost of the
gland water itself (ignoring any environmental opportunity costs which are not simple to quantify).
Water for this particular plant operation is sourced from the Great Artesian Basin and the marginal cost
of process gland water includes life cycle elements such as power and maintenance. The unit gland
water cost ranged between $ 0.50 per kL and $ 1.00 per kL.
Table 1.3 Life cycle cost for 12 month period
Life cycle element
Cost per annum

k AUD
Gland process water
627
40
Shaft sleeves/spacers
307
20
Stuffing boxes
137
Restrictors/lantern rings
11
Corrosion end covers
20
Labour
200
13
Packing
250
16
Total cost/year
1550
100
Tonnes
Cost/tonne
9 MTPA
$ 0.17
In conclusion, this example demonstrates that gland seals in slurry pumps are a significant operating
cost based on the shaft sleeve materials used and the opportunity cost of gland water. Worn seal parts
increase the risk of higher gland water usage hence any improvement in seal life will improve the
environment through reduced consumption of scarce water.
14
1.5.
Project objectives and methodology
1.5.1. Introduction
The following research objectives were defined based on the authors experience during 20 years in the
mining industry problem solving seal failures in mineral processing operations and feeling the frustration
experienced by end users of the consequences of unplanned seal failure. There are published
guidelines with reasonable descriptions and empirical rules on seal operation and gland water systems.
However, a number of gaps in the knowledge of slurry pump gland sealing have been identified and
remain to be solved. Prior research has focused on improving the hydraulic performance of the seal,
typically in a slurry-free environment, and over the past century many attempts have been made to
improve the mechanical design of gland seals through different mechanical arrangements, and
materials for the packing and shaft sleeve
There is a lack of understanding of the tribology of gland seals operating in a slurry pump and of the
wear mechanics during the life of the seal which incorporates all of the tribological elements in the
system. The slurry gland seal is lubricated by gland water and particles entrained in the gap contribute
to a continuum of lubricated two and three body wear; ie, the wear mechanisms dont always exist in
isolation.
A tribological approach considering wear, friction (and lubrication) is required to improve the reliability,
useful life and ownership costs of slurry pump gland seals. Identifying the key failure modes in a slurry
environment and developing wear models and wear equations will permit more robust designs and
procedures to be adopted by the mineral processing industry, and will result in improved slurry pump
seal selection criteria.
15
1.5.2. Objectives
A review of seal failures at a large copper mineral processing operation in South Australia and of the
literature has identified significant gaps in knowledge. A key deficiency is the absence of work on the
wear of seals and the development of a model explaining seal wear mechanisms. Over several
decades, there has been a quest to improve the gland seal performance by uniform compression of the
gland packing with limited investigation of the effect of particles within the system; ie, most of the prior
art was concerning gland seals in water pumps.
The major objective of this project is to improve the understanding of three body wear in slurry seals and
to develop an empirical model for the wear of the shaft sleeve in a standard centrifugal slurry pump
gland seal incorporating a range of relevant particle properties. A controlled laboratory experimental
approach was chosen to provide the optimal method of achieving the objectives. It was not the intent of
the research to design a new seal, packing or mechanical arrangement.
1.5.3. Methodology
The mechanics of two and three body wear are complex and are the subject of a significant body of
research. Given the number of controlling variables and costs involved in establishing a wear test rig, an
empirical approach was selected to measure the specific wear rate of the shaft sleeve. A wear test rig
was designed to deliberately inject slurry particles into the packing/shaft sleeve gap to cause wear and
mass loss of the shaft sleeve. The research process included:
1. Reviewing patents for gland seals and published literature on gland seals, packing and wear
mechanics
2. Quantifying the significance of gland seal wear by economic and reliability examples
3. Collecting shaft sleeve and packing samples from several mine sites followed by measurement
of the shaft sleeve wear surface profile to compare these with the theoretical pressure
distribution in the seal
16
4. Designing and developing an experimental wear test rig similar in size and conditions to actual
site conditions to avoid scale effects
5. Commissioning the rig and experimenting with a wide range of particles having varying
hardness values
6. Measuring the specific wear rate (response variable) for each experiment as a function of the
key controlling variables for the particles (these included relative hardness with the shaft sleeve
material, particle size, particle shape, fracture toughness and the gland follower load)
7. Developing a predictive wear model based on the experimental data and introduction of an
equation based on a regression analysis
8. Undertaking a dimensional analysis of the seal wear system
9. Building a more developed qualitative physical wear model of the slurry seal wear from the
observations, experiment results and literature review
17
2.
Seal wear review

2.1.
Introduction
This review of published material will initially consider patents for gland seal development (applied for
and registered in Australia, the UK and the US) followed by consideration of the effects of gland seal
pressure distribution on wear, two and three body wear, and finally the effect of the properties of
particles entering the seal system on wear. The key particle properties are hardness, shape, size and
fracture toughness.
An extensive assessment of the performance of gland seals in a liquor environment revealed a key
body of work summarized in seven reports by the British Hydraulic Research Association during the
1950s. A significant body of work by Denny (Denny 1957; Williams and Xie 1996) focused on the
pressure distribution in a seal. These ideas were further developed by Ochonski (Ochonski and
Machowski 1987) who investigated alternative mechanical arrangements which attempted to apply a
uniform radial stress to the packing. Insignificant work was identified that considered gland sealing in
slurry systems and the subsequent effects of particles on wear (Ridgway, O'Neill et al. 2005).
2.1.1. Component definition

The key components in the slurry pump gland seal are shown below in a component diagram of a
typical rubber-lined slurry pump (Figure 2.1) which is commonly employed in mineral processing to
hydrotransport mineral particles:
1. Shaft sleeve which protects the shaft from wear damage (item 34);
2. Packing rings , normally between three and five rings depending on the pump size (item 32);
3. Lantern restrictor to distribute to water evenly around the packing (item 33);
4. Annular stuffing box which contains the packing (item 35);
5. Gland follower which applies an axial load to the packing (item 31);
18
6. Gland water port for entry of gland water at a pressure higher than the pump impeller boss
pressure (item 38);
NOTE:
This figure is included on page 19 of the print copy of
Figure
2.1 Slurry
gland
components
Minerals
Figure
1 Slurry
sealseal
components
(Weir(Weir
Minerals
Ltd) Ltd)
The wet end of the pump slurry seal is defined as the side closest to the pumped fluid in the casing
and the atmosphere side of the seal (also known as the drive end) is adjacent the gland follower from
which any leakage from the seal is to atmosphere.
2.2.
Patents
A detailed search of the Australian, British and US patent systems was performed to reveal designs
relating to the key components of gland sealing (stuffing box, packing and shaft sleeve) or combinations
of these components that have been registered or applied for to improve gland seal hydraulic
performance or wear life. If the hydraulic performance is inadequate (excessive leakage to atmosphere),
the pumped fluid with particles gradually enters the seal gap resulting in wear of the shaft sleeve or
19
shaft. The patents did not provide a complete picture of the status of gland sealing knowledge.
However, some designs are in current use and interesting tribological principles have been highlighted
by their inventors.
The Australian patents from 1975 to 2002 available on-line or in the IP Australia office, Adelaide, were
reviewed. The most extensive patent listing was discovered in the US Patent database. US Patents are
more accessible than either the Australian or British systems and available in detail from 1776 through
the US Patent Trades office web site and these have been reviewed and described in their
chronological order.
If a patent was registered in more than one jurisdiction then only the US patents have been included in
this review.
This review does not include inventions which claim to improve gland seal maintainability, nor patents
for mechanical face seals or packing chemicals, as these are not relevant to the current research.
2.2.1. Explanatory note

Gland sealing design has been largely empirical for more than a century. Consequently little
fundamental study was applied until the 1950s by the British Hydraulic Research Association. The
following comments on and criticisms of the patents are based on the authors experience of field trials
of equipment which are largely unreported and, in some cases, protected as trade secrets.
2.2.2. Australian Patents

The patents include designs for variations in the mechanical arrangement and packing modifications
which are claimed to improve seal performance and/or wear life.
20
Muragans Dynamic packing seal patent application illustrates a stepped shaft sleeve so that the
packing is axially compressed against the step at the wet end side of the shaft sleeve (Muragan 1998).
The intent is to provide some packing compression at the wet end side of the gland and alleviate the
non-uniform packing pressure distribution. Muragan recognises that the lateral pressure ratio of the
packing material will affect the packing pressure distribution and that packings with high heat transfer
capability may have a relatively low lateral pressure ratio.
NOTE:
Figure 2.2 Stepped shaft sleeve (Muragan 1998)

This design has several problems including:
1. no mathematical model of the pressure distribution is developed;
2. the shaft sleeve is complex and expensive to manufacture;
3. the axial wear face does not provide for/allow for axial adjustment of the impeller/throatbush in a
slurry pump;
4. the packing maximum compressive stress is still at the gland follower end contributing to low
wear life.
Chestertons patent application (Jean and Jean 1980) claimed that a lantern ring design (Figure 2.3)
with preferential flow towards the wet end will reduce shaft wear and reduce the packing
compression. The idea is to provide maximum flushing (flow) towards the wet end, where the
21
packing compression is least, and flush abrasive particles back into the pump wet end. The patent
fails to describe the distribution of the packing compression and the gland water radial or axial
pressure distributions.
NOTE:
Figure 2.3 Chesterton lantern ring (Jean and Jean 1980)
Most of the Australian patents and applications relate to packing designs.
Chestertons patent application (Kozlowski 1977) describes the packing density in a packing under
compression; this was also filed in the US as patent 4100835. When packings are compressed in the
stuffing box the fibres at the inner diameter are compressed and the outer fibres are in tension as
demonstrated by Figure 2.4 below.
NOTE:
Figure 2.4 Packing stress (Kozlowski 1977)

22
The trapezoidal shape is claimed to promote leakage between the packings resulting in the need for
more packing compression force which reduces packing and shaft sleeve life. Chesterton also claimed
this could be achieved by having the core strands helically twisted in one direction and the braid strands
in the opposite direction. These braid strands were angled in such a direction that fluid would be
pumped along the packing/shaft sleeve interface to the wet end.
In the authors experience, the helix pattern is rapidly lost with braid wear and/or packing compression
i.e. the packing material becomes more homogenous in a short time as the voids close and the lubricant
is burnt or washed away by the gland water. It is interesting to note that the application was patented in
the US but not Australia.
Unascos patent application (Bentley 1979) claims to improve the mechanical properties of
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) which is soft and easily extruded under pressure by sintering with carbon
or graphite. The carbon should also improve heat transfer but no data is provided in the patent
application to substantiate the claims.
Chestertons patent application (Kozlowski 1979) introduced a new manufacturing method which
allowed manufacture of the braid helix in either direction. They also included a warp strand in an
opposite helical direction to the braid strand thereby increasing the packing density and they claim
reducing the need for packing compression and reducing wear (Figure 2.5). They were concerned with
lubrication efficiency and the costs of sealing. The ring would be made from an elastomeric material.
23
NOTE:
Figure 2.5 Braided packing construction (Kozlowski 1978)
Chesterton (Kozlowski 1978) patented the basic construction of braided packing and the intent of this
patent was for a braided construction that would provide uniform cross section density when the packing
is compressed around a shaft sleeve and this was seen to be an improvement over the standard
herringbone weave by Garlock in US patent 3646846 (1972). However, detailed examination of this
patent indicates that the principal claim is the addition of graphite or other solid lubricants to the
impregnating suspensoid.
It was recognised by Chesterton's designer Kozlowski that, as the packing is compressed to control
leakage, the lubricant is forced from the packing and washed away by the gland water which increases
the friction and starts the wear process.
Robins, an employee of Finreco, lodged a patent application (Robins 1981) for a self lubricating
packing. They claimed that conventional packings with dispersed lubricants were a waste as the
lubricant was needed at the shaft sleeve/packing interface. His idea was to incorporate a hollow ring
filled with lubricant to be discharged from radial holes when under compression (Figure 2.6).
24
NOTE:
Figure 2.6 Self lubricated packing (Robins 1981)

Manegros patent application (Adorno 1995) is for a composite braid as distinct from composite fibre
(Figure 2.7). Many braided packings use PTFE yarns which are easily extruded from the stuffing box at
high pressure. This problem has been solved by incorporating aramide fibres of high strength and
coated with PTFE at the corners which improves the packing life but increases the shaft sleeve wear
rate. The patent claimed new art by positioning the aramide fibres in the centre of the packing braid and
the softer yarns adjacent the shaft. The application claims that the packing protected the shaft from
uneven wear.
NOTE:
Figure 2.7 Composite yarn (Adorno 1995)

Carraras patent application ((Carrara 1996)) claimed similar ideas to those of Chestertons application
77/511574 and US patent 4100835 noting the uneven compression. Carraras unique idea involves the
creation of trapezoidal-shaped packing in the shape of an isosceles trapezium with the larger base on
25
the extradotal outer side. When the packing is compressed in service the packing shape will be more
uniform. A reduced force would be required for compression and hence there will be less wear on the
shaft.
Tompacs application for a "gland sealing compound injector" (TomPac 1989) specifies a compound
mixture of lubricants and binders such as aramide fibres which is injected into the gland annulus with a
manually-operated positive displacement pump. The intent is to improve gland seal maintainability and
to describe a new gland adjustment process that could be automated. Similar products are available
today from Chesterton, Utex and Rainsflo. These products have not been successful in practice as the
mixture sets hard, forming a solid bush.
Garlock ( (Harrelson 2000) describes a knitting method where filler yarns are pre-stretched during the
construction thereby reducing keystoning and uneven pressure distribution. A further claim is that using
interwarp knitting methods localizes the distribution of yarns and hence low cost filler yarns can be
positioned where they have little effect on the packing performance while low friction yarns are
positioned adjacent the shaft surface where needed most to reduce wear and friction (Figure 2.8).
NOTE:
Figure 2.8 Interwarp knit construction (Harrelson 2000)
26
2.2.3. British Patents
The National Research Development Corporation (Richards 1966) patented a gland seal using hydraulic
uniform radial loading either by means of external grease under pressure or using the sealed fluid itself.
The inventor claimed success with a wear life of hundreds of hours and conditions were reported to be
600 PSI (4 MPa) and 1000 fpm (5.1 m/s) shaft speed. The idea is very similar to the Radpack
marketed by Garlock in the 1960s.
Roth Company (Roth 1964) recognised that the packing compression is non-uniform and, when PTFE
type packings were used, there was considerable shaft damage at the gland follower end. Roth also
claimed that PTFE packing had a low coefficient of friction and his design was relevant for packings with
a low coefficient of friction. Roths patent described a stuffing box with radial grooves in the external
diameter allegedly to preventing the pressure in the pump cavity from unduly pushing the packing back
out of the stuffing box and against the gland member. As demonstrated by Ochonksi, the radial stress
distribution is a function of the packing mechanical properties and applied stress. The radial grooves will
have little if any impact on the radial pressure distribution as the friction coefficient between the packing
and stuffing box bore is not changed.
The Chemical Construction Company (Construction 1965) patented a packing combination using Teflon
O rings and metallic guide rings. Their claim was that there would be a uniform (linear) pressure drop
across each packing ring. The net effect of the design is a series of packings in the form of large O rings
and there is nothing novel in the design (Figure 2.9). There is no explanation of how the uniform
compression may improve life of the packing /shaft sleeve and oil is referred to as the hydrostatic
packing fibre boundary lubricant (Ochonski 1988).
27
NOTE:
Figure 2.9 Packing spline arrangement (Construction 1965)

Du Pont (Rhodes and Ruddy 1973) described a new packing yarn containing a composite of PTFE and
polyamide filaments (ie, a mixed filament yarn) which was claimed to prevent shaft leakage in pumps.
Crossley (Taylor 1970) patented a similar idea noting that PTFE has a low coefficient of friction and
highly chemical resistant but had the disadvantage of poor thermal conductivity and excessive
expansion which results in swelling of the packing, excessive heat, and premature failure of packing if
the gland follower load is excessive. They revealed a composite yarn including graphite filaments to
improve heat transfer.
Flexibox (Flexibox 1974) patented a radially loaded hydraulic gland seal mechanical arrangement noting
that shaft sleeve wear is uneven with a conventional axially loaded gland seal. The packing is contained
within a rubber carrier and an external pressure is applied to the carrier (Figure 2.10).
28
NOTE:
Figure 2.10 Hydraulic radial gland (Flexibox 1974)

Esso (Shaw 1969) also revealed that the radial packing pressure distribution is uneven and any
excessive local pressure causes undue wear a the region of contact with the shaft. The patent
revealed an internally spring loaded gland with a reduced number of packings to even out the radial
pressure distribution (Figure 2.11).
NOTE:
Figure 2.11 Combined tandem seal (Shaw 1969)
29
2.2.4. US Patennts Mechanical Arrangements
Kerr (Kerr 1907) proposed a reverse packed gland as a means of evening out
o the radial packing stress.
In the authors experience the key problem with this gland type is that the innternal gland follower and tie
rods are exposed to the fluid and would seize in a short time (Figure 2.12).
Figure 2.12 Reverse packed gland (Kerr 1907)

The spring loaded gland follower was patented by Everett (Everett 19477) and it is interesting that,
a important issue in gland
despite wide recognition inn the industry that gland follower adjustment is an
seal life, this method of appplying the packing stress is not in use today (Figurre 2.13).
NOTE:
Fig
gure 2.13 Spring loaded gland follower (Everett 19947)
30
Johansson (Johansson 1980) patented a radial hydraulic seal in 1980 based on experience in the pulp
and paper industry (Figure 2.14). Water or a fluid is applied to the external surface of the packing rings
and item 48 has lips at either end to seal this fluid from the pumped medium. As the external surface
area is greater than the inner diameter surface area, the pumped medium may be used as the hydraulic
adjustment medium. This concept is very similar to the Tompac sealing injector.
NOTE:
Figure 2.14 Radial hydraulic seal (Johansson 1980)

Chestertons patent (Rockwood and Antowiak 1983) covered the vertical packing gland or radial gland
seal, which is still on the market today. One of the key features is that the shaft sleeve is eliminated but
replaced with a radial sacrificial wear plate (item 209, Figure 2.15).
NOTE:
Figure 2.15 Chesterton vertical packing chamber (Rockwood and Antowiak 1983)
31
Chesterton had claimed thaat this seal would solve all of Alcoas alumina refinnery sealing problems as the
packing is compressed evvenly. In practice it was found that the adjustm
ment of the follower is very
sensitive and either the gland
g
would leak excessively or the packing would burn indicating that the
relationship between the packing
p
lateral pressure ratio and adjustment metthod was never considered.
For a conventionally applied load by gland follower bolting the packing was
w too easily compressed
beyond the residual limit which
w
is defined by its load versus lateral presssure ratio (K) curve for that
particular packing (K incrreases as the load increases and if there is only one row this would be
exacerbated).
There are very few verticcal packing chambers in service today despite the patent and marketing
rhetoric. Another problem is that the seal adjustment and impeller positions are
a both related whereas an
axial gland seal has indepeendent components.
Ahlstrom (Vaisanen 1990) patented a gland system incorporating two glannd seals effectively in series
and each seal is clamped at
a a different rate (deformation) based on different thread pitches of the gland
follower bolt (Figure 2.16).
NOTE:
Figure 2.16 Series gland seal (Vaisanen 1990)
32
Warman (Burgess 1998) patented a uniform compression gland as part of itss development program with
Alcoa. No published reporrts exist on the trials as the design was not succeessful but anecdotal reports
indicate the design was sensitive
s
to adjustment similar to the Chestertoon vertical packed chamber
(Figure 2.17).
NOTE:
Fig
gure 2.17 Uniform compression gland (Burgess 19998)
Nippon Pillar Packing (Hasshiguchi and Ueda 2002) patented a back to back spring-loaded gland with
self-centring capability (Figgure 2.18). When gland seals are offset to the shhaft sleeve the leakage rate
increases substantially andd there is a larger gap for particle entry and hencee wear, shortening the useful
life. The author Hashiguchhi also recognised the problem of exponential raddial pressure in conventional
packed glands and this patent was an attempt to provide a means to even out the pressure distribution
w a reverse oriented gland
by applying the load at bothh ends of the stuffing box. One of the key points with
is that the higher radial pressure acts against the shaft sleeve nearest thhe pumped fluid and this is
preferred compared to the conventional pressure distribution.
33
NOTE:
Figure 2.18 Nippon Pillar spring loaded gland (Hashiguchi andd Ueda 2002)
The patent allowed for shaafts that vibrate or go eccentric but this is not releevant to slurry pumps which
have shafts with low slendeerness ratios (L3/D4 where L is the shaft length andd D the diameter).
Alcan (Delaney 2002) highhlighted in some detail the problems of frequent gland
g
adjustments with cost
and labour and noted thatt as the packing/shaft sleeve radial gap increasess, slurry enters the gap and
leakage begins. They proposed a combined gland seal and mechanical facee seal installed in the stuffing
box bore, and claim that the face seal would prevent entry of particles into thhe packing radial gap.
2.2.5. US Patennt packing design
Considerable development has taken place in the last 200 years with glaand packings but, given the
limited amount of commerccially-available data on the mechanical propertiess and lubricants used, some
of the technology is secret...
34
Packings have been employed at least since the 1750s for steam engine piston rod glands. In the late
1880s, as the pressure of engines increased with the introduction of superheat and the design of higher
pressure boilers, packings were developed to suit.
Winans, 1881 described square formed packing with a rubber core and the spaces filled with tallow
(grease). The rubber was designed to give the packing resilience and the braiding was relatively simple
in design, built up in sequential layers to provide mechanical strength (Figure2.19).
Figure 2.19 Winans braided packing (Winans 1881)

Interwoven braided packing was introduced in the 1930s and a patent by Blaisdell (Blaisdell 1930)
describes the complicated weaving pattern to manufacture the packing (Figure2.20). Until the 1930s,
packings were very easily damaged as the yarns were layered and would disintegrate as the packing
wore. Braided packing features interlocking of the threads and series within the packing centre. As the
packing and shaft (or shaft sleeve) wears, the shape is retained.
35
Figure 2.20 Blaisdell woven braid (Blaisdell 1930)

Garlock introduced impregnated packing in 1964 to improve wear life. The lubricant cited is Teflon in the
form of a paste which is applied to each strand. The Teflon is a fine powder mixed with a thickening
agent of sufficient viscosity to keep the Teflon in suspension. Methylcellulose is mentioned as a
thickening agent and Triton X-100 as a wetting agent. The distribution by weight is shown in Table 2.1:
Table 2.1 Components used in Teflon lubricating paste
cellulose
1.2%
Triton
0.2%
Teflon 40 mesh size
49.0%
water
49.6%
As the packing is formed the shape is calendered and the packing is heated in an oven to dry off any
residual moisture.
The patent was more concerned with cost saving as scrap Teflon is cited rather than new Teflon
material. A typical braiding machine (Webster, Houghton et al. 1964) which is used today by all
manufacturers of packing is shown in Figure 2.21. The yarn carriers are guided by tracks in the bed and
driven by gears hidden from view.
36
NOTE:
Figure 2.21 Braiding machine (Webster, Houghton et al. 1964)

Garlocks US Patent (Houghton and Dixit 1972) introduced the lubricated herringbone weave packing
using graphite fibres which became the accepted industry standard and is still in common use today
(Figure 2.22). This packing differed from prior art by the addition of solid lubricants such as graphite
mixed with a dispersion liquid (also described as fluorocarbon resin such as the polymer PTFE) .The
ideal mixture described is equal weights of graphite, water and PTFE suspensoid. The fibres are coated
before and after braiding. A crystalline lattice layer structure is briefly mentioned.
NOTE:
Figure 2.22 Herringbone weave (Houghton and Dixit 1972)
37
Garlock's claim suggests reeduced friction on pump start up reducing early liffe failures. However, the unit
cost of these graphite paccking materials is excessive compared to standard aramid fibre types with
PTFE boundary lubricants .
Gore and Associates patent (Gore 1976a) revealed the manufacture off porous Teflon continuous
filaments which may be ussed in the construction of packing. The key poinnt of their design is that the
microstructure of the amorrphous Teflon consists of nodes interconnected by
b fibrils which facilitates the
impregnation of packing fibbres with lubricants i.e. there is space between thhe nodes and strength is not
compromised. The Teflon is expanded at a temperature exceeding 327oC (melting point) and then
cooled (Figure 2.23).
NOTE:
Figure 2.23 Teflon structure (Gore 1976a)
Gore and Associates furtther developed packing recognising that PTFE fibre or lubricant has the
disadvantage that the therrmal energy developed during the start up/break in process is not transferred
by PTFE, which has low thhermal conductivity. The patent revealed a combinnation of PTFE and graphite
paste whereby the graphitte acts as a lubricant and conductor of heat andd is entrapped by the PTFE
fibrils when the mixture is sheared, hence making the lubricant less suscepptible to separating from the
fibres (Gore 1976a).
38
Nippon Pillar (Ueda 1997) introduced graphite tape rather than fibres. The taape is folded in the direction
of the packing width and sttrengthened by longitudinal fibres (Figure 2.24).
NOTE:
Figure 2.24 Folded graphite tape (Ueda 1997)

As explained by the patent, expanded graphite has a low tensile strengtth and is fragile hence the
construction method must consider how the packing is to be cut for maintennance purposes. They claim
that graphite tape woundd around a fibre or packing punched from sheet
s
lacks versatility and
exaggerates leakage betw
ween layers. This material is in common use todaay to reduce the friction and
wear of slurry pump gland seal shaft sleeves.
They also claimed that the folded layer eliminates slip between the laminatedd packings manufactured by
other methods and therefore improves shape retention.
Ueda (Ueda, Konaka et al.. 1993) then patented similar laminated packing but with a zigzag folded layer
(Figure 2.25). The main claaim was that, due to the packing shape, there is noo slip in the axial direction of
the shaft and hence less paacking relaxation as creep is reduced.
39
NOTE:
Figure 2.25 Laminated packing (Ueda, Konaka et al. 1993)

Further work by Ueda revealed moulded graphite packing. Laminated graphite tape is spirally wound
and then moulded to shape, possibly including some metal reinforcing to maintain shape. The key
benefit claimed is that this type of packing requires a low gland follower force and causes low shaft
sleeve wear.
Tsukamoto (Tsukamoto 2001) designed laminated packing using expanded graphite tape and PTFE
combined by twisting them into a yarn (Figure 2.26).
NOTE:
Figure 2.26 Expanded graphite/PTFE composite (Tsukamoto 2001)

The idea was to combine the strength of PTFE with the lubricating and heat conducting properties of
graphite and compensate for its low tensile strength. The patent revealed that there is an optimum
graphite density of 0.8 to 2.2 g/cm3: above this the surface roughness is low and results in low bond
strength to the PTFE while below a higher surface roughness compromises the sealing ability. The
40
number of twists per meter is approximately 55 to 70 and is related to optimum bond strength. To
successfully bond with the graphite, the PTFE must be porous with a pore size of 0.05 to 15 m.
2.3.
The Effect of pressure distribution on wear
2.3.1. Introduction
The scientific work on gland seals is primarily concerned with liquor process pumps which do not have
particles in the pumped fluid. The following review is of major works from the BHRA (published as
internal reports for corporations with commercial interests), and scientific papers in the public domain.
2.3.2. British Hydraulic Research Association reports

The BHRA published an extensive set of internal reports on the performance of gland seals in a liquor.
They performed a range of experiments on different packing materials and stuffing box designs.
Denny published internally a seminal work on the force analysis of stuffing box seals and derived a
mathematical relationship between the radial and axial pressures (Denny 1957). Denny assumed that
the packing transmits pressure like a fluid and that the lateral pressure ratio equalled unity.
PR = P.e ( 1 + 2 ) l / t
Equation 2.1 Denny radial pressure
Where:
PR = radial pressure (kPa)
P = axial pressure (kPa)
1 = friction for packing on the shaft
2 = friction for packing on the stuffing box
l = stuffing box depth/packing (mm)
t = packing thickness (mm)
41
The packing radial pressure decays exponentially due to packing friction in the stuffing box housing.
This was proved by developing a linear test rig where packing was stacked in series and the applied
and reaction loads were measured. The exponential distribution was proven by loading successive
numbers of linear packings.
Turnbull, 1958 revealed that at low pressures the distribution is more even than for high pressures
where the bulk of the pressure drop, (up to 80%) occurs across the first row of packing (atmosphere
end) adjacent the gland follower.
Denny, 1959 evaluated the inverted stuffing box design and found that leakage rates are reduced with
this design for high speed duties. This is an expensive and complicated arrangement seldom used
today.
Austin and Nau, 1971 conducted a number of experiments with a purpose-built test rig using different
packing materials and monitored leakage and gland force. The seal was lubricated with water and no
particles were in the system. They reported wear of the shaft but it was not quantified. Wear was
observed to be greatest at the wet (fluid pressure) end and the grooves were up to 4 x 10-3 inches
(101.6 m) deep.
Nau, 1968 conducted experiments with radially packed glands and reported uniform leakage rates over
10,000 hour tests. Shaft wear was observed and again there was no quantification of the wear or
explanation of the mechanism.
Nau and Austin, 1969 completed a life cycle cost review of a standard gland seal test rig incorporating
two glands mounted back-to-back (Figure 2.27) with a range of operating liquids including fresh water,
lubricating oil, diesel and saltwater.
42
NOTE:
Figure 2.27 BHRA gland seal test rig (Nau and Austin 1969)
Wear was highest at the gland follower end (position 20) with the exception of saltwater. Saltwater was
the most abrasive fluid at the wet end (fluid pressure) side of the shaft. Premature failure was caused by
crystallization in the gap and occurred within 100 hours. The groove depth was typically 11 x 10-4 inches
(27.9 m) compared to 1.55 x 10-4 inches (3.9 m) for fresh water. Profile measurements were based
on spot measurements at 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) intervals (Figure 2.28). They indicated that wear was
not uniform across the shaft in all experiments and did not follow an exponential function. No
experiments were performed with slurries.
NOTE:
Figure 2.28 Shaft sleeve wear (Nau and Austin 1969)
43
2.3.3. Scientific papers

Following the early works of the BHRA, analyses of the pressure distribution were published through the
International Fluid Sealing Conferences and in other technical papers. (Thomson 1961) published an
extensive pressure analysis of a gland seal which is consistent with the prior BHRA work. It was noted
that the wear is proportional to the contact stress and highest at the atmosphere end.
Coopey, 1965 revealed that, when seals were exposed to a slurry, the highest wear occurred at the
pump wet end (fluid pressure) due to entrainment of particles into the gap.
Allen and Rieder, 1968 did new work on the design and experimental evaluation of an inverted and
skewed gland seal where the packing rings were not normal to the axis of rotation but were rotated with
the stuffing box. They found that the coefficient of friction was reduced and the seal more stable to
operate. The design concept attempted to improve packing heat transfer by alternately covering and
uncovering the seal interface. Reduced coefficients of friction were reported but no wear results were
detailed.
Seal shaft sleeve wear became a more important issue from the 1970s. Austin highlighted the following
factors in seal wear:
1. Type of fluid and abrasives contained
2. Shaft sleeve material
3. Packing material and lubricants
4. Packing stress/pressure distribution
5. Shaft speed and temperature
Bohner, Blemke et al, 1975 published work on the lateral stress ratio, deformation and relaxation of
packings and made a significant contribution to the knowledge of packing properties including definition
of their physical, mechanical and chemical properties. Early work by Denny et al failed to consider the
44
viscoelastic behaviour of the packing and the lateral pressure ratio which is the ratio between applied
axial stress and radial stress (K = 0 when incompressible, = 1.0 when hydrostatic). A complex
relationship exists between the coefficient of friction, applied gland follower load, time and lateral
pressure ratio. For small K values and a given leakage rate the gland force required is small; however,
the pressure distribution is less even. As the K value increases, the gland load required is smaller but
the rate of decrease in radial pressure is higher than smaller K value packings. The work also identified
the property of packing stress relaxation as a contributing factor to wear (Figure 2.29). As the number of
gland adjustments (deformations) increases the residual stress increases and the packing approaches a
solid bush over infinity (K =0).
The stress relaxation reduces over time after each successive adjustment of the gland follower until
there is negligible relaxation. Before this point is reached the initial relaxation may be up to 75%, hence
the gland follower load and adjustment strategy are key variables in gland seal performance and wear.
(Wallace and Collins 1975) revealed that the radially packed gland was commercially manufactured and
tested by Flexibox with the aim of providing uniform compression and reducing wear of the shaft at the
atmosphere end. Their work showed that the fluid pressure distribution was also a function of the
hydrostatic gland water pressure, run time and gland follower load.
NOTE:
Figure 2.29 Stress relaxation (Bohner, Blenke et al. 1975)
45
Ochonski and Machowski, 1987 compared a number of new seal arrangements to provide a more
uniform radial pressure distribution . Several designs were tested including a reverse inverted gland,
loaded by individual disk springs; individually loading rings; and stepped packing sizes. Typically friction
was 20 to 25% lower for the reverse inverted gland compared to the standard gland seal (Figure 2.30).
NOTE:
Figure 2.30 New seal arrangements (Ochonski and Machowski 1987)

The radial pressure distribution (Figure 2.31) was based on the Denny equation with the insertion of the
lateral pressure ratio:
q ( x ) = K ( x )
Equation 2.2 Radial stress and
( x) = D .e ( 2 Kl / s )
Equation 2.3 Axial stress
Where:
q(x) = radial packing stress (kPa)
K = lateral pressure ratio
= coefficient of friction between the packing and stuffing box
D = gland follower applied stress (kPa)
(x) = packing axial stress (kPa)
s = packing thickness (mm)
l = length of packing (mm)
46
NOTE:
Figure 2.31 Radial pressure distribution in a gland seal (Ochonski and Machowski 1987)
Ochonski later conducted experiments to verify the actual radial pressure distribution compared to the
theoretical distribution. He developed a new relationship to describe the packing lateral pressure ratio
as a function of a number of material constants.
(Flitney 1986) verified that the radially-packed gland seal was not commercially viable due to the
complexity of manufacture, despite the benefits of a more uniform pressure distribution. The mechanical
properties of PTFE, graphite and aramide packing material were discussed. Flitney concluded that
aramide fibre displayed better creep and recovery than PTFE but was abrasive to shafts. Wear was not
quantified for the different packing materials.
47
Shevchenko, 1989 reported another novel method of uniform pressure distribution by deliberately
introducing deflection into the shape of the stuffing box bore using a plastic material so that the
deflection under the gland load would compensate for the packing radial pressure distribution (Figure
2.32). The stuffing box was termed a compliant casing and was manufactured and installed in a
commonly sized 150/100 pump. No data is reported in the work to validate the design.
Figure 2.32 Compliant casing (Shevchenko 1989)

Warman International considered a new uniform compression gland, the cone gland (Figure 2.33), as
a trial for slurry pumps installed in Alcoas refineries (Bushell 1992). This design competed with the
Chesterton vertical packing chamber which was claimed to be easier to adjust. However in practice the
vertical packing chamber was not favoured by the market as it was very sensitive to adjust and was
found to cause packing burn out when the gland follower was adjusted too tightly.
48
The seal type is 10 to 15 times more sensitive to adjust than the conventional packed gland (Ridgway,
O'Neill et al. 2004). The cone gland would also have been difficult to manufacture and, because the
vertical packing chamber was not successful, the cone gland was not manufactured for experiment.
NOTE:
Figure 2.33 Cone gland (Bushell 1992)

Recently several suppliers have marketed bushes to replace the standard lantern restrictor which, they
claim, will centrifuge slurry particles away from the packing and back into the pump, thereby reducing
shaft sleeve wear (Figure 2.34 and Figure 2.35). However, there is little scientific data available to verify
their performance .
49
NOTE:
Figure 2.34 Centrifuge type bushes (Technologies 2001)

Garlock (Figure 2.35) are claiming, in recent publications, a reduction in seal gland water of 50 to 80%
and that the bush reduces significantly shaft/sleeve wear without any verification of the claim
(Technologies 2008).
Figure 2.35 Garlock seal bush
2.3.4. Summary
The Patent literature catalogues a large number of gland seal developments over time but the actual
design principles are often hidden by legal language that is designed not to be interpreted irrespective
50
of the patents protection. Improved packing construction and materials have been developed in the last
century. Most authors acknowledge that the wear life of the seal (shaft sleeve and packing) needs to be
improved. In recent years, the material properties of the packing have been examined closely at the
micro level but little of this information is publicly available. Recent patents provide some direction for
tribological review of PTFE/graphite packing lubricant composites with shaft sleeves used in slurry
pumps.
The patented gland seal designs and published literature demonstrate that many inventors and
engineers have been chasing the holy grail of uniform compression without any useful result to the end
user. This supports the need for a tribological model of the actual wear process and a better
understanding of the influence particles have on seal wear during non ideal conditions.
Neither Ochonski nor Schevchenko considered modeling the vertical packing chamber or some
combination of radial and packed glands.
2.3.5. Seal wear experiments

Relatively little work has been undertaken on seal wear experiments. Hart et al recognised this
deficiency in their analysis of lip seal wear (Hart 1999), clearly demonstrated by their words practically
no work has been done on the failure modes of rotating shaft seals. They employed laser-induced
fluorescence techniques to analyse lip seal wear and found that dirt builds up to a critical thickness
which then breaks the oil surface tension and forms pits in the dirt layer allowing a mass flow of oil.
Ayala used an identical technique to quantify the oil film thickness and particle bed thickness under a
rubber lip seal. It was found that a dimpled lip seal surface with raised protrusions broke the dirt clusters
and allowed the lower regions to act as reservoirs of lubricant for the high contact pressure regions
(Ayala, Hart et al. 1998).
51
A shaft sleeve tester was developed by Warman International Ltd and consisted of a shaft sleeve
specimen rotating in a slurry bath with packing subjected to a constant load applied by a lever. It is
important to note that the packing load is constant and applied evenly over the shaft sleeve length which
does not represent the actual tribolological conditions (Mitchell, Huggett et al. 1990). This test was used
effectively to rank the wear resistance of different shaft sleeve materials (Figure 2.36).
NOTE:
Figure 2.36 Shaft sleeve tester (Mitchell, Huggett et al. 1990)

As expected, fine particles have a greater ability to enter the seal gap and increase wear rate. Sharp
beach sand produced a higher wear rate than rounder river sand particles. The wear rate was reported
as a wear rate factor equal to the sample wear rate (mass loss) divided by the wear rate for a
martensitic stainless steel shaft sleeve over a 20 hour test (Figure 2.37). Increasing the shaft sleeve
hardness was found to reduce the wear rate factor (Huggett and Varjvandi 1989).
52
NOTE:
Figure 2.37 Warman shaft sleeve tests (Huggett and Varjvandi 1989)
2.4.
Two body abrasive wear
Two-body wear occurs between two surfaces. When they are in contact, material is removed from one
of them by the relative movement. Archards equation (originally devised for adhesive contact) is
normally used to describe two body wear. The wear is directly proportional to the load and sliding
distance, and inversely proportional to the surface hardness of the wearing material (Williams 1999).
W = K Ps / H and SWR = K / H
Equation 2.4 Archards equation
Where:
K is a dimensionless constant or non dimensional wear coefficient.
H = hardness of wearing material (Vickers Hardness Number or GPa)
P = contact load (N)
s = travel distance (m)
W = wear volume removed (mm3)
The ratio K/H is the specific wear rate SWR or dimensional wear coefficient. High stress abrasion
occurs when the particles are fractured during the wear process.
53
During the life cycle of a seal, entrained particles are expected to be initially wedged in the packing,
forming a two body abrasive wear mechanism; then, as the gap increases relative to the particle size, a
three body wear mechanism develops. Particles can be represented by a three dimensional pyramid
with 2 the dihedral angle and the attack angle to the wearing surface (Figure 2.38).
Figure 2.38 Asperity or particle geometry (Williams 1999)

The particle shape influences the dihedral angle, and range of potential attack angles shown in Figure
2.39 below. The rates of wear are also different between the contact processes of cleaving, cutting, and
ploughing. Micromachining (cutting) rates are relatively higher when the volume of material lost
increases the machining efficiency; hence reducing friction actually causes a relatively higher machining
rate.
Figure 2.39 Abrasive wear modes (Kato, Hokkirigawa et al. 1986), (Williams and Xie 1996)
54
When the particle shape is sufficiently acute (sharp) the material deformation mode moves from elastic
to plastic. Given a sharp particle, and provided the attack angle is greater than some critical value,
cutting is possible (Williams and Xie 1996).
Williams expanded this work with a wear map showing the ratio Hs/Hb which is a measure of the softer
materials work hardening; the solid lines show the separation between cutting and ploughing processes.
It is important to note that spherical particles have an angle approaching 180 degrees and low attack
angle and vice versa (Figure 2.40) , hence spherical particles cause less wear.
Figure 2.40 Wear mode map (Williams and Xie 1996)

This wear map emphasizes the importance of particle shape and hardness in two and three body
lubricated abrasive wear (note the attack angle is usually represented by ). Particles can be
considered as machine tools and the mechanics of orthogonal cutting apply (Figure 2.41). Smaller and
angular particles have higher attack angles and a higher shear rate of the deformed surface. When the
55
attack angle is low, ploughing is the dominant mechanism; as the attack angle is increased, a critical
value is reached and the dominant wear mode is cutting or micro-machining.
Figure 2.41 Orthogonal cutting mechanics (Kalpakjian 1985)
2.5.
Three body abrasive wear
Three body abrasion occurs when hard particles are free to roll or slide between two surfaces. There is
relatively little work published in this area. There are three tribo elements in the wear system: the two
wear surfaces and the particle. Direct observation during wear is difficult and therefore few deterministic
models have been developed. The wear rate is generally an order of magnitude less than the two body
wear under comparable conditions; however, this may not be the case when hard particles become
embedded in a softer surface (Williams 1997) .
The wear rate for three body wear has been found by experimental testing and empirical models as well
as numerical simulation. There is a range of laboratory test methods including rubber wheel, steel
wheel, pin on disc, and ball cratering tribometers (Stachowiak and Stachowiak 2002). Their work with
three body testing reported that the wear mechanism is a function of the critical ratio of load to slurry
concentration. Two body cutting wear was related to high load/low concentration and rolling wear to low
load/high concentration.
56
Misra et al (Misra and Finnie 1979) reviewed the literature and defined closed three body wear when
loose particles are trapped between two sliding or rolling surfaces close to one another. The
classification can then be further subdivided into high or low stress. They designed and conducted a
range of three body wear tests with a low stress open three body wear tester and found that the wear
rate for three body wear is not linear at low loads but then approaches linearity (Figure 2.42).
NOTE:
Figure 2.42 Wear of AISI 1020 steel with SiC particles (Misra and Finnie 1979)
Fang et al (2004) revealed that, when all the particles slide together, three body abrasion can be
considered as two body abrasion. Their work modeled abrasive wear by a probability distribution
combining the cutting and ploughing contributions. (Fang, Liu et al. 2004) predicted the wear rate of
materials by a Monte Carlo simulation of spherical particles in a three body system and compared this
with a ring on plate test. Their work revealed the shear stress distribution below the surface is different
for rolling and sliding particles: sliding particles have stress closer to the wear surface for wear by plastic
deformation (ploughing).
2.6.
Effect of particle hardness on wear
Minerals are quantified in hardness by a variety of methods. Moh developed a relative measure of
hardness based on the ability of a mineral to be scratched by another. This scale ranges from talc at
57
one and diamond at ten; however, this range is not linear when compared with the actual
microhardness of the minerals. The earths crust contains mainly silica (quartz) which has a hardness of
Moh = 6.0 to 7.0 (Nesse 2000). Today, hardness is quantifed by mechanical test methods such as the
Vickers hardness tester through measurement of the applied load and indentation.
The ratio of metal hardness (H) to the abrasive hardness (Ha) has been demonstrated by Kruschov,
Mutton and Hurricks et al to be important in determining the abrasion resistance of materials (Mutton
1980), (Williams 1997). A critical ratio of H/Ha is shown to exist at a value of 0.6. Above this ratio the
wear resistance of a material significantly increases (Figure 2.43). It is important to note that most of this
work relates to two body abrasive wear.
NOTE:
Figure 2.43 Effect of metal to abrasive hardness ratio (Mutton 1980)

Three body abrasive wear of mild steel and white iron were investigated by Stachowiak and it was found
that wear increased with the hardness of the abrasive particles (Stachowiak and Stachowiak 2002).
However, it was also found that quartz has a higher wear rate than silica; although they have the same
hardness, the quartz is more angular in shape.
Williams summarised the work on relative hardness, neatly noting that an asperity in one material can
only abrade another should the difference in hardness be at least 20% greater -- which is the basis of
Mohs scale (Williams 1997). This work reveals that there is a relationship between the particle size,
58
shape and hardness. For high attack angles (sharp, lower roundness factor) the mechanical strength of
a particle reduces. The ratio H= Ha/Hs (note this ratio is the inverse of Muttons work) must be
exceeded for abrasion to be possible. For example, if Ha/Hs is equal to or less than 1.4 then asperities
with attack angles less than 45 degrees would be fractured rather than cause wear on the surface.
Figure 2.44 Relative hardness and shape (Williams 1997)

Consequently the hardness of the triboelements in a slurry seal are all relevant to the wear model.
Archards equation for two body wear, originally proposed for adhesive wear, is a useful starting point
and includes the hardness of the wearing material. However, it does not consider the hardness of all the
triboelements in a three body system and published work on relative wear resistance is for two body
abrasive wear experiments.
The seminal work of Williams et al on lubricated contacts highlights the overlooked hardness effect
also known as the hardness paradox, whereby particles become entrapped in a softer surface in a three
body lubricated system (Williams and Hyncica 2001). The work of Axen et al shows that the wear of a
surface actually increases when the counterbody is softer as particles become embedded in the softer
surface and conditions effectively move from three body to two body wear (Figure 2.45). This means
that making a surface softer compared to another may actually increase the specific wear rate and is a
paradox of relative hardness.
59
NOTE:
Figure 2.45 Axen dimple grinder test (Williams and Hyncica 2001)
Miller and Miller also found that the wear rate of materials is a function of the particle hardness. Their
experiment, now standardised by ATSM G75-89, is a three body test. Four wear materials are
reciprocated under load simultaneously between slurry particles and a neoprene lap (Miller and Miller
1993). The rate of mass loss is measured and converted to a standard Miller number and Slurry
Abrasion Response of Materials (SAR) number. This work revealed a direct relationship between Miller
number and particle hardness (Figure 2.46). The test was originally designed to evaluate the
degradation of particles rather than wear rate.
NOTE:
Figure 2.46 Miller number (Miller and Miller 1993)
60
Published values of the mineral hardness in terms of the Vickers Hardness number have been included
in the chart for comparison and the correlation with Miller number is strong which accentuates the
importance of particle hardness in a seal wear system.
2.7.
The effect of particle size on wear
There is little published work on the impact of particle size on seal wear. Slurry particles in mineral
process circuits range between a top size of 30 mm in a milling circuit down to several microns.
Typically in a flotation circuit the particle size is less than 100 microns. Roco, 1990 characterized a
material with a non-uniform size distribution by a representative particle size equal to the 85% passing
size (d85) and this was employed in an erosive wear model for pump impeller and liner wear.
Misra and Finnie, 1981 found that there is a limiting critical particle size in both two and three body
abrasion of ductile materials and the wear process is less efficient below a particle size of 100 microns
(Figure 2.47). They concluded that there is a shallow surface layer in the abraded material which has a
higher flow stress than the bulk material for fine particle wear.
Figure 2.47 Particle size effect for copper sample (Misra and Finnie 1981)
61
Generally the erosion wear rate is proportional to the particle size by a power constant between 0.3 and
1.2 (Ghandi and Borse 2003) . The mean diameter was found not to be representative of the equivalent
size; it is thought that the finer particles provide a fine boundary layer to lessen the impact of larger
particles resulting in a reduction in collision efficiency.
2.7.1. The effect of seal gap

The published work in lubricated abrasive contacts has been limited until the work of Williams et al
(Williams and Hyncica 2001). This work found that there is a critical gap in journal bearings in relation to
the particle size entrained in the lubricating fluid.
The Archard equation is used for two body wear. In three body conditions, where there are slurry
particles in the seal gap (h) between the packing and shaft sleeve, the wear mechanics are more
complicated.
Williams highlighted that, when the particle size is small, particles tumble through the gap and cause
random erosive wear. As the size approaches a critical ratio the mechanism changes to micro
machining and ploughing. Particles enter the gap and become embedded in the softer surface (bearing
journal) and rotate until a force equilibrium is reached and machining of the harder and softer surface
results with the line of force acting offset to the particle centre (Figure 2.48). The resulting angle of
particle inclination is also a function of the surface relative hardness. If the surfaces A and B have
similar hardness the reaction forces are aligned with the particle centre. The orientation 2 of the particle
on the right is related to the hardness of the two surfaces. If the relative hardness between the surfaces
is greater than unity, then 2 > 1 the particles are encouraged to embed in the softer surface and the
wear rate of the harder surface is actually increased. Embedment of particles in seal packings is
intuitively expected as they have a braided lattice structure and a low overall hardness. Note that this
62
analysis by Williams does not include the physical properties of hardness and fracture toughness of the
particle.
NOTE:
Figure 2.48 Particle equilibrium (Williams and Hyncica 2001)
2.8.
The effect of particle shape on wear
The effect of particle shape on wear is revealed in early works on the analysis of wear debris found in
condition monitoring of engine lubricants. This work relates to the shape description of the particles
resultant from the worn surface rather than the foreign particles in the system.
The science of shape description is complicated and today there is no one universal method of accurate
quantification. Particles have a three dimensional shape and are anisotropic as the shape and
properties of a particle are not consistent depending on the particle orientation and direction of analysis
ie orientation of the particle in relation to the view by digital imaging or optical measurement.
For many years the mining industry has described particles as round, semi-angular or angular, based on
simple observation. Particles may also be described in geometric terms as oblate (rounded) or prolate
(elongated) (Pellegrin and Stachowiak 2002). When particles fracture, they may break along cleavage
63
planes of the greatest atomic density or there may be no clear demarcation at all, resulting in a
conchoidal, irregular, hackly or splintery surface (Nesse 2000).
A particle surface is a complicated mechanical surface which does not have a direct analogy to an
orthogonal machine cutting tool. A particle may, in fact, have multiple vertices where the cleavage
planes meet, capable of wearing a surface by machining, ploughing or fatigue.
Kato et al examined the three dimensional shape effect of particles on two body abrasive wear and
found that the dihedral angle of a particle has an effect on wear rate and wear mode. Generally the
wear rate increases linearly with attack angle in both dry and lubricated conditions (Kato, Hokkirigawa et
al. 1986).
There is a plethora of quantitative descriptors available based on the interpretation of two dimensional
SEM images for particle sizes generally less than 100 micron in size. There are many potential errors in
using these images including the resolution and magnification of the particle (for example, many
surfaces exhibit a wide range of topographical features over a wide range of scales). This was revealed
by Majumdar et al for the analysis of topography, noting that different resolutions and scan lengths give
different parameter results commonly known as parameter rush. In addition the particle boundary
should be measured with the surface topography (Majumdar and Bhushan 1990). There are a range of
reasonable descriptors today for the particle boundary; however, the characterization of topography is
still a relatively new area of science.
Roylance Raadnui, 1993 and classified the morphology of particles by three qualitative features:
1.
Outline shape (regular, irregular, circular or elongated)
2.
Edge detail ie, the boundary (smooth, rough, straight, serrated or curved)
3.
Surface texture (smooth, rough, striated, etc)
64
They applied the standard geometric parameters of aspect ratio and roundness factor, and analysed the
variance with standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis. Their work was intended to enable the
identification of particles and the wear processes from which they originated.
Stachowiak expanded the use of curvature analysis of two dimensional particle shapes by describing
the degree of angularity with the spike parameter quadratic (SPQ) fit which is based on Richardsons
technique whereby a yardstick is walked around a particle perimeter. A circle of equivalent surface area
is superimposed on the shape with the same centroid; any vertices (spikes) protruding from the circle
are deemed of interest and the intersections with the particle perimeter are found. The corresponding
apex angle is found and averaged. This work has highlighted a practical descriptor; however, the
weakness is that the method requires a high degree of mathematical processing and does not consider
the particle size range of a slurry.
Stachowiak revealed that the wear rate in a two body experiment was linear with SPQ based on 20
particles per SPQ result (Stachowiak 1998); see Figure 2.49 (gb = glass beads, sic = silicon carbide, q
= quartz, ca = alumina, d = diamond, g = garnet, ss = silica sand).
NOTE:
Figure 2.49 Two body abrasive wear (Stachowiak 1998)

65
There are a number of weaknesses with this method including:

1.
Mechanical wear is caused by a sharp edge or vertex in the orthogonal cutting model;
however, a spike may not in fact be sharp or acute at the tip of the vertex.
2.
There is no weighting for the range of particle sizes in a typical slurry distribution. Pellegrin
et al highlight the importance of shape and size and their relationship in other work; to
quote, size and shape are both logically and mathematically inseparable. This duality is
reflected in the fact that an elongated particle has certain projections that, from the
perspective of the workpiece , appear small and sharp. Other orientations present large and
therefore blunt projections , and equiaxed particles present the same projection irrespective
of orientation (Pellegrin and Stachowiak 2005).
3.
Protrusions less than 20% of the equivalent circle diameter are not filtered out; ie, there
would be a diminishing probability these protrusions contribute to the wear rate.
4.
The method is scale dependent and there has been relatively little published work
highlighting the impact of scale on the standard deviation, and in comparison with other
descriptors.
This work also showed a similar linear result for three body wear (Figure 2.50).
66
NOTE:
Figure 2.50 Three body abrasive wear (Stachowiak 1998)

Stachowiak et al noted that, in three body wear, there are other effects such as particle embedding,
particle fracture and rolling behaviour which influence the linear response (Stachowiak and Stachowiak
2001). Quartz was found to have a relatively lower wear rate in this work compared to sand which has a
similar hardness, as the particles were elongated and tended to orientate so that the minor axis is
perpendicular to the direction of motion.
Mandelbrot revealed the difference between Euclidian geometry and fractal geometry in 1967 and the
use of fractal mathematics has been applied to two and three dimensional surfaces (Majumdar and
Bhushan 1990). Mandelbrot discovered that some rough surfaces in nature have a length that is scale
dependent and that length cannot be an integer (by definition there is no fractal number for a Euclidian
shape). He proved that, for decreasing units of measure, length increases. A log log plot of the length
versus unit of measurement gives the fractal dimension between 1 and 2 and a higher value equals a
more irregular surface (Figure 2.51).
67
Figure 2.51 Fractal and topographical dimension

A fractal boundary may be thought of as a set of Euclidian shapes connected in series. The fractal
dimension for a surface ranges between 2 and 3.
Stachowiak reviewed the Richardson technique with a range of step techniques and calculated the
boundary fractal dimension with a maximum error of 2.7%. The important point is that there was no
comparison with the standard numerical statistical methods (roundness factor, etc).
It was found from the review of the information there was little scientific comparison of the statistical
methods based on SEM digitization and the newer methods of SPQ or fractal geometry to make a
comparison between the methods based on analysis of variance techniques. This was a key finding.
Kaye warned users of fractals any short cut should not lull anyone into thinking that, in the real
world, a fractal dimension used to describe a rugged system is independent of the scale of scrutiny ie
not all particles will have a unique fractal dimension for different positions of measurement; for example,
different orientations of a particle for digitization (Kaye 1989).
Later works by Stachowiak reveal more complicated methods of quantifiying the surface topography by
development of multi scale methods such as wavelet transformation and fractal methods. The latter
methods include blanket, box counting, 2D Hurst analysis, and patchwork models. The key point is that
68
fractal methods work well with isotropic surfaces; however, mineral particles are generally anisotropic
and do not exhibit self similarity in all directions (Stachowiak and Podsiadlo 2001).
In summary, statistical methods describe the disorder of a particle shape, and fractals describe the
order behind the disorder present in the surface topography or perimeter. Other limitations of the fractal
method are:
1.
Particles are assumed to have unlimited roughness but this may not actually be the case for
a machined surface, for example
2.
Some fractal dimensions may be the same for different surfaces
3.
The calculation is difficult if the nominal fractal dimension is unknown i.e there may be an
excessive number of iterations
The important point is that an irregular fractal boundary or surface does not imply necessarily that a
particle may exhibit sharp acute vertices likely to cause machining wear.
In orthogonal cutting and micromachining it is the attack angle and particle dihedral angles that cause
wear (material removal). Table 2.2 summarises the methods reviewed for quantifying a particle
boundary.
Hamblin et al reported some comparisons of the SP, SPQ and reciprocal of the shape factor. In all
cases (Figure 2.52) it was found there was a linear relationship between two body abrasive wear, SPQ
and reciprocal of the shape factor (Hamblin and Stachowiak 1996).
69
Table 2.2: Particle shape descriptors
Particle 2 D profile descriptor
Comments
Value
Roundness factor
Easy to measure
Medium
Shape factor
Easy to measure
Medium
Ra, arithmetic mean roughness Same Ra may have different angularity is well recognised
Low
Rq, standard deviation =RMS
Measure of variation in profile similar to fractal

ruggedness. Rugged surface may have range of dihedral
angles
Low
Rsq, skewness
Measures offset from the mean
Low
Rku, kurtosis
Measure of peakedness is a very sensitive unreliable

parameter
Low
Aspect ratio
Easy to measure
Low
Convexity
Easy to measure
Low
Spike parameter
quadratic(Stachowiak 1998)
Vertex angle is averaged. Size fractions, scale effects are

ignored
Medium
Groove function (Pellegrin and

Stachowiak 2005)
Analysis is tedious as modelling is required to

calculate/simulate the areas at different depths
Medium
Fractal (yardstick boundary)

Richardson technique
(Podsiadlo and Stachowiak
1998)
Fractal dimensions are sensitive to scale and particles are

anisotropic. Some programming ,effort to measure
medium
Low
Fractal (power spectrum)

(Majumdar and Bhushan 1990)
Fractal dimensions are sensitive to scale and wear

particles are actually anisotropic. Is a measure of
ruggedness.
Low
Fractal (structure function)

(Yuan, Li et al. 2003)
Fractal dimensions are sensitive to scale and particles are

anisotropic. Methodology is complex, requires
programming
Low
70
Figure 2.52 Normalised wear versus shape parameter (Hamblin and Stachowiak 1996)
Mikli also found that the SPQ can be employed as a reasonable measure of shape and compared a
number of the statistical parameters (Figure 2.53) including:
1. RN = roundness = 1/shape factor or 1/form factor
2. RNF = roundness factor
3. IP = irregularity parameter
4. SPQ = spike parameter quadratic (Mikli, Kaerdi et al. 2001).
NOTE:
Figure 2.53 Shape factor ranges (Mikli, Kaerdi et al. 2001)

This work indicates that the roundness factor has sufficient sensitivity between a circle and triangle for a
reasonable quantification of shape boundary.
71
Given the complexity of the fractal methods and the absence of published scientific comparisons of
fractal and statistical methods analysis of variance with other descriptors, roundness factor was chosen
as one of the controlling variables in this research.
2.9.
The effect of particle fracture toughness on wear
Slurry gland seals are exposed to mineral particles during the wear process. When particles enter the
seal gap, they are exposed to significant compressive stress until the shaft sleeve is worn and the seal
gap and pressure differential allow particles to flow through the gap. Mineral particles, when deformed
under stress, generally exhibit a brittle tenacity and have a relatively higher tenacity than other
materials.
The published work on particle fracture is mainly concerned with comminution in mineral processing and
the size reduction of particles. Size reduction is required to increase the liberation of mineral bearing
ores and for the separation of particles based on size.
Particles are fractured under compressive stress and cracks are propagated because there are tensile
stresses acting normal to the crack plane.
There are two measures of fracture toughness: GIC which is the critical energy release rate per unit area
of crack plane and the stress intensity factor KIC for crack propagation. By definition cracks are predicted
to grow when the stress intensity factor is equal to or greater than the fracture toughness of a particle.
K IC = Y C .a 0.5
Equation 2.5 Stress intensity factor
Where:
KIC = fracture toughness stress intensity factor (MPa.m0.5)
Y = crack shape geometry factor
72
c = critical crack tensile stress (Pa)

a = crack flaw size (m)
and is related to GIC ;
K IC (EGIC )
1/ 2
Equation 2.6 Stress intensity factor and critical crack energy release rate
Where:
E = isotropic tensile elastic modulus (Pa)
GIC = critical crack energy release rate (J/m2)
Tromans et al (Tromans and Meech 2002) examined a range of minerals including sulphides, halides,
silicates and oxides, and treated the minerals as ionic solids. They estimated the fracture toughness for
each mineral using the Born model of ionic bonding. The toughness values were calculated based on
published elastic constants for a single crystal and represent the lowest possible values for ideal brittle
fracture in pure single phase polycrystalline minerals.
The work found that there are four fracture types: intragranular, grain boundary, interfacial and
interphase.
1. Intragranular fracture is an ideal brittle fracture without any plastic deformation.

2. Grain boundary fracture is cracking along the grain where atoms are arranged irregularly.
3. Interfacial fracture is the crack propagation along the interface between poorly bonded
subparticles within a mineral particle and relates to the geological history of the mineral.
4. Interphase fracture is the cracking between two different crystalline phases for example in rock.
Tromans revealed that the relative toughness values can be related by:
GIC > (GIC ) Gb > (GIC ) IP >> (GIC ) IF
Equation 2.7 Relative toughness
Where:
GIC = critical crack energy release rate (J/m2)
73
(GIC)Gb = GIC for grain boundary fracture (J/m2)

(GIC)IP = GIC for interphase fracture (J/m2)
(GIC)IF = GIC for interfacial fracture (J/m2)
The intragranular fracture can be taken as the upper limit. The toughness values are not exact because
mineral particles contain inherent internal and surface flaws of random orientation, position and size.
Particles are anisotropic and contain flaws, voids and cracks which relate to the prior geological history
of formation. Tromans et al also evaluated the fracture toughness of covalently bonded minerals based
on a Morse-type bonding model (Tromans and Meech 2004).
It has only been in recent times that the toughness values of individual particles have been
experimentally determined by microindentation of samples and measurement of the crack length (Broz,
Cook et al. 2006). Broz et al revealed the stress intensity factor values for the minerals in the Mohs
hardness range. This work showed that toughness generally increases with Mohs hardness (Figure
2.54). The low hardness minerals such as gypsum showed inconsistent cracking and talc no cracking at
all. The orientation of the crystal plane was noted for each experiment as the results are sensitive to the
direction of cleavage. Crystals break along planes of weakness which are cleavage planes; if the
mineral contains no weakness, the fracture will not show perfect cleavage but range between hackly,
fibrous and conchoidal fracture.
74
NOTE:
Figure 2.54 Toughness versus microhardness (Broz, Cook et al. 2006)

Whitney later expanded the experimental study to include metamorphic minerals such as silicates
(Figure 2.55) because not all materials in the Mohs range are common rock-forming minerals and the
silicates are relevant to geological research. This work found minerals with a wide range of hardness
between 7 and 17 GPa have a similar fracture toughness in the order of 1.5 MPa.m0.5.
NOTE:
Figure 2.55 Toughness versus microhardness (Whitney, Broz et al. 2007)

(Cz = cubic zirconia, And = andalusite, Grs = garnet,
Ky = kyanite, Or = orthoclase, Per = periclase, Sil = silmanite ,
Alm-Prp = almandine pyrope garnet)
75
If they are very tough, abrasive particles may not fracture in a wear process; any sharp edges or
vertices become rounded over time and reduce micromachining. Brittle particles will fracture and
present new surfaces for wear and, at the same time, reduce in size, resulting in a complicated wear
relationship between particle toughness and size (Stachowiak and Batchelor 2001).
2.10. Summary and discussion

In general it was found the patent literature was duplicated, many patents were multiple listed, and
applications for patents had expired. The detail contained in the patents of the inventions was vague
and explanations of key design features were, in many cases, brief or absent, probably to provide
commercial protection. (Denny 1959) stated that the traditional design is deeply rooted in drawing
office procedure which supports the research objective for a scientific approach.
There is an absence of work that reviews in any structured way all of the triboelements in a slurry pump
gland seal system. This current work is therefore considered to be novel through its systematic
consideration and unification of the relevant properties of the particles that enter the slurry seal gap
during failure. Most of the published design criteria and experimental work on seals has been in a liquor
environment and does not consider the entry of particles into the seal gap between the shaft sleeve and
packing. The review of the literature on particles confirmed that the properties relevant to the wear
model were size, hardness, fracture toughness and shape and that these properties have some
interdependency. No definitive relationship was found between the sacrificial wear component (shaft
sleeve) and slurry particle properties.
The historical approach has been to design a seal that has the optimum hydraulic performance and
uniform pressure distribution through novel mechanical arrangements, new packing materials and
packing braid structures. This approach has had little consideration for the contact mechanics and
particle motion when particles do enter the gap during seal failure.
76
Most authors agree that the science of quantifying particle shape and surfaces is still in development.
Defining the fracture toughness of crystals is more recent work and combining these properties in one
model is a novel approach to the wear model.
There is little work on three body wear (compared to two body wear) and the properties and motion of
particles. The gland seal wear problem in tribolological terms may be considered as lubricated three
body wear analogous to plain journal bearing wear because both systems have a rotating shaft inside a
housing and are lubricated by an externally supplied fluid. In the case of the bearing, the external
housing supports the load; in the case of the seal, the external housing locates the gland packing.
77
3.
Hypothesis
3.1.
Reliability
In practice, radially-packed uniform compression gland seals have not proven successful as the gland
follower is very sensitive to adjustments. To improve the reliability, useful life and ownership costs of
slurry gland seals, a tribological approach is required. Identifying the failure process (wear model and
wear equations) in a slurry environment will permit more robust designs and procedures to be
developed for the mineral processing industry and will result in improved slurry seal selection criteria.
The intent of any new potential design is to increase the reliability (useful life) and reduce the standard
deviation for a population of failure events (Moubray 1999) and this is relevant for the shaft sleeve and
packing components in a gland seal.
Figure 3.1 Reliability and life of seal components

The sealing problem is very complex and to simplify it a cause and effect (Ishikawa) model was
developed with focus on the effect of shaft sleeve wear.
The causes can be classified as design, materials and operations. Design causes arise from the
mechanical and chemical properties of the triboelements in a seal, and may include the gland water
system and the influence of impeller back vanes on the seal performance. Operations influence the
useful life of the components: for example, some users operate pumps until failure while others may
replace seal components based on condition (ie, the maintenance strategy influences useful life). Other
operating variables include the gland follower adjustment (frequency and load), fitting tolerances (which
78
can have an effect on shaft sleeve/stuffing box concentricity), and variations in gland water quality which
influence shaft sleeve useful life; for example, depending on the mine site, gland water may include
dissolved salts and organic materials. Process causes relate to the slurry properties such as the particle
size, shape distribution, percent solids, acidity, and pump duty.
The hypothesis relates to the slurry properties and their impact on shaft sleeve wear which are shown in
the Ishikawa diagram.
Material
(chemical)
Material
(mechanical)
Wear process
Wear distribution
Hardness
Stribeck lubrication
Oxide products
Lubrication regime
Wear contact/particle properties
Porosity
Redox potential
Lubrication type
Type
Gland water flow
Wear debris
Topography
Substrate leaching
Gland water pressure

Friction
Shaft sleeve
failure
Force balance
Useful life
Energy balance
Pressure distribution
Variance
Adjustment
frequency
Temperature
Gland function
Maintenance
strategy
Design
Eccentricity
Operations
Figure 3.2 Shaft sleeve Ishikawa diagram
3.2.
Chronology of seal failure
Gland water acts as a hydrostatic lubricant and is normally supplied at a pressure (35 to 200 kPa)
greater than the pump discharge pressure to lubricate the packing/shaft sleeve interface and at a flow
rate sufficient to flush any solids from the seal into the pump and reject thermal energy developed by
friction between the packing fibres and shaft sleeve.
79
Common conditions leading to the functional failure of a seal are:

1.
Packing hardens with age as the boundary lubricant is squeezed or melted from the packing
and the voids between packing fibres close under compression so the lateral pressure
coefficient approaches zero (ie, it becomes a solid);
2.
Gland water pressure is lower than the pump impeller boss pressure (boss pressure is less than
the discharge pressure);
3.
Gland water flow is too low (gland water may have been isolated during pump start for
example).
In normal operation, the gland follower is designed to be adjusted as the packing relaxes to compensate
for the viscoelastic behaviour of the packing (Bohner, Blenke et al. 1975). Packing fibres touching the
shaft sleeve cause localised heating resulting in further lubricant loss of the packing, when the lubricant
melting point is reached, and further relaxation. This process is shown in Figure 3.3.
NOTE:
Figure 3.3 Seal failure model (Ridgway, O'Neill et al. 2006)
Eventually, the packing becomes so hard that particles are able to enter the shaft sleeve packing gap
thereby initiating two and three body abrasion. When slurry irreversibly departs (leaks) to the
surroundings and no gland follower adjustment is available, the seal is at functional failure (ie, has
reached the end of its useful life). This generally occurs when the packing is hard and/or the shaft
sleeve has worn to a depth in the order of 1 to 5 mm either in specific/discrete places or over the entire
contact area.
80
Figure 3.4 is a new model which illustrates schematically the gland water duty and pressure
relationships for a gland seal water supply system and slurry pump gland.
NOTE:
Figure 3.4 Seal gland water system curves (Ridgway, O'Neill et al. 2006)
New packings have an interference fit with the shaft sleeve resulting in a steep system resistance curve,
as shown by the new gland curve, and gland water flow is less than the limit of the flow control valve
(Maric brand). The flow is limited by an O ring constriction depending on the valve pressure differential
and the performance curve of the valve. As the packing relaxes the gland water flow increases and
reaches the flow control valve limit as shown by the tight gland system curve. As well, incorrect
selection of the flow control valve may contribute to failure if the flow rate is not great enough to
compensate for seal wear.
A typical performance curve for a Maric-brand valve is shown in Figure 3.5 which indicates the upper
range and flow rate of gland water for a typical large slurry pump. (The valve is rated at 34 L/min and
was selected for use with a 20/18 (450 metric) size slurry pump.) These valves are useful in the
operating range of 200 to 1000 kPa pressure differential across the valve. At high pressure differentials
the O ring constricts in size to reduce the flow.
81
Typical flow control valve performance
% Rated flow
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Pressure differential kPa
Figure 3.5 Typical performance of a flow control valve

If the gland seal fails, the maximum gland water flow rate is limited by the valve capacity and this
prevents excess flow and consequential failure of other gland seals supplied by the same (common)
gland water supply system. In either case, fine particles (typically microns in size) enter the
packing/shaft sleeve gap resulting in a complex tribological environment (Figure 3.6) where the number
of tribo elements in the seal system increases from four at zero time to eight at failure (excluding steam
which is an extraordinary consequence of failure) (Ridgway, O'Neill et al. 2005).
Figure 3.6 Seal tribo element model

Once the limit to gland follower adjustment is reached and no extra gland water flow is available,
increasing wear reduces the flushing effect thereby accelerating the failure rate. The packing radial
pressure is exponential and decays in relation to the friction between the packing and stuffing box,
packing lateral pressure ratio and dimensions in a complicated relationship; hence it is expected that the
82
slurry entry and highest wear would be at the wet end side of the seal, ignoring effects of packing wear
on the shaft sleeve at the wet end; ie, the wear profile would be expected to be an inverse function of
the radial pressure distribution.
An equation for shaft sleeve wear in a given slurry seal system with defined tribo elements is proposed
below (Equation 1). For simplicity, the shaft sleeve is considered to be constructed from homogenous
material. The volume removed from the shaft sleeve depends on the relative material hardness (Ha/Hs)
between the particles and shaft sleeve, particle fracture toughness (stress intensity factor, KIC), particle
shape () and equivalent particle size (d85). It is also related to the length of contact (L), diameter of the
shaft sleeve (D), velocity of the shaft sleeve surface (V), fluid pressure (P), time of wear (t) and gap
between the packing and shaft sleeve (h).
SWR ( x, t ) ( L, D, P, V , t , h, Ha / Hs, KIC , , d 85)
Equation 3.1 Seal specific wear rate
The objective of the work was to find the empirical correlations between the wear rate and key variables
by laboratory experiment.
As finer particles are expected to initiate the wear process the specific wear rate should be inversely
proportional to the equivalent particle size. It is recognized that particle properties are not all intrinsic
and the variables selected in the above model will possess some level of dependency. For example,
smaller particles possess lower surface area and are less likely to have surface defects such as twins or
impurities which may be crack initiation sites. Hence, there is a tradeoff between the particle size effect
for less efficient two and three body abrasion and higher fracture toughness. For instance, if small
particles have conchoidal shape or smooth cleavage resulting from attrition of particles with low
toughness and small dihedral angles, the specific wear rate is increased. Mineral crystal formation
histories are unique and in practice the particle shape is some continuum between fracture and
cleavage of crystallographic planes (Nesse 2000). For convenience the d85 size of the relevant size
range was employed as a simple measure to compare samples as developed by (Roco 1990).
83
Particle fracture toughness is also related to hardness and crystal bonding. Crystals with closer packed
atoms along cleavage planes, smaller atoms or ions and higher bond density are less likely to fracture
and generally exhibit a higher hardness. Clearly, the properties are related. The probability of a particle
fracturing in the seal is related to the fracture toughness of the particle as particles under compressive
stress will possess some residual tensile component. As particles fracture the particle size distribution is
modified and new particle vertices become available for orthogonal cutting in three body wear (Figure ).
These may increase cutting efficiency. Quantification is complicated by the different and multiple mineral
phases and defects present in each particle. Recent work by Broz et al found that the property of
fracture toughness has a correlation with hardness indicating that fracture toughness is relevant (Broz,
Cook et al. 2006).
Force
Packing
Attrition
Slurry
particles
Fatigue
Shaft sleeve
Figure 3.7 Particle fracture and 3 body wear
Very tough particles are expected to be round whereas brittle particles fracture which reduces their size
and maintains their sharp dihedral angles. Particles of medium toughness self-sharpen and maintain a
reasonable size. These considerations are relevant to the model (Stachowiak and Podsiadlo 2001).
Based on normal tribological considerations for two and three body wear, the specific wear rate should
be inversely proportional to the velocity and travel distance of the shaft sleeve.
84
The dominant mechanism of wear is expected to be micromachining and ploughing for a homogenous
shaft sleeve material. From orthogonal cutting mechanics, there is a higher probability of wear when the
dihedral angle is minimised; ie, for larger attack angles (Figure 3.8) (Kalpakjian 1985). Kato and
Williams have shown that the Archard equation can be adapted based on the asperity attack angle and
higher rates of wear are related to micromachining and higher attack angles (Williams 1999). The point
is that high attack angles are most likely when the particle dihedral angle is small (between 60 and
120). For lower attack angles, it is more likely that particles are rounded with dihedral angles
approaching 180.
Figure 3.8 Orthogonal cutting mechanics

The potential interactions between the shaft sleeve and particle for a single asperity encounter are
summarised in Table 3.1.
The wear of the shaft sleeve is caused by multiple asperity encounters and the wear track in the surface
is an input into the wear of the shaft sleeve; ie, as successive particles contact the shaft sleeve surface
their motion and contact is influenced by the wear groove from the ploughing or machining of the
previous particle contact.
85
Table 3.1 Particle shape influence on cutting mechanics
Wear model
Dihedral angle
Rake angle
Attack angle
Shear angle
High specific wear
Low
60 to 120o cutting
0 to 60o cleaving
+ ve
High
High shear strain,

ploughing
Low
- ve
Low
Low
High shear strain,

ploughing
High
- ve
Low
Low
Historically, efforts to improve gland seal reliability have focused on several main areas:
1. Adopting harder shaft sleeve materials and ceramic coatings
2. Selecting the right seal type (for example, avoiding the use of mechanical seals in large particle
applications)
3. Educating end-users to design and maintain effective gland water systems
4. Trialing lip seal and packing combinations
5. Trialing new packing materials and lantern restrictor designs
Most new developments are tested by field trials and these are problematic because trials are often not
supervised; they are interfered with by operations staff and the results are lost so there is no data as a
basis for scientific improvement.
Thus a novel experimental laboratory test rig was developed to test the wear model and develop a wear
equation.
86
3.3.
Research Hypothesis
The project hypothesis is that uniform packing compression is not the main contributor to gland seal
useful life in a slurry duty and that a quantitative model relating the shaft sleeve wear rate with the
particle properties of hardness, fracture toughness, shape and size can be found from laboratory
experiment with these controlling variables being unified in one empirical equation. It is expected that
the conditions of a slurry pump in mineral processing service can be replicated in a laboratory test rig
with similar geometric scale and that wear of the shaft sleeve can be deliberately induced by injecting
slurry particles into the seal gap.
87
4.
Method
4.1.
Methodology and process
The overall objective of the work was to develop a new quantitative wear model for slurry seals and find
a relationship between the relevant particle properties in the seal system. This had four main
components:
1. Measuring the wear profile of shaft sleeves from industrial (mining) service
2. Designing an experimental test rig and standardising the experimental process
3. Measuring the specific wear rate (output variable) using the laboratory experiment
4. Combining the results into a regression equation and checking that the results were statistically
significant
4.2.
Measuring shaft sleeve wear profile
Initially an empirical study was undertaken to measure the seal wear in practice and compare it with the
theoretical radial pressure distribution. Random samples of worn shaft sleeves collected from local
copper and lead/zinc mineral processing plants were analysed over a twelve month period with the
objective of determining an empirical wear model and the seal specific wear rate (or dimensional wear
coefficient from the Archard equation (Archard 1953).
Trial experiments were conducted using an M5 laser distance sensor and traversing the beam across
the shaft sleeve surface (Figure 4.1). The inherent linearity accuracy of the laser was in the order of 1
micron; however, this accuracy could not be achieved in practice because of the rough surface of some
shaft sleeves which reflected the light at different angles. This method was changed to measurement
using a linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT).
88
Figure 4.1 Trial laser surface profile measurement

The transducer was mounted in a lathe cross slide and traversed the worn sample which was mounted
in a chuck. The transducer was fitted with a 2 mm ball tip and repeatability was within
3 microns.
The surface profile was measured for twenty sleeve samples and the data was downloaded into a
computer via a filter to eliminate noise, and converted to digital data.
4.3.
Laboratory experiment design
The research was extended by controlled experimental work in the laboratory to test the validity of the
proposed wear model. Two methods were considered for experimental testing: a test rig with a slurry
pump gland and a Miller test which measures three body reciprocating wear in a standard Miller test rig.
Table 1 shows a comparison of the operating parameters between the test methods.
Table 4.1 Comparison of test methods
Miller
Gland
Velocity (m/s)
0.16
Tribo elements
Neoprene lap, slurry, 25.4 x 12.7 mm sample
Shaft sleeve, packing, slurry
3 body abrasion
2 and 3 body abrasion
Radial 22.24
Axial (200 to 500) and radial
Yes
Yes (axial only)
Four samples simultaneously
Sequential
N/A
Yes
Wear mechanism
Load (N)
Load measurable
Test
Sleeve profile
Time to test (hours)
89
A comparison between the Miller number reported in the literature and mineral hardness values
revealed an almost linear relationship (Figure 2); consequently the Miller number was not expected to
provide any more value than a measure of relative hardness between the shaft sleeve, packing fibres
and slurry particles (Miller and Miller 1993).
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Hv
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Hv
Miller
lim
es
to
ne
co
b al
ph aux
os ite
ph
at
e
r
ha uti
em le
at
ite
m as
ag h
ne
tit
e
s
co a
pp nd
er
si al ore
lic un
on d
ca u m
rb
id
e
Average
Miller No.
Mineral property
Mineral
Figure 4.2 Miller number versus hardness

The gland test rig was selected as the preferred method to generate data and determine the
effectiveness and value of the test. Compared to other standard wear tests, using a test rig gland
represents, as closely as possible, the actual two and three body wear conditions; it also avoids the
problems of scale errors by using the same-sized components as a small slurry pump gland seal.
An experimental test rig was designed, constructed and commissioned to test the proposed model. The
purpose of the experiment was to deliberately inject particles into the seal gap and induce wear. This rig
included a standard gland seal arrangement with braided glass fibre packing lubricated with PTFE and a
standard 316 stainless steel shaft sleeve directly coupled to a 2.2 kW motor and rotating with a shaft
surface velocity of 7 m/s. All shaft sleeves were finished by surface grinding with a design surface
roughness of Ra equal to 0.8 microns. The shaft sleeve material (316 stainless steel) was selected to
increase the relative hardness gap with the sample particles.
90
The packing was supplied by Weir Minerals Ltd and is a standard slurry pump packing material code
Q05 which is a cross braided packing, 8 mm square in cross section and with continuous filament
Fortaglas yarns, impregnated with PTFE and a mineral oil-based break-in lubricant. This packing is
manufactured by Flexitallic Ltd and was their material code 713L. Because both packing fibres and shaft
materials were constant for the experiments, the relative hardness between them was fixed.
In a standard gland seal, three to four packing rings are fitted, depending on the pump size. For the
experiment the lantern restrictor was not required (because there was no external gland water supply)
and so an additional row of packing was fitted (making a total of five rings) to maximize the shaft sleeve
wear contact length. The motor selection was based on the estimated friction power assuming 600 kPa
axial pressure applied by the gland follower and a friction coefficient of 0.17 when the seal is in new
condition (Karassik 1990). The power for grinding the shaft sleeve was calculated based on a depth of
cut of 10 microns and published constants (Table 4.2) (Kalpakjian 1985).
Table 4.2 Power estimates
Friction power kW
1.5
Grinding power kW
0.6
The motor current draw was checked to be below full load current during commissioning to confirm the
power calculations. It was not within the scope of the research to measure friction power.
Slurry was mixed in a separate tank to a controlled density of 10% solids by weight and pumped into the
seal opposite the gland follower end at up to 1 MPa at 3.3 litres/minute (5 x 10-6 cubic metres/second);
this was similar to the gland water design flow rate for a new seal. Particles were screened below 500
micron by manually sieving before mixing. Also the tank volume (25 litres) was large in relation to the
flow rate so that the slurry was only replaced 8.2 times for the duration of a test which minimised the
effects of attrition (change in particle size). The diameter of the pipe feeding the seal was initially chosen
91
to produce a flow rate close to the settling velocity to prevent any particles settling in the pipes and then
increased to 19 mm to account for the very short pumping distance and residence time. During the
screening experiments a flow rate of 1 litres/minute was trialled but this resulted in bogging of the seal
gap and pipeline; the flow rate was increased to 3.3 litres/minute for the actual tests.
The key components in the test rig were (Figure 4.3):

1. Slurry Tank
2. Screw Pump
3. Pressure Relief Valve
4. Pressure Transducer
5. Pressure Gauge
6. Seal
7. Mixer
Figure 4.3 Experiment process diagram

The development of the test rig took several years because of the novelty of the work and the need to
build robust components that would operate for the duration of the experiments.
Strain gauges were mounted on the gland follower bolts, and a pressure transducer on the seal inlet
with both outputs to an amplifier and digital Picolo recorder.
92
The mixer speed and pump speeds were constant for the experiments and the slurry density was
measured with a Marcy scale. Generally the solids concentration was stable after 10 minutes of mixing.
At a trial slurry density of 40% the number of particles was found to be excessive and caused blockage
of the seal (Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4 Seal blockage at slurry Cw = 40%
Slurry discharged from the seal was captured and fed back to the tank by gravity (Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5 Test rig layout
4.4.
Lean experiment
A lean thinking approach was applied to the experiments through reducing any waste (materials, time,
cost and variance in results) in the experimental process. A flow chart was developed for the experiment
and refined during the initial screening experiments to reduce the time between experiments, variation
in results, and errors (Figure 4.6).
93
Figure 4.6 Experiment lean process

Specifically, the following improvements were made:
1. Standard tooling was purchased to reduce the time to set up the experiment and then remove
the shaft sleeve from the test rig.
2. A standard wear test record was used to record the raw data from all experiments.
3. The mixing tank was designed with minimal bolting to enable the vessel to be easily removed
thereby reducing the cleaning and changeover time to a different slurry sample.
4. A standard operating procedure was produced for the experiments to minimise any variation in
testing, including the processing of the optical imaging data. This procedure was constantly
refined during the project.
94
5. Quick release hose clamps were used to reduce the time needed to clean hoses between slurry
samples.
6. The seal parts selected were all from a standard 2/1.5 B AH Warman slurry pump with gland
seal so parts were available when required.
7. All hoses were transparent so the slurry was visible during experiments.
8. The mixing tank was designed to provide a positive intake head for the Mono screw feed pump
and a positive head from the test rig drain back to the tank, reducing pumping requirements.
9. The strain gauges were designed for a range of zero to 1 kN (5000 mV) and the preload for
each experiment was in the order of 300 N. This margin reduced the risk of overloading the
gauges during the experiments and the time needed to calibrate them. The gauges were rated
for 2 kN to ensure they were robust. The gauge zeros were checked before each experiment for
drift which could be caused by mechanical damage or water ingress and contributed to error
proofing the process. The error from the change in temperature between the start and end of an
experiment was in the order of 2%.
4.5.
Mineral sample range
The problem of gland seal wear is highly complex with a large number of variables and complex
interdependencies. The initial approach was based on a 2k factorial experiment design: two values (low
and high) of each property (k = number of properties) were selected to enable a full statistical
experiment design (Montgomery 1976).
The k factors proposed were particle size, relative hardness and angularity (WDA) and are shown in
Figure 4.7. Since all the factors are quantitative, and there are more samples than factors, a design with
centre points was relevant. Assuming no centre points the experiment design considered was 23 which,
when each experiment was repeated, gave 16 runs or observations. The response variable is specific
wear rate.
95
Figure 4.7 Geometric view of factorial design

If there are centre points at each possible location the number of points is 26 which, when repeated,
gives 52 runs or observations (3 factors at 3 levels repeated is 54 runs).
However, this experimental strategy was found to be not relevant for the following reasons:
1. The process requires factors at a predefined level. For example, particles can be sieved or
separated by other means such as cycloning or milled to achieve a defined size; however, this
was found to be expensive for a small sample and not within the project budget. A one factor at
a time approach was rejected because this approach did not consider the dependency
between the controlling variables.
2. It is not possible to modify the fracture toughness property of a sample because it is intrinsic to
the mineral; hence the range was limited by the range of minerals commercially available.
3. The laboratory experiments were labour-intensive, requiring a high level of supervision and set
up time and so the number of runs had to be limited.
4. Many commercial minerals are milled and screened to a finely-graded particle size less than
150 micron. Larger samples were not always available from mining sources because of the
complexity of transporting hazardous goods and occupational health and safety concerns.
96
5. Fertilisers were a mineral source provided the content was homogenous; however, many were
found to be heterogeneous and this limited the samples available.
6. Samples obtained from local mine sites were generally a wet concentrate with a very broad
range of particles sizes. It was not possible to dry the concentrate effectively and screen out
particles greater than 500 microns and excluded from testing. Haematite and copper bearing
ores from local mineral processing operations were difficult to obtain in the target size range
less than 500 microns.
7. Although there are many processing plants in Australia, many of the mineral products are
hazardous (eg, lead sulphide or galena) and could not be transported without state government
approval and were subject to hazardous goods legislation. This added additional complexity to
the choice of the mineral sample range.
Consequently the experimental strategy developed towards testing commercially available minerals
which covered the maximum extent of the Mohs hardness range (excluding diamonds) and then finding
a regression model and testing for significance of the model and interaction between the controlling
variables; ie, the experimental strategy was to vary all the factors together.
A wide range of minerals was tested within the constraints of cost and the commercial availability of
particle samples. The experiments targeted the upper and lower limits of the properties that influence
the specific wear rate as summarised in Table 4.3.
97
Table 4.3 Range of particle properties

Factor
Lower level
Upper level
Range
Roundness factor
1.0
2.0
1.0
Fracture toughness (MPa.m0.5)
0.1
4.1
4.0
Hardness (Moh)
9.5
8.5
Size (micron)
500
495
The particle angularity (dihedral angle) was quantified by optical scanning of a range of the particles
across the sample size, digitizing the perimeter then deducing an average of the roundness factor. All of
the samples were checked for crystal homogeneity by x ray diffraction.
The fracture toughness values were found from work reported by Broz et al. Values for gypsum were
not available and so the values for anhydrite were used as an approximation; similarly, calcite values
were used as an approximation for dolomite (Sorrell 1973). No information was found on talc
(magnesium silicate), other than that experimental values are difficult to determine because no cracks
are formed during depth sensing indentation (Broz, Cook et al. 2006), and a low value of 0.1 MPa.m0.5
was assumed for the purpose of the regression analysis.
The hardness values were estimated by averaging the Mohs hardness published for each mineral and
converting to a Vickers number and Pascals (Nesse 2000).
4.6.
Measuring wear
The shaft sleeve was weighed before and after each test and the mass loss converted to a volumetric
loss for calculation of the specific wear rate (SWR). SWR was defined as:
SWR(mm3 / N .m) = (10 9.massloss) /( . .d .RPM .time.load )
Equation 4.1
Where:
mass loss = shaft sleeve mass loss [kg]
mm3 = m3 x 109 conversion factor
98
= shaft sleeve density [kg/m3]

d = shaft sleeve diameter [m]
RPM = speed of the motor shaft
time = experiment duration [min]
load = average applied axial load [N]
Specific wear rate was defined for the purpose of the experiments based on normalising the shaft
sleeve wear rate with the average gland follower load, recognising that gland follower load affects the
applied packing stress and particle motion in the seal gap. It is not possible to determine the specific
load on each particle per se.
Experiments were conducted over a 62.5 minute duration with 125 data points at 30 second intervals.
The average load was found using the trapezoidal rule for area under the force versus time curve.
The wear profile across the shaft sleeve surface was not measured as the mass loss was only in the
order of several grams for each test and excessive test times in the order of days would be required for
a significant profile result to compare with the field data.
99
5.
Wear test results

5.1.
Field wear data
Figure 5.1 illustrates the wear profile versus normalised length for four typical samples (a small number
has been chosen for clarity). It was apparent that the maximum localised wear does not occur at the wet
end side of the shaft sleeve and consequently there are other variables to be considered in the wear
model.
Shaft sleeve profile

0.5
0
Profile (mm)
-0.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
-1
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
0% Drive
end
% from drive end
100%
Wet end
Figure 5.1 Shaft sleeve profile

The test 1 data is neither uniform nor exponential (see Equation 2.1). The test 2 data does demonstrate
a higher wear at the wet end but the profile is not exponential. Likewise, the test 3 data indicates wear is
not uniform and fails to follow any exponential relationship. Periodicity in the test 4 shaft sleeve profile
indicates that the packing bulges and wears more at the packing centre. However, such behaviour was
not frequently observed in the samples. This behaviour may be related to the packing fibre lattice
construction: extra fibres are located at the packing edges to reduce the risk of mechanical damage and
maintain shape which means the packing properties are not uniform across the section. It appears that
the rows of packing are not a homogenous triboelement and are effectively discontinuous. The same
data also indicates increased wear in the centre of the shaft sleeve rather than the wet end packing
100
contact which does not fit the Denny exponential pressure distribution model suggesting there are other
variables in the wear of the shaft sleeve.
Four field samples were collected in failure sequence from a thickener underflow pump in a lead/zinc
processing plant. Again the data does not display any pattern (Figure 5.2).
S h a ft s le e v e w e a r p ro file
0.5
Life unknow n
0
-0.5
20
40
60
80
-1
120
1234
ho urs
-1.5
Wear (mm)
100
T es t 1
-2
-2.5
-3
T es t 2
T es t 3
D is c ontinuous
w ear profile
T es t 4
1275
hours
-3.5
-4
Higher w ear at w et
end in general
-4.5
-5
0% D rive end
% fro m d riv e e n d
100% W et end
Figure 5.2 Lead/zinc thickener underflow shaft sleeve wear profile
There are several limitations with this approach based on collecting samples (site data) from mineral
processing operations including:
1. Both the gland follower load and gland adjustment are unknown as the routine maintenance
schedule was not logged and the load was not measured.
2. Packing and shaft sleeve useful life are rarely recorded even for world best practice operations.
Hence the distance travelled (product of speed of rotation and diameter) cannot be determined
with any reliability.
101
3. Gland seal repair maintenance is generally unplanned or within a few days of functional failure
which renders collection of data problematic.
4. Information about the tribological system is not captured at the time of failure eg, the slurry
sample which could yield valuable data about the mineral and gangue particle size, particle
fracture toughness and shape.
5. Packing is treated as a commodity by mineral processing operators; consequently stock tends to
be uncontrolled in satellite stores and failed packing is scrapped unless a routine collection
system is in place.
6. Normally the shaft sleeves and packing are replaced at seal failure or during pump wet end
maintenance (opportunity-based). Hence, the shaft sleeve life is some random (and unknown)
percentage of the useful life; ie, they may be at potential failure. This means that the opportunity
to establish the wear profile over the total life of the shaft sleeve and packing is not available for
comparison with the Czichos model and phases of wear over time (Czichos 1978).
The problem of meaningful measurement of failures in mineral processing operations and collection of
accurate maintenance history is not uncommon. Holmberg summarised the issue stating: The most
promising approach to collecting accurate history data that can be used for endurance life estimation is
using automatic and operating condition monitoring modules directly connected to performing
components. Then there is no human influence (Holmberg 2001) There are developments by mineral
process operators in progress to link maintenance management systems (SAP) with control systems
such as Cytec which will aid in identifying operating hours for components but these advances are not
widespread. Consequently the field empirical approach proved that additional variables other than the
exponential packing radial stress are important, and a new and controlled experimental methodology
was required to validate the wear model in the hypothesis.
102
5.2.
Repeatability and variance
The initial laboratory experiments were designed to screen the factors and seven replicates for sand
(quartz) were used to prove repeatability (Figure 3). The coefficient of variation was found to be 23.7%
for the specific wear rate which is typical for wear experiments with a wide range of controlling variables.
In comparison the coefficient of variation may be as high as 35% in erosive wear based on actual site
pump wear data, hence the repeatability is reasonable. (Walker 2001).
SWR (quartz)
3.00E-04
S W R m m 3 /N .m
2.50E-04
2.00E-04
1.50E-04
1.00E-04
5.00E-05
0.00E+00
1
10
Test
Figure 5.3 Repeatability of the experiment during screening

A measurable wear result was achieved within minutes of testing and continuous slurry flow proved
practical at the small scale. The experiments were conducted over a 62.5 minute period and mass
losses varied between 1.5 and 6 grams. A typical wear sample is shown in Figure 5.4
The effects of attrition are well known in laboratory testing and, due to the relatively small flow rate in
relation to the tank volume, the particle properties were not compared before and after testing; ie,
attrition effects were ignored. The shaft sleeve was the same material (316 stainless steel) for all
experiments and the passive layer was not measured.
103
Figure 5.4 Wear sample shaft sleeve
The specific wear rate was found to range between 9.23 x 10-6 mm3/Nm (test 15) and 3.59 x 10-4
mm3/Nm (test 3).
5.3.
Effect of gland follower load
The effect of the gland follower load applied by the bolts either side of the gland follower was observed
during the screening experiments with coarse sand. The peak pressure was significantly lower when
zero load was applied to the gland follower. Figure 5.5 demonstrates an exponential decay in pressure
which is consistent with the work by Bohner and this simple experiment confirmed the need to measure
the gland load so results between the experiments could be compared and that the initial pressure could
be set close to actual pressures of typical slurry pumping in the order of 600 kPa (Bohner, Blenke et al.
1975).
104
Gland pressure at 6.3 l/min

120
Pressure (kP a)
100
80
60
Test 1
40
Test 2
20
0
-20 0
10
20
30
40
Time (minutes)
Figure 5.5 Seal pressure versus time
5.4.
Effect of relative hardness
Published values of average Mohs mineral hardness, converted to Vickers hardness, were used to
determine the relative hardness (Ha/Hs) of the shaft sleeve wear specimen. The results indicated
specific wear rate increases with the relative hardness (particle hardness/shaft sleeve hardness)
according to a power law relationship with coefficient of regression equal to 0.4762 (Figure 5.6).
105
y = 5E-05x0.6358
SWR vs Ha/Hs
R = 0.4762
SWR (mm^3/Nm)
1.00E-03
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00
Relative Hardness (Ha/Hs)
Figure 5.6 SWR versus Relative hardness
Test 17 (silicon carbide) specific wear rate was slightly lower than test 3 (corundum) which was not
consistent with their hardness difference and similar size. Tests were conducted for a soluble mineral
(malachite) which, in effect, was a slurry without particles and the specific wear rate was found to be
very low at 3.88 x 10-6 mm3/Nm. The density was constant at 10% by weight for the experiments and a
single random experiment at 5% indicated a reduction in specific wear rate by an order of magnitude for
test 12 (magnetite).
It was observed that the wear profile along the shaft sleeve was not sufficient in wear depth for all
experiments for the wear to be quantified as a function of the shaft sleeve length. This would have
required experimental times in the order of several days for comparison with field data.
106
The non dimensional wear coefficient (from the Archard equation 2.4) ranged between 1.81 x 10-5
mm3/Nm (test 15) and 1.23 x 10-02 mm3/Nm (test 3) which is consistent with the two body and three
body coefficients reported by Williams and strongly indicates a range of wear processes exists in a
continuum between two body and three body wear proposed in the wear model (Williams 1997).
5.5.
Effect of Critical gap
During the screening experiments it was found that the gap between the gland follower and shaft sleeve
was critical to eliminate wear in this region, and so the gap was set at 2 mm on radius and the thickness
of the compression ring reduced to 500 micron to enable particles to be discharged from the seal.
The wear rates during the commissioning process were observed to be an order of magnitude higher
between the gland follower and shaft sleeve for small gaps. It is thought that the particles are trapped
between the shaft sleeve and the gland follower resulting in a two body micro machining mechanism.
Williams et al found that there is a relative hardness effect (hardness paradox), typically in journal
bearings: particles can become embedded in a softer surface and increase the wear rate of a harder
surface (Williams and Hyncica 2001). Intuitively it was thought that particles would embed in the packing
fibre structure and contribute to two and three body wear mechanisms; however, during removal of the
packing after experiments, particles were not observed to be embedded. It is thought that the elastic
deformation of the packing surface allows particles to tumble through the gap which is typical of three
body wear (Figure 5.7). Particles are acted upon by a shear force caused by the rotating shaft sleeve
and normal loads from the packing compression and may rotate and/or slide. If any force equilibrium
exists between the particles, it is only momentary as the deflection of the elastic packing surface shifts
the position of force action on each particle and establishes torque (moments) for each.
107
Figure 5.7 Three body wear model for hard and soft surfaces
When both surfaces are inelastic and there is a small gap between shaft sleeve and gland follower, the
three body mechanism is different and it is thought that the particles become trapped and wedged
between the surfaces and establish a conglomerate or quasi particle which results in micromachining of
both surfaces. The particles are effectively locked together in a force equilibrium until the geometry of
the conglomerate is altered. Note that the particles have axial and radial force components. Particles
with small dihedral angles (and high attack angles) in contact with the hard surface experience high
Hertzian stress and fracture, resulting in smaller particles and new vertices being exposed for
machining.
Particles then move towards the low pressure (atmosphere) side of the seal to irreversible departure,
discharged from the seal and are replaced by new particles entering the gap. These new particles
establish another force equilibrium and the process is repeated. This three body process is shown in a
new model in Figure 5.8.
108
Figure 5.8 Three body wear model for hard surfaces

Hence the relative elasticity (a dimensionless property) of the surfaces is thought to be an important
controlling variable in three body wear and requires more research.
It is expected that the smaller particles are more likely to be free to rotate in the gap and contribute to
three body wear. This is similar to a lapping, wet grinding process where the water is used to flush out
the debris from wear.
As found in the site samples, the packing mechanical property is not uniform across the length of the
seal hence, when quasi particles do form and present new vertices for orthogonal cutting, deeper cuts
are machined in proximity to the packing lattice where it is most elastic thought to be halfway along the
packing cross section. An example of these deeper cuts is shown in Figure 5.9. In this example there is
highest wear adjacent the lantern gland water distribution ring.
109
Figure 5.9 Shaft sleeve wear (DE = drive end)
5.6.
Effect of Hydraulic performance
It was observed that the packing gland load relaxed after a relatively short time (in the order of 5
minutes) in an exponential manner (Figure 5.10). This is consistent with/in accordance with the Bohner
packing deformation model. The maximum gland pressure ranged between 50 and 1000 kPa without
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
50
Inlet Pressure (kPa)
Packing Load (N)
any clear relationship between particle size and pressure.
100
Time (min)
Total Packing Load (N)
Inlet Pressure (kPa)
Figure 5.10 Typical Pressure and load versus time
110
5.7.
Effect of fracture toughness
It was found there was a correlation of specific wear rate with published values of fracture toughness,
based on the stress intensity factor. The method of quantifying fracture toughness for particles by
microindentation is a laborious process and is subject to variance through selection of the cleavage
plane, mechanical properties also vary with direction (Figure 5.11). Consequently the property of particle
fracture toughness was included in the proposed model.
SWR vs Fracture Toughness
0.7616
y = 0.0002x
2
R = 0.3837
SWR (mm^3/Nm)
1.00E-03
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
0.1
10
1.00E-06
Stress intensity factor
Figure 5.11 SWR versus fracture toughness
5.8.
Effect of Particle size
The experimental particle size range included particles typically from 5 to 500 microns and it was found
that generally the specific wear rate increases with the equivalent particle size d85 and this is consistent
with the size effect reported by Misra et al (Misra and Finnie 1981).. Individual particle sizes were
measured by AnalySis software which deduces the arithmetic mean of all diameters of a particle for
angles in the range from 0 to 179 degrees with step width of one degree. The particle sizes were sorted
by frequency to determine the 85% passing size for each sample. This relationship is best approximated
with a log function (Figure 5.12).
111
SWR vs d85
1.00E-03
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
mm3/Nm
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
d85 (micron)
Figure 5.12 SWR versus particle size

Peak gland pressures reached 1 MPa during some of the experiments with fine particle slurries;
however, no clear correlation could be defined based on particle size alone (Figure 5.13). It was
expected that the coarser corundum particles would result in high peak pressures and form larger quasi
particles more readily. Generally it was observed that the finer slurries resulted in higher peak start up
pressures which is consistent with a higher packing density and additional yield stress effect for flow to
occur; ie, it is thought that with the finer particle slurries the rheology of the slurry is also a contributor to
the peak pressure. There was also little correlation between gland follower peak load and the particle
size. The notable exceptions were test 4 (talc) and test 15 (copper oxide) which had high initial packing
loads and high peak pressures. For these tests the start-up packing load was in the order of 300 N and
the gland pressure increased within several minutes to the order of 1 MPa before exponential decay
commenced. It is thought that the rheology of these fine particle slurries was a significant contribution to
the high pressures. It is deduced then that for fine particles a gland seal is, in some cases, a more
effective barrier for preventing leakage and particles are less likely to flow across the gap. There were
tests of different particles with similar size which had very low packing loads and pressures as
demonstrated by the scatter in Figure 5.13. This was a key finding.
112
1000.00
900.00
900.00
800.00
800.00
700.00
700.00
600.00
kPa
600.00
500.00
500.00
400.00
400.00
300.00
300.00
200.00
200.00
100.00
100.00
0.00
0
100
200
300
400
500
Load (N )
Peak pressure vs size and load
Pressure
Load
0.00
600
d85 micron
Figure 5.13 Pressure versus particle size and load
5.9.
Effect of particle shape
5.9.1. Particle shape characterisation
The literature review provided some direction on particle shape characterization; however, it is a science
still in development. Because there was not a clear comparison between all the methods available and
analysis of variance, it was thought that the development of a new parameter and its comparison with
contemporary methods was needed to bring a higher level of definition to particle shape enabling its
relevance to the wear model to be explored.
During the screening experiments a number of parameters were explored to quantify the particle shape
perimeter in a two dimensional plane (particles are anisotropic and three dimensional in nature). They
included spike parameter linear fit (SPL) and spike parameter quadratic (SPQ) fit and two new
parameters, spike parameter quadratic linear fit (SPQL) and weighted dihedral angle (WDA). The fractal
dimension was found to be of low value and excluded from the parameter investigation because a high
fractal dimension, indicating an irregular boundary, may not represent vertices with small dihedral
113
angles that are relevant to cutting wear by sharp particles in a seal system. This was confirmed by
personal discussion with Dr Pawel Podsiadlo of the University of Western Australia.
The SPL is based on Richardsons technique and constructs a series of triangles of different step sizes
when walking around the particle perimeter and using all possible starting points (Figure 5.14). The
cosine rule is used to calculate the spike dihedral angle and internal angles and the spike height SV.
The spike value is normalised by the spike height and the maximum SV for each step length averaged.
This was repeated for all particles and averaged again for the sample.
Figure 5.14 SPL boundary walk of a particle

The SPQ estimates the equivalent circle having the same area and centroid as the particle (Figure
5.15). All spikes outside the circle are considered of interest and the SV is calculated using quadratic
equations.
114
Figure 5.15 Schematic illustrating SPQ calculation method, circle of equivalent area and intersections
A new parameter was proposed by Oram through combining the SPQ and SPL methods which have
inherent limitations. The equivalent circle diameter is plotted on the particle centroid and the SPL
method is applied to the coordinates outside the circle (Oram 2007).
The SPL method is limited by the fact that some vertices with small dihedral angles that cause cutting
wear will not always be captured within the boundary walk. Conversely some insignificant boundary
features which are not likely to cause wear can also be captured, making the computing time excessive.
The SPQ method, in comparison, measures only the relevant vertices and has a relatively shorter
computing time. There were some limitations found when there is a change in direction, for example
when there are two vertices close together (two humps) and the quadratic equations dont fit the change
in slope (Figure 5.16).
115
Figure 5.16 SPQ poor quadratic fit

In addition when there is a rounded vertice the SPQ finds one large dihedral angle and the SPL finds
two angles as shown in Figure 5.17.
Figure 5.17 SPL and SPQ variance

The theoretical value range for SPQ and SPL shown in Figure 5.18 indicated that to make a meaningful
comparison between the methods a phase shift was required in the SPQ by 0.5 hence the equation for
ASPQ was:
aspq = cos + 0.5, ASPQ =

2
cos 2 + 0.5
n
Equation 5.1
This correction was made to ensure a small dihedral angle equated to a high angularity value as shown
in Figure 5.18.
116
1.2
1
0.8
Angularity
0.6
SPQ
SPL
Adj. SPQ
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Angle (rad)
Figure 5.18 Angularity versus angle range

A new parameter Weighted Dihedral Angle (WDA) similar to SPQ was proposed in which only the
relevant vertices outside the equivalent circle diameter are considered (Figure 5.19). Each vertice angle
is quantified based on Cartesian coordinates of the particle boundary from SEM imaging and
trigonometry rather than solving a quadratic equation. It is important to note the angle is not normalized
by the spike height as the angle is the critical factor in orthogonal cutting mechanics as found by
Williams et al. The angle is also averaged over the size ranges 0 to 10, 11 to 100 and 101 to 500
microns, recognising that shape and size are both statistical distributions and dependent (see Section
2.8).
Figure 5.19 Proposed parameter WDA
117
Random samples of mineral (haematite, coarse sand, gypsum corundum and apatite) were selected
with particle sizes less than 500 microns and sieved manually into the three size ranges with
approximately 10 particles in each fraction. Demineralised water was added to each sample and the fine
clay particles were decanted several times before the final concentrate was dried. The particles were
viewed with an Optical Microscope MZ316 and the particle boundary quantified with iTems software
resulting in Cartesian coordinates, shape area and centroid coordinates.
It was found that the ASPQ parameter was consistently in the order of 50% lower than the SPL. Another
significant finding was the insignificant variation between the samples (Figure 5.20).
0.60
P a rt ic le A n g u la rit y
0.55
0.50
0.45
ASPQ
0.40
SPL
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
Alumina
Coarse Sand
Hematitie
Figure 5.20 Particle angularity

The WDA parameter also found a similar result to the spike parameters with approximately four degrees
variation in the data (Figure 5.21).
118
89.0
A n g le ()
88.0
87.0
86.0
85.0
84.0
Alumina
Coarse Sand
Hematite
Figure 5.21 WDA results of random samples

The corundum sample was expected to be the sharpest sample as this material is commonly employed
for sand blasting processes and felt reasonably sharp to touch. A visual overview of the particle
boundary images supports the data and accentuates that there is little difference between the samples
but a wide variation of particle shapes within a sample. There is a mix of prolate and oblate perimeter
shapes within any sample and this was a key finding (Figure 5.22).
To improve accuracy a larger population of particles would need to be examined but this was not
possible because of the scanning time and imaging costs.
119
NOTE:
Figure 5.22 Variation in particle shape (Oram 2007)

A histogram of the particle parameter for each sample was investigated to check for any bias over the
range and the alumina results indicate that all of the methods consistently result in similar shape
distributions. Generally it was found that for any given sample the median shape range is between 60
and 120 degrees and was not an important controlling variable for the wear model (Figure 5.23).
120
NOTE:
Figure 5.23 Angularity frequency (Oram 2007)
In summary the particle shape parameters were found to be very time consuming to quantify and the
results showed that, on a two dimensional basis, there was not a significant variation between the
samples. Consequently, based on the angularity results from the parameter data found in the size range
up to 500 micron and the literature review summary revealing the complexity of quantification, it was
121
determined that particle shape was of limited value to the wear model and a standard shape descriptor,
form factor (reciprocal of roundness factor), was evaluated for the experimental range of samples.
Particles with small form factors are less round and spherical particles have a factor of one. This
standard shape data was computed from the optical images with minimal computing time and was
analysed as a final investigation of the effects of particle shape on seal wear.
5.9.2. Particle shape data
The relationship between specific wear rate and particle shape was found to be constant across the
range of shapes in the experiments based on roundness (inverse of the form factor). Particles less than
500 microns in size were scanned using a Leica MZ16FA stereo microscope and recorded using a
Leica IC3D camera and Leica Application Suite software. Fine particles were scattered on aluminium
SEM carbon sticking tabs and coated with 6 nm of platinum to make them conducting. They were then
imaged using an Phillips XL20 scanning electron microscope. Particles greater than 5 micron in size
were examined by optical microscope with a maximum magnification of 115 times, and less than 5
micron by SEM. The particle shape and size was quantified using AnalySIS image analysis software.
Test 18 (glass beads) with a shape factor of 1.08 resulted in one of the lowest wear rates (7.37 x 10-6
mm3/Nm); however, the results clearly indicate that particle shape for the size range was not a relevant
factor to the model (Figure 5.24).
122
SWR vs Shape
m m 3 /N m
1.00E+00
1.00E-02 0
0.5
1.5
2.5
1.00E-04
1.00E-06
Roundness
Figure 5.24 SWR versus Particle shape (roundness)
Comparing the data for all of the methods highlights the relative shape similarity between the samples
based on the average of each sample. This also supports the qualitative finding that there was a range
of oblate and prolate shapes within each sample and that the average shape was similar between the
samples (Figure 5.25). Note that for comparison purposes, WDA in degrees has been converted into a
shape value by using the equation for ASPQ.
It is recognized that form factor or roundness does not have the inherent relevance to orthogonal cutting
wear as the SPQ; however, the results demonstrate that the extrinsic property of shape was not relevant
to the shaft sleeve SWR and that the form factor was similar in accuracy to the other descriptors.
123
Shape value
Shape Descriptor Comparison

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
WDA
SPQ
FF
Alumina
Apatite
Gypsum
Sand
Mineral
Figure 5.25 Shape descriptor comparison
5.10. Effect of crystal content
All of the samples were analysed by X ray diffraction. They were found to be of homogeneous crystal
content with the exception of the apatite sample which was contaminated with sand; consequently this
result was excluded from the regression equation. The SWR was reviewed as a function of the crystal
form and it was found that there was no relationship between them (Table 5.1). In practice the minerals
found in mineral processing and to which sealing systems in slurry pumps are exposed may or may not
present perfect crystal faces and shapes depending on how they are formed and grow, hence many
crystals are not well formed or euhedral (Nesse 2000).
124
Table 5.1 Crystal system for mineral samples

Test No
Mineral
Crystal System
Formula
Coarse Sand
Hexagonal(trigonal division)
SiO2
Coarse Sand
SiO2
Alumina
Al203
Talc
Monoclinic
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Apatite
Ca Mg(CO3)2
Beach sand
SiO2
Unimin 30/60
SiO2
Unimin 30/60
SiO2
Unimin 30/60
SiO2
10
30/60 50N mix
SiO2
11
Magnesite
Hexagonal (rhombohedral)
MgCO3
12
Magnetite
Isometric
FeFe2O4
13
Dolomite
CaMg(CO3)2
14
15
16
17
Gypsum
Copper oxide (cupric oxide)
Manganese oxide (manganite)
Silicon Carbide (carborundum)
Monoclinic
Isometric
Monoclinic
Hexagonal
CaSO4.2H2O
CuO
MnO
SiC
18
Glass beads
Amorphous - n/a
SiO2
19
Malachite
Monoclinic
Cu2CO3(OH)2
20
Magnetite
FeFe2O4
125
The particles were observed and their fracture type, crystal faces, and habit are summarised in Table
5.2 .
Table 5.2 Particle crystal properties
Test No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Mineral
Coarse Sand
Coarse Sand
Alumina
Fracture Crystal face

hackly
subhedral
hackly
subhedral
conchoidal subhedral
basal
cleavage
Talc
anhedral
Apatite
hackly
subhedral
Beach sand
uneven
anhedral
Unimin 30/60
uneven
anhedral
Unimin 30/60
uneven
anhedral
Unimin 30/60
uneven
anhedral
30/60 50N mix
uneven
anhedral
Magnesite
conchoidal
anhedral
Magnetite
hackly
anhedral
Dolomite
hackly
subhedral
Gypsum
splintery
subhedral
Copper oxide (cupric oxide)
no cleavage anhedral
Manganese oxide (manganite)
uneven
anhedral
Silicon Carbide (carborundum) conchoidal subhedral
Glass beads
n/a
n/a
Malachite
n/a
anhedral
Magnetite
hackly
anhedral
Habit
equant
equant
equant
platy, equant
equant
spherical/equant rounded
equant rounded
equant rounded
equant rounded
equant rounded
equant
equant
equant
platy
spherical tufts
equant
equant
equant spherical
fibrous, acicular
equant
It was expected that particles with sharp edges formed by hackly or conchoidal fracture, well-formed
crystal faces and equant habit would contribute to high SWR (highlighted cells in Table 5.2). Conversely
it was expected that particles with anhedral shape and fibrous in habit would be related to lower SWR.
Generally it was found that all particles did not exhibit euhedral crystal form either due to weathering or
irregular fracture caused by impurities and defects in the crystals and mutual interference during
formation, hence this descriptor was not useful for the wear model. The quartz samples exhibited a
range of habits from equant to rounded as can be seen in the SEM images (Figure 5.26).
126
Figure 5.26 Test 10: Sand mix equant and rounded particles
Test 3 (alumina) and 17 (silicon carbide) revealed conchoidal fracture and sharp edges and vertices
which would contribute to orthogonal cutting of the shaft sleeve and relatively high SWR (Figure 5.27
and Figure 5.28).
Figure 5.27 Test 3: Alumina

127
Figure 5.28 Test 17: Silicon carbide

It is important to note that while the test 20 (magnetite) and test 13 (dolomite) had all the indications of
sharp particles, with hackly and equant habit, the SWR results were not high and this is a function of
their other properties of fracture toughness and size (Figure 5.29 and Figure 5.30).
Figure 5.29 Test 20: Magnetite
128
Figure 5.30 Test 13: Dolomite

The magnetite particles were very fine, and the dolomite has a relatively low if insignificant fracture
toughness. It is thought that the particles of low fracture toughness attrite into smaller particles until they
reach a low particle size limit where the fracture energy available is less than the molecular bond
strength.
5.11. Packing observations
The packing material from each experiment was examined to identify the embedment of any particles in
the braided lattice; despite the intuitive appeal of this particle motion, the number of particles contained
in the packing was negligible. Samples of new (as received) packing were selected at random and
examined under SEM which showed the glass fibres and PTFE boundary lubricant (Figure 5.31).
129
Figure 5.31 New packing SEM view
The observation of used packing showed very fine particles (less than 5 microns) bound by the lubricant
and fibres in the test packing samples (Figure 5.32) along with broken glass fibres. The important point
is that the observation is post factum and the evidence for particles greater than 5 micron size is
destroyed when removing the packing from the stuffing box housing. The observation also supports the
finding that particles and quasi particles are trapped in the gap by a balance of forces in the gap rather
than the inherent geometry of the braided lattice.
Figure 5.32 Packing after test SEM view
130
Consequently there was little value in recording pictures of each packing sample since bound particles
and quasi particles were not evident after the experiments.
Each packing was examined and two examples are included as typical observations. Test 10 (Unimin
sand mix) showed tearing of the glass fibres and indication of the particles jamming on one side of the
seal gap (Figure 5.33).
Figure 5.33 Test 10 packing

Test 14 (gypsum) showed the effects of heat and discolouration of the lubricant caused by excessive
friction (Figure 5,34). The lubricant contains a combination of hydrocarbon and PTFE, and it is thought
that the hydrocarbon component reached its critical combustion temperature in this example.
131
Figure 5.34 Test 14 packing
5.12. Seal Dimensional Analysis
From the project hypothesis the seal functional relation is proposed as:
SWR( x, t ) = ( L, P, V , h, HParticles, HShaft , HPacking , KIC , , d 85, )
Equation 5.2
The dimensions for fracture toughness (KIC) are simplified to MT-2 (equal to the dimension for GIC) by
excluding the L-1/2 term . KIC is directly related to GIC (see Equation 2.5).
The variables and their dimensions are shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Seal variables
Variable
Description
Dimension
SWR
Specific wear rate (mm3/N.m) = wear volume normalised by [LM-1T2]

load and travel distance (Vt) and is equivalent to the
dimensional wear coefficient in the Archard equation
Packing length from gland follower
[L]
Gland follower applied load to packing
[ML-1T-2]
Wear depth at position x
[L]
Shaft sleeve surface velocity
[LT-1]
HShaft
Hardness of shaft sleeve
[MT-2L-1]
HParticles
Hardness of particles
[MT-2L-1]
132
HPacking
Hardness of packing fibres
[MT-2L-1]
Weighted dihedral angle of slurry particles
[1]
d85
Equivalent particle size
[L]
KIC
Particle tenacity/fracture toughness
[MT-2]
The experiment was designed at the same scale as operating practice, hence geometric similitude was
satisfied and scale effects minimised.
There are eleven (11) variables and three (3) dimensions (M,L,T). By the theorem there would be up
to eight (8) parameters and twenty four (24) equations with three (3) unknowns to solve for one set of
repeating units. As there are a large number of variables and repeating unit options this makes the
solution complex. The repeating variables are unknown and solving the equation is by inspection and
substitution.
By definition is a function of arc length and radius so:
1 =
There is interaction between the shaft sleeve, packing and particles. The relationship between particles
and the packing is not a significant contribution to the model and is ignored, so by inspection:
2 = H Packing / H Shaft
3 = H Particle / H Shaft
The particle motion and forces are a function of the particle size and gap between the packing and shaft
sleeve so:
4 = d 85 / h
(and d85/L by inspection is also dimensionless which is ignored as h is a function of L by an exponential
relationship for the packing according to the Denny equation). The variable h is in effect the seal gap
and the ratio indicates a critical gap:
133
d85 = [L] and d85/V = [T]

HParticle = [ML-1T-2] and by substitution:
[M] = HParticled853/V2
SWR = LM-1T2 and substituting for L, M and T, SWR = HParticle-1
5 = SWR.H Particle
KIC = [MT-2 ] and by substitution of M and T;
= H Particle .d 85 / V 2 .(V 2 / d85 )

3
then K IC = d 85 .H Particle
6 = K IC /(d 85 .H Particle )
The hardness of the packing is resisted by the gland follower load (ie, the axial force is balanced at
equilibrium), then HPacking = P. (Note hardness may be multiplied by the gravity constant and
approximated to a pressure in SI units of MPa or GPa. The actual hardness indenter surface is not
normal to the surface and the conversion is an approximate equivalent only.)
7 = H Packing / P = P / H Packing (inverted terms)

For the experiment and model, thermal effects [T] on the packing pressure, friction, lubrication and
particle properties are ignored. From experience it is known that the gap between the shaft sleeve and
packing is directly related to the gland follower load or pressure.
Then h = c.P where c is some constant (for example the packing lateral pressure ratio)
8 = c.h / P resulting in eight proposed dimensional groupings.

The dimensional equation is then:
SWR.H Particle
= f ( K IC /( d 85 .H Particle ), H Packing / H Shaft , H Particle / H Shaft , d 85 / h, , P / H Packing , ch / P )
Combining the HPacking terms;

134
= f ( K IC /( d 85 .H Particle ), H Particle / H Shaft , d 85 / h, , P / H Shaft , ch / P )
h is not known as experimental measurement is difficult , hence h can be excluded. The equation then
reduces to:
= f ( K IC /( d 85 .H Particle ), H Particle / H Shaft , , P / H Shaft )
and inverting the first term:

= f (( d 85 .H Particle ) / K IC , H Particle / H Shaft , , P / H Shaft )
The dimensional analysis found two additional numbers of importance. The latter term relates to the
seal itself and, as the hardness was constant for the experiments, can be taken as the pressure alone.
The SWR was examined as a function of the hydraulic pressure which is directly related to the gland
load and no correlation was found (see Section 1.6).
The relative hardness and particle shape are discussed in Section 1.4 and Section 1.9 respectively.
The remaining number found is in effect a particle dimensionless number (or particle wear number) and
the new number is proposed as:
PDN = (d 85 .H Particle ) / K IC Equation 5.3
(inverse of 6)
Charting the PDN number (based on the particle abrasive hardness in Pascals) revealed a reasonable
correlation with SWR on a log log basis with a correlation coefficient of 0.5666 and the line of best fit
equation (Figure ).
SWR = 3 10 10 ( PDN ) + 7 10 05 Equation 5.4
135
y = 3E-10x + 7E-05
R2 = 0.5666
PDN vs SWR
1.00E+00
1.00E-01
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
SWR
1.00E-02
1.00E-03
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
PDN
Figure 5.35 SWR versus PDN

This is a significant discovery noting that the correlations of SWR with the controlling variables of
particle shape and relative hardness (both in the dimensional analysis) and fracture toughness had
lower correlation coefficients. The dimensionless analysis may be extended by combining the particle
number which is in effect a material parameter with the relative elasticity of the opposing surfaces which
would, in effect, combine to form a three body wear number.
The correlation coefficients are summarised in Table 5.4:
136
Table 5.4 Correlation summary
Variable
R2
PDN
0.5666
Particle size
0.3684
Fracture toughness
0.3837
Relative hardness
0.4762
5.13. Erosive wear and vorticity
It can be shown by solving the Navier Stokes equation that the flow rate in the seal gap (between the
shaft sleeve and packing) is approximately a function of the gap, based on a power law and the
pressure drop across the seal, and the lubricating fluid (gland water) viscosity which is the viscous flow
equation in thin films (Turnbull 1976)
Q = h 3 / 12 .(dP / dx)
Equation 5.5 Viscous flow
The seal may also be considered as an annulus (Figure 5.36):
Figure 5.36 Annulus schematic
137
Given small clearances between shaft and packing, flow would expected to be laminar when the seal
components are in as-new condition.
The flow rate Q (m3/s) is given by Hagen Poiseuille Law (Streeter and Wylie 1981):
Q = v mean A x =
DH4
P
128 L
Equation 5.6 Hagen Poiseuille
Where:
Q = volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
vmean = average velocity in the annulus (m/s)
Ax = X-sectional area (m2)
L = length of shaft sleeve (m)
DH = hydraulic diameter (m)
P = applied pressure loss (Pa)
= dynamic fluid viscosity of fluid ( Pa.s)
The hydraulic diameter is given by:
DH = 4
4 Di2 D2o
cross sec tional area
= 4
= (Di Do ) = (annular clearance)
wetted perimeter
(Di Do )
The corresponding Reynolds number is:

Re =
v meanDH ( Q A x ) DH 4Q (Do Di )
4Q
=
=
=
Equation 5.7 Reynolds Number
2
2
D
(
Do Di
o + Di )
As the shaft sleeve wears it is expected that the flow rate will increase to the power of three at least,
and is reasonably sensitive to the gap. Also the Reynolds number is proportional to the seal gap, and
turbulent flow is possible depending on the gap dimension.
When the flow is fully turbulent it is expected that there would be erosive wear of the shaft sleeve as
particles entrained in the slurry randomly impact on the shaft sleeve while there is a component of
velocity that transports the particles from the high pressure region at the pump impeller boss to
atmosphere.
138
The particle motion is complicated by the Taylor vortices induced by the relative motion of the shaft
sleeve to the packing. When the inertial forces acting on a particle exceed the fluid viscous force,
vortices are formed in Taylor Couette flow. As the Taylor number based on the shaft sleeve angular
velocity and seal gap is exceeded, toroidal vortices form and these may be stacked on each other or be
in the form of helixes. A range of complicated flows may exist in the seal gap and the seminal work by
Andereck et al (Andereck, Liu et al. 1986) found that in the flow between independently rotating
cylinders there are a large variety of flow regimes (Figure 5.37).
NOTE:
Figure 5.37 Taylor vortice flow regimes (Andereck, Liu et al. 1986)
The flow transition states were found by defining the Reynolds number for the inner and outer cylinder
diameters. The seal gap was not defined for the experiments as the packing is a visco-elastic material
and there were five packing rings; consequently it was not possible to predict exactly what flow regime
would be expected for a shaft sleeve with significant wear. Erosive wear was not observed in the shaft
sleeve specimens. Future work may be able to deliberately induce the vortices by pre-machining the
shaft sleeve outer diameter and commencing experiments with a measurable gap (ie, no contact
between the packing and shaft sleeve). From an end-users perspective, this is an extreme state at
which the seal would be at functional failure.
139
5.14. Summary
A field empirical approach indicated variables other than the packing radial stress are relevant. Twenty
experiments were completed, excluding the screening and replicate testing , on a range of particles
commercially available within 500 micron in size . The experiments were successfully quantified by
mathematical models and supported by observation and repeatability was measured by replicates of the
sand (quartz) sample.
The SWR increases with relative hardness between the sample particle and shaft sleeve according to a
power law relationship, and increases with published values of particle fracture toughness by a power
law relationship. SWR also increases with equivalent particle size d85 and is approximated by a log
function.
Particle shape descriptors were evaluated and found not relevant to the SWR because the samples
contained a range of oblate and prolate shapes.
In summary the experimentation proved that development of a SWR quantitative model was possible
and the methodology of testing.
140

Gland Packing

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Gland Packing

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Slurry Pump Gland Seal Three Body Wear

and the Influence of Particle Properties including

Nigel Ian Ridgway

A thesis submitted for examination for the degree of

Table 1.1 Typical seal size range

Pump discharge size

Shaft sleeve diameter

Shaft surface velocity

Figure 1.2 Typical gland seal failure

Figure 1.3 Typical gland seal components

Figure 1.4 Seal pressure distribution

Impact of wear on reliability

Figure 1.5 Reliability frequency of failure

Figure 1.6 Shaft sleeve replacements: Weibull plot

Figure 1.7 Packing replacements: Weibull plot

Table 1.2 Reliability data ( (Ridgway, O'Neill et al. 2004))

Economic significance of wear

CCD Gland sealing costs 2001-2002

Figure 1.8 Gland sealing costs 2001-2002

Figure 1.9a Shaft sleeve usage (quantity)

Figure 1.9b Shaft sleeve usage (cost)

Life cycle element

Cost per annum

Gland process water

Corrosion end covers

Project objectives and methodology

Seal wear review

2.1.1. Component definition

2.2.1. Explanatory note

2.2.2. Australian Patents

Figure 2.2 Stepped shaft sleeve (Muragan 1998)

Figure 2.3 Chesterton lantern ring (Jean and Jean 1980)

Most of the Australian patents and applications relate to packing designs.

Figure 2.4 Packing stress (Kozlowski 1977)

Figure 2.5 Braided packing construction (Kozlowski 1978)

Figure 2.6 Self lubricated packing (Robins 1981)

Figure 2.7 Composite yarn (Adorno 1995)

Figure 2.8 Interwarp knit construction (Harrelson 2000)

2.2.3. British Patents

Figure 2.9 Packing spline arrangement (Construction 1965)

Figure 2.10 Hydraulic radial gland (Flexibox 1974)

Figure 2.11 Combined tandem seal (Shaw 1969)

2.2.4. US Patennts Mechanical Arrangements

Figure 2.12 Reverse packed gland (Kerr 1907)

Figure 2.14 Radial hydraulic seal (Johansson 1980)

Figure 2.16 Series gland seal (Vaisanen 1990)

2.2.5. US Patennt packing design

Figure 2.19 Winans braided packing (Winans 1881)

Figure 2.20 Blaisdell woven braid (Blaisdell 1930)

Teflon 40 mesh size

Figure 2.21 Braiding machine (Webster, Houghton et al. 1964)

Figure 2.22 Herringbone weave (Houghton and Dixit 1972)

Figure 2.23 Teflon structure (Gore 1976a)

Figure 2.24 Folded graphite tape (Ueda 1997)

Figure 2.25 Laminated packing (Ueda, Konaka et al. 1993)

Figure 2.26 Expanded graphite/PTFE composite (Tsukamoto 2001)

The Effect of pressure distribution on wear

2.3.2. British Hydraulic Research Association reports

Equation 2.1 Denny radial pressure

Figure 2.28 Shaft sleeve wear (Nau and Austin 1969)

2.3.3. Scientific papers

Figure 2.29 Stress relaxation (Bohner, Blenke et al. 1975)

Figure 2.30 New seal arrangements (Ochonski and Machowski 1987)

Equation 2.2 Radial stress and