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( ) = ( + ),
(2.8)
Most of real vibrations have periodic evolutions, but very few of them are pure
harmonics.
2 ()d
2 0
(2.9)
Divided this energy by one period the average power along one period is found
as being proportional with the square of XRMS revealing an important physical
significance which explains the large utilization of XRMS versus XA-av.
( ) =
(2.10)
, =
0
2
+
=1[ cos( ) + sin( )]
(2.11)
The procedure is called the harmonic analysis of the periodic function x(t).
The angular frequency Is called fundamental and the movement x(t) is
considered as sum of harmonic movements that have frequencies equal to the
fundamental and its integer multiply.
The sum from equations (2.11) is called the Fourier series, where the constants Ar ,
Br and are called Fourier coefficients and are mathematically formulated as:
2
(2.12)
0 = 0 ()d
() = 0 ()cos() d,
() = 0 ()sin()d
(2.13)
The motion expressed by the equation (2.11) can be easily written as a sum of
sinusoidal motions having angular frequencies multiplies of the fundamental one,
(Eq. (2.10)):
( ) =
0
2
+
1 [ sin( + )]
(2.14)
() = 2 + 2 ,
() = tan1 ( )
(2.15)
This procedure is called the harmonic analysis of a periodic motion (or, more
generally, periodic functions).
The harmonics can be plotted as vertical lines on the amplitude versus frequency
diagram called a frequency spectrum or a spectral diagram.
The spectrum of squared amplitudes is known as the power spectrum, and offers
information on how the vibration power is divided on different harmonics.
However, the power spectrum does not contain information regarding the initial
phases.
A reasonable accuracy is obtained even in the sum from Eq. (2.10) the first terms
are considered only. This statement will be sustained by two examples.
1
1
when
< < ( + 0.5)
} , = 0,1,2,3,
when ( + 0.5) < < ( + 1)
The Fourier series coefficients are obtained from Eqs. (2.12) and (2.13):
2
2 2
2
() = () cos() d = () cos() d + () cos() d =
0
0
2
2 1
/2
2 1
sin()
sin()
=0
0
/2
2
2 2
2
() = () sin() d = () sin() d + () s in() d =
0
0
2
1
/2
1
0
cos()
+
cos()
/2
= 0 ,
=
4
,
for = (2 + 1), ,
for = 2, ,
( is odd)
( is even)
Exemple 2.2 The motion of the piston exemplified in Figure 2.5 is described
analytically by the equation:
2
3 4
5
() = [1 cos() + sin (t) +
sin () + sin6 () + ]
2
8
32
Only the first two terms attain significant values, and consequently the piston
acceleration becomes:
() = 2 [cos() + cos(2)]
The two components of the sum represent the frequency spectrum of the piston
motion; a suggestive description is got if amplitudes of acceleration are
presented as function of frequency( Figure 2.5).
Fig. 2.5 Periodic non-harmonic motion of a piston and its harmonic components.
= 1 , ( 1 = , ).
2
() = =
]
=[ ( )
(2.16)
/2
( ) = /2 () 2 d
(2.17)
the movement x(t) will be the sum vector of all these vectors in their instantaneous
positions. That is the physical meaning of Eq. (2.16).
The series of complex values of ( ) represents the complex spectrum
components of the vibratory movement x(t). Because each frequency
component ( ) contains information relative to amplitude and phase
(equivalent real and imaginary part) the complex spectrum needs a 3D
representation, Figure 2.7.
phasors rotate at speeds which are integer multiples of 1 so each of them rotate
its own integer number of turns during the movement period and all have
returned to their starting positions, and the whole process will begin to repeat
exactly.
Because the time movement x(t) is a real-valued function, each component at
frequency must be matched by a component at which has equal
amplitude but opposite phase. In the complex plane that means equal real part
and opposite imaginary part that represent two complex conjugate complex
numbers:
( ) = ( )
In this way the imaginary parts of all frequencies will always cancel and the
resultant will be always real.
2
() = 0 + 2Re[
)]
=1(
(2.18)
Because the series of imaginary parts (or equivalently phase angles) is antisymmetric around zero frequency, the zero frequency (or DC) component has
zero (or ) phase angle and is always real.
2.3.4 Power of a time periodic motion. Power spectrum and Parcevals theorem.
Time domain analysis. The instantaneous power of the motion () is equal to
[()]2 .
The mean power over one period is given by integrating the instantaneous value
over one period (that represents the energy along one period) and dividing it by
the periodic time:
1
= 0 [()]2 d
(2.19)
_ =
2 sin2 (21 + )d =
0 [2 2 cos(21 + )] =
2
2
(2.20)
_ = [ ] = [_ ]
(2.21)
The power content at each frequency is obtained directly by the square of the
amplitude of the Fourier series component. The large of usage of the root mean
square value which, directly connected with mean power, becomes clear.
The distribution with frequency of the power content in the vibratory movement
represents its power spectrum.
Frequency domain analysis. In the frequency domain, except for the DC
component the amplitude of any ( ) is 2, and thus the square of this is 2 /4.
The amplitude spectrum is even and the negative frequency component (from
( ) so the square of its amplitude is also 2 /4.
The total mean power associated with the frequency will be 2 2, the same as
obtained in the time domain.
Parcevals theorem. The total power obtained by integrating the squared
instantaneous motion amplitude with time and dividing by this time are equal with
the total power obtained by summing the squared amplitudes of all frequencies
of the frequency component. This is called Parcevals theorem.
() = () 2 d = (()) )
+
() = () +12 d = (())
(2.22)
(2.23)
The equations (2.22) and (2.23) represent the Fourier Transform Pair:
- the Eq. (2.22), called the forward Fourier transform, converts the motion
x(t) from time domain into the frequency domain, whereas
- the Eq.(2.23), called the inverse Fourier transform, converts the frequency
spectrum X(f) from frequency domain into the time domain.
The Fourier transform decomposes a wave form into its harmonics.
0 =
=
=1 ( )
=1 ( ) cos (
(2.24)
2
) , and =
=1 ( ) sin (
),
(2.25)
However, practically is quite difficult to determine the beginning and the end of
the period itself. In a situation like this, the samples are taken over a number of
periods, and as the period is used the sum of these periods, that is the true length
of the sample. If the vibration is true periodic and the sampling is over an exact
multiple of the period, the first few terms will turn out to be zero, because a
periodic motion of period T cannot have harmonics of period greater than T.
For example, if the above formulae are applied of a period of 5T the first five terms
of Ar and Br will be at least A5 and B5.
However, in case of practical measurements of the values = ( ), small
harmonics of the period greater than T, called sub-harmonics, will always be
present. The main causes of sub-harmonics are numerical inaccuracies and nonexact periodicity of the measured vibration, assumed a periodic one.
( ) =
1 /2
() i2
/2
(2.26)
where = .
Discrete Fourier Transform. When the sampling operation is achieved in time as
well as in frequency domains, both time motion and frequency spectrum are
implicitly periodic. The forward and inverse Fourier transforms are:
() = =1
() 2/ , and
=0
() = =1
() 2/
=0
(2.27)
Because the infinite continuous integral of Eqs. (2.22) and (2.23) have been
replaced by finite sums, the above forms represents the Discrete Fourier Transform
pair or DFT, and is the form used in computer analyses.
The Nyquist-Shanon sampling theorem. For a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) to
represent a vibration accurately, the original vibration must be sampled at a
sufficiently high rate. The appropriate rate of uniformly sampled time series is
determined by Nyquist-Shanon sampling theorem.
The sampling theorem states that any continuous baseband signal may be
identically reconstructed if the signal bandwidth limited and the sampling
frequency is at least twice the highest frequency of the baseband signal.
If a time signal is sampled uniformly, then the frequency corresponding to onehalf rate is called the Nyquist frequency.
The Nyquist frequency describes the high frequency cut-off of the system doing
the sampling and therefore is a propriety of that system. Any frequency exists in
the original movement which are at higher frequency than the Nyquist frequency
will be aliased to other lower frequency in the sampled band.
Examples. a)The stroboscope is an aliasing device designed to represent high
frequencies as low ones, even zero frequency when the picture is frozen.
b) The human ear can hear sounds with frequency from 20 Hz up to 20 kHz.
Therefore, nearperfect audio digital recording systems must sample audio signals
at least 40 kHz to be Nyquist sampled. Practically audio CDs are sampled at 44.1
kHz which allows imperfect low-pass audio filters to filter out higher frequencies
which would otherwise be alised into the audible band.
Power spectra. The conservation energy principle requires that the energies in the
time and frequency domains are equal, that mathematically implies that the
integral of the squared modulus of the function equals the integral power
spectrum:
|()|2 d = |()|2 d
The last equation represents the Parcevals thorem.
(2.29)
Rotational quantity
Angular displacement
Linear velocity
=
/
Angular velocity
/
=
Linear acceleration
=
/
Angular acceleration
=
/
Force
Torque
Spring stiffness
Spring stiffness
Damping coefficient
Damping coefficient
Mass
Moment of inertia
Elastic force
Elastic torque
Damping force
Damping torque
Inertia force
Inertia torque
() + () + () = ()
(3.1)
The force of inertia, damper reaction force and spring reaction force represented
by the three terms in the left-hand side dynamically balance the external force.
The importance of the role of SDOF systems in vibration theory derives from that
any linear system behaves like:
- a SDOF system near an isolated natural frequency, and
- as a connection of SDOF systems in a wider frequency range.
() + () + () = 0
( = 0) = 0 and
( = 0) = 0 = 0
() + () = 0
with the solution x(t):
() = sin (
) + cos (
) = Csin (
+ )
(3.4)
0 =
(rad/sec)
(3.5)
represents the angular natural frequency of the SDOF system. The corresponding
time period T and linear natural frequency f are:
2
0
(sec) ;
1
2
0 =
1
2
(Hz)
(3.6)
The angular natural frequency depends on the inertial (m, J) and elasticity (k)
parameters of physical components of the vibratory system, but does not depend
on type and value of the initial disturbance, Figure 2.9.
The data referring to initial disturbance establish the values for the integration
constants, the amplitude C and initial phase , respectively.
= 2 , =
= 2
(3.7)
The position of the actual damping constant relative to the critical value is
nominated by the ratio = called the fraction of critical damping.
The equation of motion is given by the solution for the Eq. (3.1). The form of the
solution depends upon the value of the damping coefficient c versus the critical
value cc
Case 1. Less than critical damping, ( < < 1). The solution is a harmonic
motion having amplitudes decreasing along time:
(3.8)
= 0 1 2 = 1 2
(3.9)
The presence of damping alters insignificantly the natural angular frequency, but
determines a sharp diminishing of the amplitudes of free damped vibrations,
Figure 3.3. After a small number of oscillations the free vibration movement of a
damped system disappears.