Photovoltaic System Sizing Part 2

Battery Bank Sizing

Batteries store excess energy the array produces during periods of high
insolation, and supply power to the system loads at nighttime and during
periods of low insolation. In stand-alone systems, they also establish the system
DC operating voltage and supply surge currents to electrical loads and inverters.
Battery-Bank Required Output
Batteries for stand-alone PV systems are sized to store enough energy to meet
system loads for the desired length of autonomy without any further charge or
energy contributions from the PV array.
Greater autonomy requires larger and costlier battery banks, but reduces the
average daily depth of discharge, which prolongs battery life.
The required battery-bank capacity is determined from the electrical-energy
requirements to operate the loads during the critical design month for the
length of the autonomy period and at the desired battery-system voltage.
The required battery-bank capacity is calculated using the following formula:
BOUT = (ECRIT x ta) / VSDC
BOUT = required battery-bank output (in Ah this is Amp hours)
ECRIT = daily electrical-energy consumption during critical design month (in
Wh/day)
ta = autonomy (in days)
VSDC = nominal DC-system voltage (in V)
For example, consider a system that requires 450 Wh (ECRIT) of energy daily
during the critical design month and the nominal DC-system voltage is 24 V. If
the system specifies 4 days of autonomy, what is the required capacity to
operate those loads from the battery bank?

BOUT = (ECRIT x ta) / VSDC

BOUT = (450 x 4) / 24 = 75 Ah
Therefore, the battery bank will need to supply 75 Ah to the system loads.
However, the total of the nameplate ratings of the battery bank must be higher
than this, because the usable capacity of a battery is always less than its rated
capacity.
Battery-Bank Rated Capacity
Three factors affect the amount of usable capacity in a battery. These factors
are used to estimate the larger battery-bank rated capacity necessary to supply
the required output. First, most batteries can't be discharged to a depth of
discharge of 100% without permanent damage. Depending on the battery type,
common allowable depths of discharge range from 20% to 80%. Most PV
systems use deep-cycle lead-acid batteries, which can be discharged to about
80%. This is the maximum fraction of the total rated capacity that is permitted
to be withdrawn from the battery at any time.
Also, low operating temperatures further reduce battery capacity. Most battery
ratings are specified for operation at 25C (77F). At other conditions, the usable
battery capacity may be lower. For example, a battery operating at -10C (14F)
has about only 90% of the capacity it has at 25C (77F).
The third factor is the discharge rate.

Battery Review
The Available Capacity of a battery is relative to a batterys Total
Capacity. The Total Capacity is frequently abbreviated to C and is a
measure of how much energy the battery can store.
Typically, the amp-hour capacity of a battery is measured at a rate of
discharge that will leave it empty in 20 hours (a.k.a. the C/20 rate).
If you attempt to discharge a battery faster than the C/20 rate, you
will have less available capacity and vice-versa.

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The average discharge rate is determined from the total operating time over the
period of autonomy, taking the allowable depth of discharge into account. Using
the daily operating time calculated in the load analysis, the average discharge
rate is calculated using the following formula(s):
First, note that: rd x DODa = top x ta
rd = average discharge rate (the time in hours to completely discharge the
battery)
DODa = allowable depth of discharge (percentage).
For example, suppose rd = 60 hr and DODa = 80% then : rd x DODa = 48 hr
top = average operating time of loads (in hr/day)
ta = autonomy (in days)
For example, suppose top = 16 hr and ta = 3 days then : top x ta = 48 hr
Now transpose the equation above so that:
rd = ( top x ta ) / DODa
So, if the daily operating time (top) for system loads is 16 hr/day over an
autonomy (ta) of 3 days, and the allowable depth of discharge is 80%, what is
the average discharge rate?
rd = ( top x ta ) / DODa
rd = ( 16 x 3 ) / 0.80 = 60 hr
The battery bank will discharge at a rate that would completely discharge the
batteries in 60 hr. Therefore, the battery-bank average discharge rate is C/60.
In other words, with the measure loads, a C/60 battery at 80% DOD will give you
3 days of autonomy at an average of 16 hours per day.

Most battery manufacturers report capacity at various discharge rates and

temperatures in their specifications.
To calculate the total rated capacity of the battery bank, the required batterybank output is increased proportionally to compensate for the allowable depth
of discharge and the temperature and discharge-rate de-rating factor.
The required capacity for a battery bank is calculated using the following
formula:
Brated = Bout / ( DODa x CT,rd )
Brated = battery-bank rated capacity (in Ah)
Bout = battery-bank required output (in Ah)
DODa = allowable depth of discharge
CT,rd = temperature and discharge-rate derating factor for a battery
For example, consider a system that requires a total battery bank output of 500
Ah (Bout). The allowable depth of discharge (DOD) is 75%, the minimum
operating temperature is -10C, and the average discharge rate is C/5O.
From the manufacturer's documentation on battery capacity, this yields a
temperature and discharge-rate derating factor (CT,rd) of approximately 80%.
What is the required battery-bank rated capacity?
Brated = Bout / ( DODa x CT,rd )
Brated = 500 / ( 0.75 x 0.80 )
Brated = 833 Ah
So, in order to get 500 Ah out of this battery-bank we will need a capacity
of 833 Ah.

Battery Selection
Individual batteries or cells are selected with enough capacity to avoid or
minimize parallel battery connections. Due to wiring resistance and small
differences among individual cells, paralleled strings of batteries may not charge
and discharge uniformly. A single series-connected string of batteries is
preferable but capacity requirements and the ' size of batteries available may
require more than one string. Generally, the number of parallel battery
connections should be limited to no more than 3 to 4 strings. Also, the size and
weight of the batteries must be considered with regard to transportation and
installation.
The nominal voltage and rated capacity of the selected battery is used to
determine the configuration of the battery bank. This information is found on
battery nameplates or in manufacturer's literature.
The nominal DC-system voltage divided by the nominal battery voltage
determines the number of batteries in a series string (eg 24v / 6v = 4). This
number should calculate evenly.
The required battery-bank rated capacity (Ah) divided by the individual-battery
rated capacity (Ah) determines the number of strings to be connected in
parallel. This number will likely not be a whole number, but should be rounded
up to the nearest whole number.
When the battery is chosen and the battery-bank design is configured, the final
rated capacity of the battery bank is equal to the rated capacity of an individual
battery multiplied by the number of parallel strings.
For example, a battery bank must supply 600 Ah and will operate at 24 V
nominal. A nominal 12 V battery is chosen with a rated capacity of 250 Ah. To
produce a nominal voltage of 24 V. two 12 V batteries will be connected in
series for each string. The number of strings in parallel is calculated to be 2.4
(600 Ah 250 Ah = 2.4). Rounded up to a whole number of 3 strings, the rated
capacity of the battery bank will then be 750 Ah (250 Ah/string x 3 strings = 750
Ah).
This is acceptable, but very conservative, and would result in an unnecessary
increase in cost. Choosing a different battery with a rated capacity closer to 200

Ah would be better if the bank were to have 3 strings. A battery with a rated
capacity of 300 Ah or slightly higher would be even better, as it would allow a
battery bank with only 2 strings. Battery choices may require changes and
recalculations to optimize the design of the battery bank.

Array Sizing
The array for a stand-alone system must be sized to meet the load requirements
during the critical design month (worst case of high loads and low insolation).
For stand-alone systems, the array must be sized to produce enough electrical
energy to meet the load requirements during the critical design month while
accounting for normal system losses. This ensures that the battery will always
be properly charged and that system availability is high throughout the year.
Required Array Output
First, the required array current is calculated from the load requirement and
insolation of the critical design month, and the nominal DC system voltage.
However, because battery efficiency is less than 100%, more current must be
supplied to charge a battery than is withdrawn on discharge. A battery-system
charging efficiency factor increases the required array output to a slightly higher
value. A value between 0.85 and 0.95 is appropriate for most batteries. The
required array current is calculated using the following formula:

Iarray = Ecrit / ( b x VSDC x tPSH )

Iarray = required array maximum-power current (in A) (at maximum power point)
Ecrit = daily electrical-energy consumption during critical design month (in
Wh/day)
b = battery-system charging efficiency
VSDC = nominal DC system voltage (in V)
tPSH = peak sun hours for critical design month (in hr/day)

For example, consider a nominal 24 V system in a location with 4.9 peak sun
hours that must supply 1580 Wh per day. The battery-system charging efficiency
is estimated at 0.90. What is the required array current?

Iarray = Ecrit / ( b x VSDC x tPSH )

Iarray = 1580 / (0.90 x 24 x 4.9 )
Iarray = 1580 / 105.8
Iarray = 14.9 A
This is the amount of current required from the array

Array Rated Output

Just as with battery banks, certain factors reduce the array output from the
factory ratings to actual output values. Therefore, these factors are applied to
the required array output to determine the necessary increase in array ratings
for sizing and module selection.
Soiling is the accumulation of dust and dirt on an array surface that shades the
array and reduces electrical output. The magnitude of this effect is difficult to
accurately determine, but estimates will account for most of this effect. A
derating factor of 0.95 is used for light soiling conditions and a derating factor of
0.90 or less is used for heavy soiling conditions with long periods between
rainfalls or cleanings. The actual array maximum-power current is calculated
using the following formula:

Iarray = Irated x Cs
Irated = rated array maximum-power current (in A)
Iarray = required array maximum-power array current (in A)
Cs = soiling derating factor

Suppose the current required from an array Iarray = 14.9 A (as above) with light
soiling conditions, how much current would the array have to be rated for?
Since Iarray = Irated x Cs Then

Irated = Iarray / Cs

Therefore Irated = 14.9 / 0.95 = 15.7 A

In other words the array is rated at 15.7 A but actually puts out only 14.9 A

A temperature coefficient of -0.004 V/C is applied to the array voltage,

indicating that voltage falls by about 0.4% for every degree above the reference
or rating temperature, which is usually 25C (77F).
In addition, the array voltage must be higher than the nominal battery-bank
voltage in order to charge the batteries. An array with a 12 V maximum-power
voltage will not charge a nominal 12 V battery because the actual voltage of a
nearly charged battery is about 14.5 V. The array voltage must be at least 14.5 V
to charge a battery. Therefore, the rated array maximum-power voltage is
multiplied by 1.2 to ensure the voltage is sufficient to charge the battery bank.
The rated array maximum-power voltage is calculated using the following
formula:

Vrated = 1.2 x {VSDC [ VSDC x C%V x ( Tmax Tref)]}

Vrated = rated array maximum-power voltage (in V)
VSDC = nominal DC-system voltage (in V)
C% V = temperature coefficient for voltage (-0.004 V/C) (Arrays in hot climates
produce less than their rated power because of high temperatures)

Tmax = maximum expected module temperature (in C)

Tref = reference (or rating) temperature ref (in C)
Note: the term [ VSDC x C%V x ( Tmax Tref)] is a correction factor to VSDC

For example, consider an array for a nominal 24 V DC system that must output
18 A. The soiling conditions are expected to be light and the maximum module
temperature is estimated at 50C. What are the minimum rated maximumpower current and voltage parameters? (recall max power point on IV curves)
Since Iarray = Irated x Cs Then Irated = Iarray / Cs

Irated = 18 / 0.95 = 18.95 A (this is minimum rated current at maximum power

point that is required)

Vrated = 1.2 x {VSDC [ VSDC x C%V x ( Tmax Tref)]}

Vrated = 1.2 x {24 [24 x (-0.004) x (50 25)]}
Vrated = 1.2 x {24 - [24 x (-0.004) x 25] }
Vrated = 1.2 x {24 - [-2.4] } (the temperature correction factor is -2.4 V)
Vrated = 1.2 x (26.4) (therefore add 2.4 V)
Vrated = 31.7 V (this is the minimum rated voltage at maximum power point that
is required)
Module Selection
The final step of the sizing process involves selecting a PV module and
determining the array configuration based on the current and voltage
parameters. For each module, three parameters are needed for sizing: the
maximum power, the maximum-power (operating) current, and the maximumpower (operating) voltage.
The number of parallel strings of modules required is determined by dividing
the rated array current output by the selected module maximum-power current
output and rounding up to the next whole number.
The number of series-connected modules in each string is determined by
dividing the rated array voltage by the selected module maximum-power
voltage and rounding up to the next whole number.

The rated array maximum power is calculated by multiplying the rated module
maximum power by the total number of modules.

Next Week (Last Week): Media Clip Example PV Installation

Also: Review for Final Exam

Summary of this Section

Sizing analysis for stand-alone systems starts at the load side and proceeds
backward to the array.
Interactive systems are generally sized to be as large as possible within the
limits of available space and budget since, in most locations, occasional excess
energy can be sold back to the utility.
Sizing of stand-alone systems involves a fine balance between energy supply
and demand. If the system is too small, there will be losses in load availability
and system reliability. If the system is too large, excess energy will be unutilized
and wasted.
Bimodal systems are typically sized in the same way as stand-alone systems.
The PV array and battery bank in a hybrid system can be significantly smaller
than in a stand-alone system if the secondary power source is available on
demand.
A detailed load analysis completed during the site survey lists each load, its
power demand, and daily energy consumption.
A weighted average operating time accounts for multiple loads operating for
varying lengths of time per day.

 Inverters lose some power in the process of converting DC energy to AC

energy, so more DC energy is required to produce a certain amount of AC
energy.
A stand-alone system must produce enough electricity to meet load
requirements during any month, so systems are sized for the worst-case
scenario of high load and low insolation.
If the load requirements vary from month to month, the critical design month
may turn out to be any month of the year.
The highest critical design ratio in each orientation corresponds to the critical
design month for that orientation. When multiple orientations are considered,
the lowest ratio of the resulting critical design months corresponds to the
optimal array orientation (of the orientations analyzed).
The DC voltage for battery-based PV systems is usually an integer multiple of
12 V, usually 12 V, 24 V, or 48V.
Noncritical systems are typically designed for 3 to 5 days of autonomy, while
critical applications may have 6 to 10 days of autonomy or more.
Because several factors reduce the useful capacity of a battery, the ratings of
battery banks must be higher than the required battery-bank output.
The nominal voltage and rated capacity of the selected battery are used to
determine the configuration of the battery bank.
Like batteries, several factors reduce the output of a PY module, so the array
ratings must be higher than the required array output.
Each percentage-point increase in system availability costs increasingly more
money for larger battery banks and arrays, which is impractical from an
economic standpoint for all but the most critical applications.
Terms:
Duty cycle is the percentage of time a load is operating.

 The critical design ratio is the ratio of electrical energy demand to average
insolation during a period.
The critical design month is the month with the highest critical design ratio.
System availability is the percentage of time over an average year that a
stand-alone PV system meets the system load requirements.
Autonomy is the amount of time a fully charged battery system can supply
power to system loads without further charging.
The load fraction is the portion of load operating power that comes from the
battery bank over the course of a day.
Soiling is the accumulation of dust and dirt on an array surface that shades the
array and reduces electrical output.