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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1

BACKGROUND

In 2010, Omokehinde studied the effect of crude oil contaminated sand on the compressive
strength of concrete and his results showed that the presence of crude oil in sand has a negative
effect on the compressive strength of the concrete made from the sand. The extent of the
reduction in strength is proportional to the percentage of crude oil present in the sand. Regular
crude oil spillage on the surface and subsurface water resources, erosion and drainage problems
of the built environs culminating to incessant failure of buildings and other onshore structures
which has become a regular news item, (Ukoli, 2001).
Since we have to continue building in these oil spill contaminated environment, several work has
been carried out on how to improve the compressive strength of the concrete made from the
contaminated sand. Odufuwa (2010), noted that the strength of concrete made from crude oil
imparted sand can be improved by reducing the water cement ratio. But not much work has been
done on how to improve the compressive strength of concrete cast with uncontaminated sand,
but cured in a crude oil medium.
However, research has pointed to the pozzolanic effect of glass powder. Vijayakumar et al
(2013) established that very finely ground glass may have sufficient pozzolanic properties to
serve as partial replacement of cement, He said the effect of alkali-silica reaction appear to be
reduced with finer glass particles.
The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica reaction in concrete, but the glass
powder could suppress their alkali-silica reaction tendency, an effect similar to supplementary
cementations materials (Vijayakumar et al, 2013).

1.2

AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The aim of this study is to improve the compressive strength of concrete cured in crude oil with
waste glass powder
The Objectives of the study include;
1. To monitor the strength of concrete when it is cured in crude oil medium
2. To verify the effect of waste glass powder on concrete properties
3. To improve the compressive strength of concrete using waste glass powder
4. To determine the effect of crude oil on the improved properties of concrete
1.3

SCOPE OF STUDY

Concrete cubes samples with size 150 by 150mm were produced with 0%, 10% and 20% of the
cement content replaced with waste glass powder in the mix design, the concrete cubes were
cured in crude oil medium and an equal number of cubes were cast and cured in water for control
experiment. The slump test was carried out on the fresh concrete and compressive strength of the
concrete cubes were examined at ages 7, 14 and 28 days after curing. Curing concrete in crude
oil actually modeled the condition in the Niger Delta, area of Nigeria where oil spillage is a
regular occurrence contaminating soil and water. Many oil spill incidents had occurred in the
past (Nwilo and Badejo, 2001) and persist till date due to pipeline vandalisms and seepage of oil
to the surface.

1.4

JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

Ramzi et al, 2000 established that the rate of crude oil absorption by concrete is high at early age
and this reduces the compressive strength of such concrete. This findings coupled with the high
degree of oil spillage in the Niger delta region of Nigeria forms the basis for this research. It is
highly essential that every concrete structure should carry out its intended functions such as
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strength and serviceability during its specified service life. It follows that concrete must be able
to withstand the processes of deterioration to which it can be expected to get exposed to.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1

INTRODUCTION

For over four decades, Nigeria has continued to experience remarkable increase in operational
activities in her oil and gas exploration, exploitation, refining and product marketing which is
concentrated in Niger Delta region, and that the region has been mired by various degrees of
health and environmental pollution problems (Ukoli, 2001). Regular crude oil spillage on the
surface and subsurface water resources, erosion and drainage problems of the built environs
culminating to incessant failure of buildings and other onshore structures have become a regular
news item. Ukoli (2001) also reported on the various control programmes and polices articulated
by government for the mitigation of environmental problems associated with the oil and gas
industry, but the problem remains whether the measures are being implemented efficiently.
Recent research have shown that concrete deterioration and cracking in marine environment is
more severe than in any other terrestrial environment and this has elicited more investigation on
the causes of concrete deterioration in similar environment (Ejeh, et al2009). In their report on
the bond between repair materials and concrete substrate in marine environment, Jonnesari, et al,
in 2005 observed that deterioration occur as result of such factors as physical and chemical
characteristic of repair compound, initial curing periods, environmental conditions among other
factors. Onabolu, (1989) in his work on some properties of crude oil soaked concrete exposed at
ambient temperature observed variations in mechanical properties of the concrete materials with
time.
Ramzi et al, 2000 analysed the compressive and tensile strength of concrete loaded and soaked in
crude oil. Based on short and long term loading, the effect of crude oil on compressive and

flexural tensile strength of concrete was investigated. He found that the rate of crude oil
absorption is high at early stage of soaking, but later on, the rate decreases.
Study by Matti, (1976) have shown that the factors significantly affecting concrete properties
include conditions of curing prior to exposure, moisture condition of the concrete at the time of
exposure, storage temperature of the crude oil as well as the cement type.
Research findings have shown that concrete made with recycled glass powder have shown better
long term strength and better thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of the glass
aggregates (Samtur, 1974). The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) in concrete, but the glass powder could suppress their alkali-silica reaction
tendency, an effect similar to supplementary cementations materials. (Seung, et.al 2004).
Therefore, glass is used as a replacement or supplementary cementitious materials. Very finely
ground glass has been shown to be excellent filler and may have sufficient pozzolanic properties
to serve as partial cement replacement, the effect of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) appear to be
reduced with finer glass particles (Seung, et.al 2004).

2.2

CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the aggregate or filler)
embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills the space between the
aggregate particles and glues them together. We can also consider concrete as a composite
material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or
fragments of aggregates.

2.2.1 Fresh Concrete


Fresh concrete is defined as concrete at the state when its components are fully mixed but its
strength has not yet developed. This period corresponds to the cement hydration stages 1, 2, and
3. The properties of fresh concrete directly influence the handling, placing and consolidation, as
well as the properties of hardened concrete.
2.2.1.1 Workability
Workability is a general term to describe the properties of fresh concrete. Workability is often
defined as the amount of mechanical work required for full compaction of the concrete without
segregation (ust.hk lecture note, 2014). This is a useful definition because the final strength of
the concrete is largely influenced by compaction. A small increase in void content due to
insufficient compaction could lead to a large decease in strength. The primary characteristics of
workability are consistency (or fluidity) and cohesiveness. Consistency is used to measure the
ease of flow of fresh concrete. And cohesiveness is used to describe the ability of fresh concrete
to hold all ingredients together without segregation and excessive bleeding.
2.2.1.2 Factors affecting workability
Water content: Except for the absorption by particle surfaces, water must fill the spaces among
particles. Additional water "lubricates" the particles by separating them with a water film.
Increasing the amount of water will increase the fluidity and make concrete easy to be
compacted. Indeed, the total water content is the most important parameter governing
consistency. But, too much water reduces cohesiveness, leading to segregation and bleeding.
With increasing water content, concrete strength is also reduced. The following factors were
identified from the ust.hk lecture note to affect the workability.

1. Aggregate mix proportion: For a fixed water cement ratio, an increase in the aggregate/cement
ratio will decrease the fluidity. (Note that less cement implies less water, as water cement ratio is
fixed.) Generally speaking, a higher fine aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio leads to a higher
cohesiveness.
2. Maximum aggregate size: For a given water cement ratio, as the maximum size of aggregate
increases, the fluidity increases. This is generally due to the overall reduction in surface area of
the aggregates.
3. Aggregate properties: The shape and texture of aggregate particles can also affect the
workability. As a general rule, the more nearly spherical and smoother the particles, the more
workable the concrete.
4. Cement: The higher the cement content, the better the workability.

2.2.2 Hardened Concrete


2.2.2.1 Strength of hardened concrete
Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist stress without failure. The failure of
concrete is due to cracking. Under direct tension, concrete failure is due to the propagation of a
single major crack. In compression, failure involves the propagation of a large number of cracks,
leading to a mode of disintegration commonly referred to as crushing. The strength is the
property generally specified in construction design and quality control, for the following reasons:
(1) it is relatively easy to measure, and (2) other properties are related to the strength and can be
deduced from strength data. The 28-day compressive strength of concrete determined by a
standard uniaxial compression test is accepted universally as a general index of concrete
strength.

2.2.2.2 Factors affecting concrete strength


1. Water Cement Ratio
Odufuwa (2010), noted that the strength of concrete made from crude oil imparted sand can be
improved by reducing the water cement ratio. The strength of concrete depends very much upon
the hydration reaction which is the reaction between water and cement to form a paste that
begins to harden (set). This paste binds the aggregate particles through the chemical process of
hydration (Concrete: Scientific Principles, 2011). Cement + Water = hardened cement paste
(Hydration.) The properties of this hardened cement paste, called binder, control the properties of
the concrete. It is the inclusion of water (hydration) into the product that causes concrete to set,
stiffen, and become hard and once set, concrete continues to harden (cure) and become stronger
for a long period of time, often up to several years. In simple terms, water-cement ratio is the
ratio of weight of water to the weight of cement used in a concrete mix. According to Arum and
Udoh (2006), water-cement ratio of concrete is the single most important factor that influences
the strength of concrete.
2. Age and Curing Condition
The effect of curing temperature on concrete strength has already been discussed before.
Provided the concrete is properly cured, the strength increases with time due to the increased
degree of hydration.
As a rule of thumb, for type I cement, the 7 day strength can range from 60 80% of the 28 day
strength, with a higher percentage for a lower w/c ratio (ust.hk lecture note, 2014). After 28 days,
the strength can continue to go up. Experimental data indicates that the strength after one year
can be over 20% higher than that of the 28 day strength. The reliance on such strength increase

in structural design needs to be done with caution, as the progress of cement hydration under real
world conditions may vary greatly from site to site.
3. Aggregates
For the same water cement ratio, mixes with larger aggregates give lower strength. This is due to
the presence of a weak zone at the aggregate/paste interface, where cracking will first occur.
With larger aggregates, larger cracks can form at the interface, and they can interact easier with
paste cracks as well as other interfacial cracks. With the same mix proportion, rougher and more
angular aggregates give higher strength than smooth and round aggregates. However, with
smooth aggregates, a lower water cement ratio can be employed to achieve the same workability.
Therefore, it is possible to achieve similar strength with smooth and rough aggregates, by
adopting slightly different water cement ratios. However, in the development of high strength
concrete, it is important to select aggregates with strength higher than that of the hardened paste.
4. Admixtures
Air-entraining agents decrease concrete strength by incorporation of bubbles. Set-retarding and
accelerating agents affect the early strength development but have little effect on ultimate
strength. Incorporation of mineral admixtures increases ultimate strength through the pozzolanic
reaction.
2.3

SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Supplementary cementitious materials, SCM are materials that can be used to replace cement in
concrete production. SCM, known as Pozzolans are substances that when used in conjunction
with Portland cement contributes to the properties of the hardened cement. According to ASTM
C618, Pozzolans are the siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves possesses little

or no cementitious value but will in the presence of moisture, at ordinary temperature chemically
react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds having cementitious properties.
2.3.1 Pozzolans
Pozzolans are siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials that alone possess little or no
cementitious value, but will, in a finely divided form and in the presence of water, chemically
react with calcium hydroxide, such as found in hydrated cement at ordinary temperatures, to
form compounds possessing hydraulic cementitious properties. Pozzolanic materials react with
the calcium hydroxide produced as concrete hardens, this forms compounds with cementitious
properties (American Geological Institute 1997). The pozzolanic and cementitious properties
along with other characteristics make these materials attractive as partial substitutes for Portland
cement in concrete applications or inter-ground with Portland cement clinker to create blended
cements. Pozzolans can counteract adverse effects of undesirable aggregates used in concretes
and help to create a concrete highly resistant to penetration and corrosion (Klaus, et al, 2005).
For centuries, many of the natural Pozzolans have been used in concrete or cement. With
increasing fuel costs and environmental concerns over the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
associated with the production of Portland cement clinker, several pozzolanic by-products of
industrial processes are gaining acceptance as admixtures to concrete products. (American
Concrete Institute, 2000).
2.3.2 Chemical principles of the pozzolanic reactions
Pozzolanic reactions take place when significant quantities of reactive CaO, Al2O3 and SiO2 are
mixed in presence of water (Seco. et al, 2012). Usually CaO is added as lime or cement
meanwhile Al2O3 and SiO2 can be present in the material to develop cementation gels to be
added as cement or, for example, with a pozzolan. In this process the hydration of the CaO
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liberates OH- ions, which causes an increase pH values up to approximate 12.4 (Seco. et al,
2012) Under these conditions pozzolanic reactions occur: the Si and Al combine with the
available Ca, resulting in cementitious compounds called Calcium Silicate Hydrates (CSH) and
Calcium Aluminate Hydrates (Dermatas and Meng, 2003; Nalbantoglu, 2004; Guney et al.,
2007; Yong and Ouhadi, 2007; Chen and Lin, 2009). These compounds are responsible for
improving the mechanical properties of the mix, due to the increasing development of pozzolanic
reactions over time, which some authors indicated this may take place over years (Wild et al.,
1998).
2.3.3 Categories of Pozzolans
Pozzolans fall into two categories, either natural or artificial, depending on their provenance.
Natural Pozzolans are either raw or calcined natural materials such as volcanic ash, opaline chert,
tuff, some shale and some diatomaceous earth that have pozzolanic properties (American
Concrete Institute 2000). The amount of amorphous or unstructured material often determines
the reactivity of the natural pozzolans.
There are three categories of natural pozzolans:
1. Volcanic ash, called tuff when indurated, in which the amorphous constituent is a glass
produced by rapid cooling of magma
2. Those derived from rocks or earth in which the silica is mainly opal, and diatomaceous earth
3. Some clays and shales. Volcanic glass has a disordered structure because of the relatively
quick cooling time and tends to have a porous texture created by escaping gases (Hoffman, 2006).
Hydrothermally altered volcanic glass can become zeolitic, and when finely ground, zeolitic tuffs
become reactive with lime. Deposits of trachyte tuff from a volcanic eruption near the town of
Pozzuoli (Italy) are the source of the term Pozzolans (Hoffman, 2006). Romans used this material
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with lime to form cement for many of their large building projects. Today, volcanic tuffs and
pumicite are still used as Pozzolans throughout the world and are often referred to as Pozzolans
in the literature. Although clay and shale occur naturally, calcinating them enhances their
pozzolanic characteristics. Calcining is necessary to destroy existing crystal structure and to form
an amorphous or disordered alumino-silicate structure. An example is metakaolin which is
derived from high-purity kaolin that undergoes low-temperature calcination and grinding to a
fine particle size. It is a highly reactive product having excellent pozzolanic properties (Hoffman,
2006). Hoffman, 2006 also noted that it is not all clays and shales, however, are suitable as

Pozzolans, even when calcined.


2.3.4 Artificial Pozzolans
Artificial Pozzolans used today are mostly by-products. Silica fume is a by-product of the
reduction of high purity quartz with coal in electric arc furnaces in the production of ferrosilicon
alloys and silicon metal (Hoffman, 2006). The silicon dioxide (SiO2) that vaporizes during this
process condenses to very fine (0.1-m diameter) non-crystalline spheres (Malhotra and Mehta
1996). Use of these pozzolanic spheres in blended cement or as a mineral admixture produces a
high-strength concrete. Rice hull (or husk) ash, when burned in the production of electricity or
milling, produces a high-silica ash. This ash has potential as a pozzolanic admixture in concrete
(Malhotra and Mehta 1996).
2.3.4.1 Silica Fume
Silica fume is a by-product of producing silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys by reduction of highpurity quartz with coal or coke and wood chips in an electric arc furnace. The silica fume is
condensed from gases escaping from the furnace. During the production of silicon metals and
alloys, baghouse filters collect the silica fume from the furnace gases. The gas has a very high
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content of amorphous SiO2 (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). Depending on the process, silica fume is
94%98% SiO2 from silicon production and 85%90% SiO2 from ferrosilicon production
(Harben 2002). Silica fume is a very fine, gray powder consisting of glassy spherical particles in
the size range of 0.10.2m with surface areas of 2023 m2/g. As a comparison, fly ash is
typically less than 45m in diameter (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). The chemical composition,
size, and surface area of these particles create a very reactive pozzolanic material. The limited
availability of silica fume increases the cost of the finished concrete when added to Portland
cement, limiting its use to projects where cost is not a primary consideration and the improved
performance of silica fume, such as high compressive strength and increased resistance to sulfate
attack, are required in the concrete application (Hoffman, 2006).
2.3.4.2 Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
The iron-making process creates slag during a high-temperature reaction with carbon-reducing
agents and fluxes. The impurities of the iron oxide ores and fluxing agents combine to form a
liquid silicate melt, called slag, which floats on top of the liquid crude iron. The slag is removed
or tapped from the blast furnaces separately. There are several methods of cooling the slag, but
quickly quenching the slag in water creates sand-sized particles of glass, granulated blast furnace
slag, and grinding of this granulated slag increases the surface area and the reactivity of the
Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag product (King 2000).
2.3.4.3 Fly Ash
Fly ash is the major coal combustion by-product of electrical generation from coal-burning
power plants. The amount of coal combustion by-product produced at each power plant varies,
depending on the type of burners and precipitators, and the percentage of ash in the coal source.
The ratio of fly ash to bottom ash produced by coal combustion depends on the type of burner

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and the type of boiler. Electrical or mechanical precipitators collect fly ash from the flue-gas
stream coming from the combustion chamber (Hoffman, 2006). The composition of fly ash is
dependent on the composition of the coal feed and the efficiency of the combustion process.
Most fly ash particles are spherical and glassy, and possess pozzolanic properties with particle
size less than 45m in size (Malhotra and Mehta 1996).
2.3.4.4 Rice Hull Ash
Rice is a primary staple crop in the world, and rice milling produces more than 100 MT of hulls
annually (King 2000). The common practice of burning rice hulls in the field creates a pollution
problem. The combustion of hulls to produce energy or burning hulls to complete the milling
process creates ash. Collecting and grinding this ash creates a product similar to silica fume. Rice
hull ash has the greatest potential in major rice-producing countries such as China and India. The
market for rice hull ash has not developed in the United States to the point of having specific
marketers of the product.
2.3.5 Advantages of Pozzolans
Mineral admixtures have many advantages in Portland cement applications where they can
improve the properties of concrete. Their pozzolanic nature adds a component by replacing part
of the Portland cement in concrete, in general reducing cost. The characteristics of concrete
influenced by adding Pozzolans are discussed in the following paragraphs.
1. The very fine particle size of many of the mineral admixtures can be advantageous when the
aggregate is deficient in sand-sized material (Lohtia and Jodhi 1995). The admixtures act as filler
and are part of the cement paste, reducing the total surface area to be coated with cementitious
material. Adding fine (120m), spherical particles such as fly ash can also refine the pore

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structure in the concrete, which reduces the amount of water needed to produce a concrete of
certain consistency.
2. Workability is the homogeneity and ease with which concrete can be mixed, transported,
compacted, and finished (Ramachandran and Feldman 1995). The spherical shape of the fly ash,
in particular, acts like ball bearings and increases workability of the concrete, decreasing the
need for aggregate fines. Calcined shale and clay also improve the workability of a concrete
pour; silica fume, however, actually decreases workability because of its highly reactive nature.
3. Strength and durability of concrete are improved by the fine grained nature of mineral
admixtures, which decreases the porosity of the concrete (Lohtia and Joshi 1995).
4. Formation of cementitious compounds by pozzolanic reaction causes pore refinement and
reduces micro-cracking in the transition zone between the cement paste and aggregate. This
significantly improves the strength and durability of the concrete.
5. Because of retarded heat of hydration, adding fly ash, or natural pozzolans to concrete lowers
the early strength. Strength increases over time and eventually meets, and can exceed the
strength of concrete made with Portland cement alone (Lohtia and Joshi 1995). Silica fume is
highly reactive, and concrete made with silica fume attains high compressive strength in the
same time as Portland cement concrete and exceeds the norm in 3 days (Lohtia and Joshi 1995).
2.4

RECYCLED GLASS POWDER

Recently, Glasses and its powder has been used as a construction material to reduce
environmental problems. The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica reaction
in concrete, but the glass powder could suppress their ASR tendency, an effect similar to
supplementary cementations materials. Therefore, glass is used as a replacement of
supplementary cementitious materials (Federio and Chidiac, 2001).
15

Table 2.1

Chemical Composition of glass powder


Source: Vijayakumar, et. al, 2013
S/No.
Content

% by mass

SiO2

67.33

Al2O3

2.62

Fe2O3

1.42

TiO2

0.157

CaO

12.45

MgO

2.738

Na2O

12.05

K2O

0.638

ZrO2

0.019

10

ZnO

0.008

11

SrO

0.016

12

P2O5

0.051

13

NiO

0.014

14

CuO

0.009

15

Cr2O3

0.022

Today, global warming and environmental devastation have become manifest harms in recent
years and concern about environmental issues is now viewed as significant (Rekha, 2014).
Normally glass does not harm the environment in any way because it does not give off
pollutants, but it can harm humans as well as animals, if not dealt with carefully and it is less
friendly to environment because it is non-biodegradable (Rekha, 2014). Thus, the development of
new technologies has been required. The term glass contains several chemical diversities
16

including soda-lime silicate glass, alkali-silicate glass and boro-silicate glass. To date, the
powder of these types of glasses have been widely used in cement and aggregate mixture as
pozzolans for civil works. The introduction of waste glass in cement will increase the alkali
content in the cement the effect of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) appear to be reduced with finer
glass particles (Seung, et.al 2004). It also help in bricks and ceramic manufacture and it
preserves raw materials, decreases energy consumption and volume of waste sent to landfill. As
useful recycled materials, glasses and glass powder are mainly used in fields related to civil
engineering. For example, in cement, as Pozzolans (supplementary cementitious materials), and
coarse aggregate. Their recycling ratio is close to 100%, and it is also used in concrete without
adverse effects in concrete durability (Deshmukh, 2012).

17

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1

MATERIALS

3.1.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (Grade 42.5R) brand manufactured by Dangote plc was used in the
experiment. Generally, care was taken in both material procurement and experimental procedure
to ensure test reliability. The typical chemical composition of the cement is given in Table (3.1).
Table 3:1 Typical Chemical Composition of Grade 42.5R Cement
Source: ASTM C-150 2014
COMPOUND COMPOSITION ABBREVATION
% By Weight WEIGHT
Calcium Oxide

CaO

65.60

Iron III Oxide

Fe2O3

3.30

Silicon II Oxide

SiO2

21.00

Aluminum Oxide

Al2O3

5.30

Magnesium Oxide

MgO

1.10

Potassium Oxide

K2O

0.71

Loss on ignition (%),

LOI

0.90

Insoluble residue (%),

IR

4.7

Specific surface area (m2/kg)

SSA

358

Setting Time (sec)

105

Lime saturation factor

LSF

86.3

Silica ratio

SR

2.70

Tricalcium Aluminate

C3 A

8.05

Free Lime

F/CaO

0.95

18

3.1.2 Glass Powder


Broken Louvre glasses were gotten from a local construction site in Ibadan and were grinded at
Bodija market in Ibadan. The grinded glass powder was passed through the 150 microns sieve
for effective pozzolanic effect. The typical chemical composition of the glass powder is given in
Table (3.2).
Table 3.2: Typical Chemical Composition of glass powder
Source: Vijayakumar et. al, 2013
S/No.
Content

% by mass

SiO2

67.33

Al2O3

2.62

Fe2O3

1.42

TiO2

0.157

CaO

12.45

MgO

2.738

Na2O

12.05

K2O

0.638

ZrO2

0.019

10

ZnO

0.008

11

SrO

0.016

12

P2O5

0.051

13

NiO

0.014

14

CuO

0.009

15

Cr2O3

0.022

19

Plate 3.1: Glass Powder during Sieving


3.1.3 Fine aggregate (Sand)
The fine aggregate was naturally occurring clean sand obtained from a local construction site in
Ibadan. The fine aggregate was supplied to the Materials laboratory of Segun Labiran and
Associates, Ibadan, Nigeria for experimental purposes. Sieve Analyses were conducted in
accordance BS EN 1097-8:2000.

Plate 3.2: Fine aggregate (sand)


20

3.1.4 Coarse aggregate (Gravel)


The coarse aggregates were continuously graded irregular shaped gravel of 20 mm maximum
size. They were obtained from a local construction site in Ibadan. Sieve Analyses were
conducted in accordance to BS EN 1097-8:2000

Plate3.3: Coarse Aggregate (Gravel)


3.1.5 Water
Potable water obtained from a local bore-hole at the Segun Labiran and Associate Materials
Laboratory was used in mixing the concrete.
3.1.6 Crude Oil
The Crude Oil was obtained from Warri Refining and Petrochemical Company. A chemical
analysis of the crude oil was carried out by the WRPC laboratory and its properties rated using
the American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity scale degree which is widely used in expressing
quality of crude oil and this is shown in Table 3.2. Matti (1976) had established that the main
properties of the crude oil do not change significantly after contact with hardened concrete.

21

Table 3.3: Chemical Properties of the Crude Oil Used in the Investigation
Source: WRPC, 2014
Parameters
Magnitude
Gravity Degree, API

33.7

Specific Gravity

0.86

Sulfur, wt %

0.16

Nitrogen, ppm

1190

Pour Point OF

26.6

Pour Point OC

-3

Acid Number, mg KOH/g

0.52

Back-Blended acid, mg KOH/g

0.48

Viscosity @ 40 OC, cSt

4.19

Viscosity @ 40 OC, cSt

3.32

Asphaltenes, C7, %

0.03

Nickel, ppm

4.55

Vanadium, ppm

0.51

Characterization Factor, K

11.74

22

3.2

METHODOLOGY

3.2.1 Sample Preparation


The aggregate samples, fine and coarse were spread out on concrete floor to dry out, so as to
obtain a saturated surface dry condition to ensure that water-cement ratio is not affected (BS EN
933-3:1997). After air drying, the fine aggregate was passed through a sieve to remove the lumps
in the fine aggregate.
3.2.2 Concrete Specimens
The cube sizes of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm were used to conduct the compressive strength
test. The specimens were differentiated with respect to percentage of the added recycled glass
powder content by weight of cement (0%, 10% and 20%). Specimens without glass powder were
used as the control specimens.
3.2.3 Concrete Mixtures
A mix design is used for the appropriate concrete mixture determination. It is the process of
selecting suitable components of concrete and determining their relative quantities for producing
concrete of certain minimum properties such as strength, durability consistency etc. as
economically as possible. Compressive strength is, in general, related to durability. The greater
the strength the more durable the concrete. To satisfy the required compressive strength, a value
for water/cement (w/c) ratio is estimated for an appropriate test age (generally 28 days) and
cement type. Tables in the BRE mix design handbook are consulted relating aggregate: cement
content, workability and water: cement (w/c) ratio for the different aggregate particle shapes and
maximum size. A desired level of workability is chosen. The ratio of sand to coarse aggregate is
chosen to produce a satisfactory concrete.

23

3.2.4 BRE Method of Concrete Mix Design


fm = fk + (K * S)
fm = Target mean strength
fk = Characteristic strength
K = Statistical coefficient known as tolerance factor, using K = 1.6
S = Standard deviation, using S = 8 N/mm2
Cement Type Ordinary Portland cement
Aggregate Type:

Coarse - crushed
Fine crushed

Targeted characteristic strength = 40 N/mm2


Targeted mean strength fm = fk + 1.6 (8)
Using a standard deviation of 8 at 5% defective
fm = 40+12.8
= 52.8N/mm2
Slump

= 30 - 60mm

Free water content (for 20mm aggregate) = 210Kg/m3


Free water/cement ratio = 0.46
Cement Content

= 210/0.46
= 456.52 Kg/m3

Saturated surface dried relative density = 2.6


Concrete density

= 2400 Kg/m3

Aggregate Content = Concrete density Cement Content Free water content


= 2400 456.52 210

24

= 1733.48 Kg/m3
Proportion of fine aggregate = 30%
Fine aggregate content = 1733.48 X 0.3 = 520 Kg/m3
Coarse aggregate content = 1733.48 520 = 1213.48Kg/m3
Mix ratio (per m3) = 456.52: 520: 1213.48
= 1: 1.14: 2.66
3.2.5 Mould preparation
The moulds used for the casting of the concrete cubes were made of soft wood with internal
dimensions of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm (plate 3.4). Firstly, the moulds were inspected to
ensure that they were clean and in general good order. The alignment as well as the precision of
the faces were also checked. The internal surfaces of the mould were coated with a thin layer of
oil. In order to prevent the development of bond between the mould and concrete so as to ensure
easy de-moulding.
3.2.6 Casting of Concrete Specimens
The objective of mixing the ingredients (casting) was to ensure that each particle of aggregates in
fresh concrete will be coated with the cement paste. In order to achieve uniform consistency
throughout the process a potable mechanical mixing machine was used for the mixing.
The fine and coarse aggregates were generally dried to laboratory room temperature before use;
this was done to bring the aggregates to a saturated surface dry (SSD) condition (BS EN 9333:1997) prior to mixing. Batching was by weight to the nearest 1gm. Mixing was done in a 1m 3
mechanical mixer and the slump was taken immediately after mixing.

25

3.2.7 Mixing Equipment


The equipment used in mixing of the concrete was:

Portable mixing machine

Weighing balance

Head pans

Hand trowel

Shovels

Slump cone

Steel tamping rod (with straight, end rounded, 16mm and 600mm length)

3.2.8 Procedure
1. The materials were weighed out in accordance to the mix proportion for each batch of
concrete.
2. The concrete making materials were poured into the portable mechanical mixer and mixed
thoroughly to form a homogeneous material
3. The oiled cube moulds were placed on a level, rigid, horizontal surface, free from vibration
and other disturbances, and near as practicable to storage location.
4. After mixing, the concrete was placed in the slump cone and the slumps of each batches was
measured in turn.
5. After taking the slump, the concrete was placed in the moulds with a hand trowel and even
distribution of the concrete was ensured.
6. The concrete was filled one-third of the cube mould. This was followed by compaction of the
layers 25 times using the tamping rod.

26

7. More concrete mixture was added to the two-third mark of the mould. Then rodding 25 times
was repeated. Rodding was done just barely into previous layer.
8. The moulds were then filled up with the concrete mixture with some excess concrete coming
out, then rodding 25 times was repeated.
9. Excess concrete mixture was removed and the surface of it is properly leveled with a hand
trowel.
10. The concrete was then left undisturbed for 24hrs before de-moulding.

Plate 3.4: Wooden Mould (dimension: 150 x 150 x 150 mm)

27

Plate 3.5: Mixing machine during mixing


3.2.9

Method of Curing

The objective of curing is to maintain proper moisture and temperature to ensure continuous
hydration (Somayaji, 2001). After de-moulding, the specimens were cured in water and crude oil
respectively in different curing tank (Plate 3.12 and 3.13) before testing for compressive
strength. The compressive strengths of concretes were determined at ages 7, 14 and 28 days
according to BS EN 12390-2:2000. Plate 3.8 shows the compression machine used to conduct
this study.

28

Plate 3.6: Curing of concrete cubes in water

Plate 3.7: Curing of concrete cubes in Crude Oil


3.2.10 Concrete Compression Test
The compression test was conducted using the compression machine (Plate 3.8) at the materials
laboratory of Segun-Labiran & Associates as specified in the test method (BS EN 123902:2000). The concrete cubes to be tested were first removed from the curing tanks, five (5) cubes
per batch for both curing media at 7, 14 and 28 days and allowed to drain off moisture from the
surfaces for some minutes. The concrete cubes were then put in the compression machine, and
29

then an increasing compressive load was applied to the specimen until failure occurred to obtain
the maximum compression load (Plate 3.9).

Plate 3.8: Compression Machine

30

Plate 3.9: Failure of Concrete Cube in a Compression Machine

Plate 3.10: Slump Test

31

3.2.11 Modified Chapelles Test


The chapelles test is one of the physical methods employed in determining the pozzolanic
activity of material. The test is defined based on the amount of Calcium oxide (or calcium
hydroxide) consumed by a specific amount of the pozzolan.
PROCEDURE
One (1) gram of glass powder was added to a clean and dry conical flask. Two (2) grams of
Calcium oxide was added to the flask. 250ml of distilled water was added to the flask and the
mixture was heated and kept in a water bath at a temperature of 855C for 16 hours with
continuous stirring.
A control mixture was prepared without the glass powder and subjected to the same
environment. The mixtures was cooled down to room temperature.
60g of sugar was dissolved in 250ml of distilled water and this solution was added to the mixture
in the conical flask and stirred for 15 minutes.
The mixture was filtered and about 25ml of the solution was taken with a calibrated pipette. The
sample taken was then titrated with 0.1M HCL solution using 2 drops of Phenolphthalein as
indicator.

32

Plate 3.11: Set up of Modified Chapelles Test Experiment


3.2.11.1Modified Chapelles Test Calculations
Let V1 be the volume of the HCL necessary for the 25ml of solution obtained from the control
Let V2 be the volume of the HCL necessary for the 25ml of solution obtained from the solution
The titration reaction equation is given as
CaO + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O
Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O
The amount of CaO fixed =
The result is expressed in mg Ca(OH)2 consumed by the glass powder. The result is checked
against the minimum value of 660mg per 1g of pozzolanic material for it to be regarded as a
pozzolan.

33

Plate 3.12: Titration of the mixture against 0.1M of HCl

34

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1

RESULTS

In the previous chapter, the experiments performed were briefly explained. In this chapter, the
results of those experiments are presented; and findings from the analyses of the results are
presented, followed by discussions on the results. The experiments carried out were slump and
compressive strength tests. Presented in the following sections are results of the slump test as
well as the compressive strength test of the concrete cubes.

4.1.1 Modified Chappelles Test


The results for the test for Pozzolanic activity of glass powder samples of particle size 150m
and 300 m are shown against the amount of Ca(OH)2 taken by 1g of glass powder in Table 4.1
Table 4.1: Modified Chappelles Test Result
Sieve size m
Average titre value

Amount in mg of CaO consumed by 1g of glass

150

4.03

1203.99
powder

300

4.43

1090.98

4.1.2 Slump Test


Table 4.1 below shows the values obtained for the slump test performed on the fresh concrete
with 0%, 10% and 20% addition of glass powder.
Table 4.2: Slump Test Results
% of glass powder

Slump test result

0%

30mm

10 %

26mm

20 %

17mm
35

4.1.3 Compressive Strength Test


The compressive strength test was carried out in the materials laboratory of Segun-Labiran &
Associates, Ibadan and the results are summarized as shown below, See appendices for full
details of the compressive strength results.
Table 4.3: Compressive Test Results
Concrete
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
Age
0% Water
0% Oil
10%
10% Oil
20%
Water
Water
23.11
14.96
22.96
21.48
18.81
Day 7

20% Oil
18.52

Day 14

26.81

17.78

23.26

22.37

21.19

20.89

Day 28

31.41

20.44

25.33

25.33

22.52

22.81

Compressive Strength Result


35

Value in N/mm2

30
25
20
Day 7
15

Day 14

10

Day 28

5
0
0% Water

0% Oil

10% Water

10% Oil

20% Water

Percentage replacement and curing media

Figure 4.1a: Compressive Test Results

36

20% Oil

Compressive Test Results


35.00

30.00

25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0% Water

0% Oil

10% Water
Day 7

10% Oil

Day 14

20% Water

20% Oil

Day 28

Figure 4.1b: Compressive Test Results


4.2

DISCUSSION

4.2.1 Modified Chappelles Test


This test was performed to confirm the Pozzolanic activities in glass powder before an attempt
was made to use it to improve the compressive strength of concrete cured in crude oil in the
experiment. . According to the French standard (NF P 18-513 Annexe A, 2010), the minimum
amount of Ca(OH)2 to be fixed by the glass powder for it to be considered a pozollan is 660mg/g
and the result gave values of 1203.99 and 1090.98mg for 150m and 300m respectively
showing that glass powder is pozzolanic.
From the test result, it can be seen that the average titre value gotten from glass powder with
particle size 300m is higher than that of 150m particle size, this shows that the rate of reaction
is affected by the particle size. According to the law of chemical kinetics, the rate or chemical
37

reaction increases with increase in surface area i.e. the finer the particle, the faster the rate of
chemical reaction.

4.2.2 Slump Test


The result of the slump test showed that all the concrete samples gave slump values within the
range specified for the mix design (30-60mm). However, the test result shows that the
workability of the concrete mix decreases with increase in the percentage of glass powder in the
mix, this was due to the fact that the unit weight of cement is more that the unit weight of glass
powder. This means that there is an increase in the volume of cementitious material in the mix
and since the water/cementitious materials ratio is kept constant for all the mixes, there is a
decrease in the workability evident in the lower slump value.
4.2.2 Compressive Strength Test
The results of the compressive strength test carried out on the cubes cured in water are presented
in table 4.3. For the control experiment (i.e. 0%), 10% and 20% replacement of cement with
glass powder. As expected, the result of the compressive strength of the cubes irrespective of the
percentage replacement of cement with glass powder increased with curing age as noted in in
Table 4.3. The test results demonstrates that the compressive strength of reference concrete is
increased as the time of continuous curing in water increase, this is due to continuous hydration
of cement paste, which increases the bond between cement paste and aggregate (Shetty 2000)
and (Neville 2010).
An average compressive strength of 31.5N/mm2 was recorded for the 28 day crushing of the 0%
control experiment in water. It is important to note that the characteristic compressive strength of
40N/mm2 was not achieved, this could have resulted from the quality control on site, not
38

perfectly smooth and inconsistent material for form work which might have affected the proper
consolidation of the concrete thereby affecting its compressive strength. However, these factors
pose the same effect on all the batches of concrete and as such; a basis for comparison is still
maintained.
From the test result, it was observed that the compressive strength of the pure concrete (0%
glasss powder) cured in crude oil has a reduction of about 35% in strength when compared to the
concrete (0% glass powder) cure in water. The decrease in strength may be attribute to the
absorption of crude oil into the microstructure of the matrix of concrete which may have caused
dilation of the gel and weakening of the cohesive forces in the paste thus, resulting to a low
strength development (Ejeh and Uche, 2009). Also, the decreased in compressive strength of
concrete cured in crude oil may be attributed to the weakening in the bond strength between
cement paste and aggregate and concrete matrix during curing process. (AL-Saraj 1998) and
(Francis et al., 2010).
From test results it can be seen that the compressive strength of the cubes cured in oil with the
addition of glass powder is increase when compared with the concrete without glass powder also
cure in crude oil. The glass powder when added enable the concrete to react with Ca(OH)2 to
form additional calcium silicate hydrate which increases the density , fill the pores properly,
refine the pore structure and the permeability which leads to the better durability (Folagbade et
al.,2012). As the percentage of replacement of cement with glass powder increases strength also
increases up to 10% and it decreased at 20%. The percentage increase in the compressive
strength was about 30% at 10% replacement with glass powder. The increase in strength by the
addition of glass powder is due to the pozzolanic reaction of glass powder in the concrete due to

39

high silica content. Also, the glass powder effectively fills the voids and gives a dense concrete,
early curing strength was slow due to pore filling effect. (Nathan, 2008)

40

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1

CONCLUSIONS

The project monitored the pozzolanic effect of glass powder on the strength development of
concrete cured in crude oil and water. Based on the tests carried out, observations, analysis and
discussions on the pozzolanic effect of glass powder, the following conclusions are made:
1. There is an increase in the strength of concrete cured in crude oil when glass powder is
added to the concrete mix.
2. The 28 day compressive strength of concrete cured in crude Oil reduced by 35% when
compared to concrete cured in water
3. The deteriorating effect of the crude oil curing medium on the compressive strength of
concrete was reduced to 19% when 10% of the cement is replaced by glass powder as
against the 35% reduction in compressive strength when glass powder was not added.
5.2

RECOMMENDATIONS

With the analysis provided in this project, the following recommendations are hereby made for
future work.
1. The experiment should also be carried out with the use of plasticizer for further
improvement in the compressive strength.
2. Curing should be done for a longer duration to study the long term effect of the crude and
glass powder on the concrete samples.
3. Durability test should be conducted to verify the permeability of the concrete cured in
crude oil.

41

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Thesis, Military College of engineering Baghdad, October 1995, pp. 84
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ASTM C150: Standard Specification for Portland Cement. 49 CFR 571.108.
BS EN 933-3:2012 Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates. Determination of particle
shape. Flakiness index
BS EN 1097-8:2000 Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates.
Determination of the polished stone value
BS EN 12390-2:2000 Testing hardened concrete - Part 2: Making and curing specimens
for strength tests
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Utilized In Concrete International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) ISSN
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Hoffman, G.K., 2006, Pozzolans and Supplementary Cementitious Materials:
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Jonnesari, H. and A. Mosharaf, 2005. The Bond Between Repair materials and Concrete
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King, B. 2000. A Brief Introduction to Pozzolans. Available from


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46

and

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR AGGREGATES
SIEVE ANALAYSIS FOR FINE AGGREGATES
SIEVE
SIZE

MASS
Of
SIEV
E
(gram
s)

MASS OF
SAMPLE
RETAINE
D (grams)

PERCENTA
GE
RETAINED

CUMMULATI
VE MASS
RETAINED
(grams)

PERCENTA
GE FINER

412
390

MASS
OF
SIEVE
+
SAMPL
E
(grams)
412
390

6.3mm
4.75m
m
2.36m
m
1.18m
m
600m
300m
150m
75m
Receiv
er

0
0

0
0

0
0

100
100

350

352

0.4

0.4

99.6

362

398

36

7.2

7.6

92.4

356
332
340
348
314

459
490
486
390
326

103
158
146
42
12

20.6
31.6
29.2
8.4
2.4

28.2
59.8
89
97.4
99.8

71.8
40.2
11
2.6
0.2

TOTAL

499

99.8

47

SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR COARSE AGGREGATES


SIEVE
SIZE

25mm
20mm
12.5m
m
10mm
6.3mm
Receiv
er

MAS
S OS
SIEV
E
(gram
s)
390
388
414

MASS
OF
SIEVE +
SAMPL
E
(grams)
390
590
1470

MASS OF
SAMPLE
RETAINED
(grams)

PERCENTA
GE
RETAINED

CUMMULATI
VE MASS
RETAINED
(grams)

PERCENTA
GE FINER

0
202
1056

0
10.1
52.8

0
10.1
62.9

100
89.9
37.1

396
412
314

646
754
464

250
342
150

12.5
17.1
7.5

75.4
92.5
100

24.6
7.5
0

2000

100

48

APPENDIX B: MODIFIED CHAPPELLES TEST RESULT

SIEVE SIZE

TITRE VALUES
4.5
4.4
4.4
4.0
4.1
4.1

300m

150m

49

AVERAGE TITRE
VALUE
4.43

4.03

APPENDIX C - COMPRESSIVE TEST RAW DATA


RAW DATA
Day 7

LOAD

0% Glass powder 10% Glass


Powder
Water
Crude
Water
Crude
520.00 330.00 500.00 490.00
460.00 320.00 600.00 400.00
500.00 200.00 520.00 460.00
540.00 260.00 560.00 530.00
540.00 360.00 530.00 500.00

20% Glass
Powder
Water
Crude
400.00 320.00
320.00 390.00
450.00 440.00
380.00 450.00
420.00 420.00

Day 14
0% Glass powder 10% Glass
Powder
Water
Crude
Water
Crude

20% Glass
Powder
Water
Crude

620.00
630.00
600.00
560.00
590.00

580.00
500.00
470.00
430.00
460.00

400.00
450.00
420.00
380.00
380.00

520.00
400.00
500.00
570.00
550.00

500.00
300.00
490.00
520.00
380.00

460.00
520.00
480.00
410.00
470.00

Day 28
0% Glass powder 10% Glass
Powder
Water
Crude
Water
Crude

20% Glass
Powder
Water
Crude

710.00
750.00
680.00
650.00
730.00

500.00
480.00
500.00
555.00
520.00

480.00
500.00
460.00
430.00
440.00

560.00
570.00
580.00
410.00
500.00

570.00
510.00
560.00
580.00

510.00
550.00
510.00
520.00
430.00

50

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