NDT Method Summary

No single NDT method will work for all flaw detection or measurement applications. Each of the
methods has advantages and disadvantages when compared to other methods. The table below
summarizes the scientific principles, common uses and the advantages and disadvantages for
some of the most often used NDT methods.
Penetrant
Testing

Magnetic Particle
Testing

Ultrasonic
Testing

Eddy Current
Testing

Radiographic
Testing

A magnetic field is
established in a
component made from
ferromagnetic
material. The
magnetic lines of
force travel through
the material, and exit
and reenter the
material at the poles.
Defects such as crack
or voids cannot
support as much flux,
and force some of the
flux outside of the
part. Magnetic
particles distributed
over the component
will be attracted to
areas of flux leakage
and produce a visible
indication.

High frequency sound

waves are sent into a
material by use of a
transducer. The sound
waves travel through
the material and are
received by the same
transducer or a second
transducer. The
amount of energy
transmitted or
received and the time
the energy is received
are analyzed to
determine the
presence of flaws.
Changes in material
thickness, and
changes in material
properties can also be
measured.

Alternating electrical
current is passed
through a coil
producing a magnetic
field. When the coil is
placed near a
conductive material,
the changing magnetic
field induces current
flow in the material.
These currents travel
in closed loops and
are called eddy
currents. Eddy
currents produce their
own magnetic field
that can be measured
and used to find flaws
and characterize
conductivity,
permeability, and
dimensional features.

X-rays are used to

produce images of
objects using film or
other detector that is
sensitive to radiation.
The test object is
placed between the
radiation source and
detector. The
thickness and the
density of the material
that X-rays must
penetrate affects the
amount of radiation
reaching the detector.
This variation in
radiation produces an
image on the detector
that often shows
internal features of the
test object.

Scientific
Principles
Penetrant solution is
applied to the surface
of a precleaned
component. The liquid
is pulled into surfacebreaking defects by
capillary action.
Excess penetrant
material is carefully
cleaned from the
surface. A developer
is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant back
to the surface where it
is spread out and
forms an indication.
The indication is
much easier to see
than the actual defect.

Main Uses

Used to locate cracks,

porosity, and other
defects that break the
surface of a material
and have enough
volume to trap and
hold the penetrant
material. Liquid
penetrant testing is
used to inspect large
areas very efficiently
and will work on most
nonporous materials.

Used to inspect
ferromagnetic
materials (those that
can be magnetized)
for defects that result
in a transition in the
magnetic permeability
of a material.
Magnetic particle
inspection can detect
surface and near
surface defects.

Used to locate surface

and subsurface defects
in many materials
including metals,
plastics, and wood.
Ultrasonic inspection
is also used to
measure the thickness
of materials and
otherwise characterize
properties of material
based on sound
velocity and
attenuation
measurements.

Used to detect surface

and near-surface flaws
in conductive
materials, such as the
metals. Eddy current
inspection is also used
to sort materials based
on electrical
conductivity and
magnetic
permeability, and
measures the
thickness of thin
sheets of metal and
nonconductive
coatings such as paint.

Used to inspect almost

any material for
surface and subsurface
defects. X-rays can
also be used to locates
and measures internal
features, confirm the
location of hidden
parts in an assembly,
and to measure
thickness of materials.

Detects surface and

near surface defects.

Can be used to inspect

virtually all materials.

Test probe does not

need to contact the
part.

Detects surface and

subsurface defects.

Main Advantages
Large surface areas or
large volumes of
parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and
at low cost.

Large surface areas of Depth of penetration

complex parts can be for flaw detection or
inspected rapidly.
measurement is
superior to other
Can detect surface and methods.
subsurface flaws.
Parts with complex
Only single sided
geometry are routinely Surface preparation is access is required.
inspected.
less critical than it is
in penetrant
Provides distance
inspection.
Indications are
information.
produced directly on
surface of the part
Magnetic particle
Minimum part
providing a visual
indications are
preparation is
image of the
produced directly on required.
discontinuity.
the surface of the part
and form an image of Method can be used
Equipment investment the discontinuity.
for much more than
is minimal.
just flaw detection.
Equipment costs are
relatively low.

Method can be used

for more than flaw
detection.
Minimum part
preparation is
required.

Ability to inspect
complex shapes and
multi-layered
structures without
disassembly.
Minimum part
preparation is
required.

Disadvantages
Detects only surface
breaking defects.

Only ferromagnetic
materials can be
inspected.

Surface preparation is
critical as
Proper alignment of
contaminants can
magnetic field and
defect is critical.
mask defects.

Surface must be
accessible to probe
and couplant.

Only conductive
materials can be
inspected.

Extensive operator
training and skill
required.

Skill and training

required is more
extensive than other
technique.

Ferromagnetic
materials require
special treatment to
address magnetic
permeability.

Access to both sides

of the structure is
usually required.

Requires a relatively Large currents are

smooth and nonporous needed for very large Surface finish and
parts.
surface.
roughness can
interfere with
inspection.
Post cleaning is
Requires relatively
necessary to remove

Depth of penetration
is limited.

Orientation of the
radiation beam to nonvolumetric defects is
critical.

Flaws that lie parallel Field inspection of

chemicals.

smooth surface.

Requires multiple
Paint or other
nonmagnetic
operations under
controlled conditions. coverings adversely
affect sensitivity.
Chemical handling
precautions are
Demagnetization and
post cleaning is
necessary (toxicity,
usually necessary.
fire, waste).

Thin parts may be

difficult to inspect.

to the inspection
probe coil winding
direction can go
undetected.

Linear defects
oriented parallel to the
sound beam can go
Skill and training
required is more
undetected.
extensive than other
Reference standards techniques.
are often needed.
Surface finish and
roughness may
interfere.

thick section can be

time consuming.
Relatively expensive
equipment investment
is required.
Possible radiation
hazard for personnel.

Reference standards
are needed for setup.

Penetrant
Testing

Magnetic Particle
Testing

Ultrasonic
Testing

Eddy Current
Testing

Radiographic
Testing

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
IN THE AEROSPACE INDUSTRY

How essential is nondestructive testing (NDT) to

airplanes?
In the aerospace industry, as with other transportation
industries, NDT can make the difference between life
and death. Aircraft components are inspected before
they are assembled into the aircraft and then they are
periodically inspected throughout their useful life.
Aircraft parts are designed to be as light as possible
while still performing their intended function. This
generally means that components carry very high loads
relative to their material strength and small flaws can
cause a component to fail. Since aircraft are cycled
(loaded and unloaded) as they fly, land, taxi, and
pressurize the cabin, many components are prone to
fatigue cracking after some length of time. If you are unfamiliar with the term "fatigue cracking" think
about what happens when you bend a paper clip or piece of wire back and forth ...eventually it will
break. Even parts that are loaded well below the level that causes them to deform can develop fatigue
cracks after being cycled for a long time. This is what happens in aircraft. After they are used for a
while, fatigue cracks start growing in some of their parts. Cracking can also occur due to other things
like a lightning strike. Aircraft have some protection against lightning strikes but occasionally they
occur and can results in cracks forming at the strike location like the one shown in the picture.

Another problem that aircraft have is that they are under the constant attack of corrosion. When an
aircraft lands and the door is opened, the inside of the plane often fills with warm moist air. When the
plane takes flight, and reaches altitude, the skin of the aircraft becomes very cold due to the temperature

of the outside air. This cause the moisture held by the air inside the cabin to condense on the inside of
the aircraft skin. The water will collect at low areas and serve as the electrolyte needed for corrosion to
occur.
The good news is that aircraft are designed to withstand a certain amount of damage from
cracking and corrosion without cause for concern, and NDT inspectors are trained to find the
damage before it becomes a major problem. The rigorous process used to design aircraft either allow
for a certain amount of damage to occur before a part fails, or in many cases, a part can fail completely
and performance of the aircraft will not be affected. The job of the NDT inspector is to find the damage
while it is within acceptable limits.
What kind of NDT techniques are used to ensure the safety of the airplane?
Over 80 percent of the inspections done to an aircraft are visual inspections. At regular intervals
inspectors look at various component of the aircraft for signs of damage. During heavy maintenance
work, much of the interior of the aircraft is stripped out so inspectors can look for damage on the inside
surface of the fuselage. However, not all areas of the aircraft can be accessed for visual inspection and
not all damage can be detected by visual means. This is were NDT plays a critical role in thoroughly
inspecting airplanes.
NDT methods allow inspectors to inspect areas of the plane that would
otherwise be uninspectable without disassembling structure to gain
access to the internal areas. NDT methods also allow inspectors to
detect damage that is too small to be detected by visual means. Eddy
current and ultrasonic inspection methods are used extensively to
locate tiny cracks that would otherwise be undetectable. These
techniques are also used to measure the thickness of the aircraft skin
from the outside and detect metal thinning from corrosion on the
inside surface of the skin. X-ray techniques are used to find defects
buried deep within the structure and to locate areas were water has
penetrated into certain structure. Obviously, this task requires trained
professionals who are capable of performing a variety of different
NDT techniques to get a complete and accurate status of the airplane.
There is no question that the success of the airplane industry is
dependent on NDT. Without NDT, the cost of maintaining and flying
in airplanes would increase dramatically, while the safety of flying
would decrease. When people step into an airplane they trust that it
will get them to their destination with as little turbulence as possible.
NDT plays a vital role in keeping air travel one of the safest modes of transportation.

BRIDGE INSPECTION
The US has 578,000 highway bridges, which are the lifelines of US commerce. The average life span of
highway bridges is about 70 years and the majority of
bridges currently in use were built after 1945. However,
significant environmental damage requiring repair typically
occurs before the average bridge reaches mid-life.
Corrosion, cracking and other damage can all affect a
bridge's load carrying capacity. Therefore, all of the
elements that directly affect performance of the bridge
including the footing, substructure, deck, and
superstructure must be periodically inspected or monitored.
Visual inspection is the primary NDE method used to
evaluate the condition of the majority of the nation's
highway bridges. Inspectors periodically (about every two
years) pay each bridge a visit to assess its condition. However, it is not uncommon for a fisherman,
canoeist and other passerby to alert officials to major damage that may have occurred between
inspections.
The potential penalties for ineffective inspection of bridges can
be very severe. Instances of major bridge collapse are very rare,
but the results are truly catastrophic. The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in loss of 47 lives. The bridge connected
Point Pleasant, West Virginia and Gallipolis,Ohio over the Ohio
River. The cost of this disaster was 175 million dollars but some
experts estimate the same occurrence today would cost between
2.1 and 5.6 billion dollars. Furthermore, these cost figures do not
take into account factors such as loss of business resulting from
loss of access or detours, the cost resulting from blockage of a
major river shipping channel, and potential environmental
damage due to hazardous materials being transported over the bridge at the time of collapse.
The consequences of ineffective bridge inspection are usually not as severe as those at Silver Bridge.
However, repair and retrofit costs on bridges represent a very significant portion of a state's
transportation budget. In the future, replacement of a bridge will become an increasingly unattractive
alternative. Growing construction costs, increased losses due to traffic disruption during repair or
replacement, and continuing tight budgets will force life extension to be the only viable alternative for
our aging bridges.
Fatigue cracking and corrosion will become
increasingly important considerations as we go
beyond the 75 year life expectancy and current
visual inspection techniques will not suffice. The life
extension approach will require increased use of
NDE in a coordinated effort to obtain reliability
assurance for these structures. NDE techniques such
as magnetic particle inspection and ultrasonic
inspection are being used with greater frequency.
One of the newer NDE technologies being used is

acoustic emission (AE) monitoring. Some bridges are being fitted with AE instruments that listen to the
sounds that a bridge makes. These sophisticated systems can detect the sound energy produced when a
crack grows and alert the inspector to the cracks presence. Sensors can be permanently fixed to the
bridge and the data transmitted back to the lab so that continuous bridge condition monitoring is
possible. The image provided here shows field engineers installing an AE monitoring system on the lift
cables of the Ben Franklin Bridge in Philadelphia, PA

Pipeline Inspection
In the United States, millions of miles of pipeline carrying everything
from water to crude oil. The pipe is vulnerable to attack by internal
and external corrosion, cracking, third party damage and
manufacturing flaws. If a pipeline carrying water springs a leak
bursts, it can be a problem but it usually doesn't harm the
environment. However, if a petroleum or chemical pipeline leaks, it
can be a environmental disaster. More information on recent US
pipeline accidents can be found at the, National Transportation
Safety Board's Internet site. In an attempt to keep pipelines operating
safely, periodic inspections are performed to find flaws and damage before they become cause for
concern.
When a pipeline is built, inspection personnel may use visual, Xray, magnetic particle, ultrasonic and other inspection methods to
evaluate the welds and ensure that they are of high quality. The
image to the left show two NDT technicians setting up equipment
to perform an X-ray inspection of a pipe weld. These inspections
are performed as the pipeline is being constructed so gaining access
the inspection area is not problem. In some areas like Alaska,
sections of pipeline are left above ground like shown above, but in
most areas they get buried. Once the pipe is buried, it is undesirable
to dig it up for any reason.
So, how do you inspect a buried pipeline?
Have you ever felt the ground move under your feet? If you're standing in New
York City, it may be the subway train passing by. However, if you're standing in
the middle of a field in Kansas it may be a pig passing under your feet. Huh???
Engineers have developed devices, called pigs, that are sent through the buried
pipe to perform inspections and clean the pipe. If you're standing near a pipeline,
vibrations can be felt as these pigs move through the pipeline. The pigs are about
the same diameter of the pipe so they range in size from small to huge. The pigs
are carried through the pipe by the flow of the liquid or gas and can travel and
perform inspections over very large distances. They may be put into the pipe line
on one end and taken out at the
other. The pigs carry a small
computer to collect, store and
transmit the data for analysis.
In 1997, a pig set a world record when it completed a
continuous inspection of the Trans Alaska crude oil
pipeline, covering a distance of 1,055 km in one run.
Click here to read more about this record setting
inspection.
Pigs use several nondestructive testing methods to
perform the inspections. Most pigs use a magnetic flux
leakage method but some also use ultrasound to

perform the inspections. The pig shown to the left and below uses magnetic flux leakage. A strong
magnetic field is established in the pipe wall using either magnets or by injecting electrical current into
the steel. Damaged areas of the pipe can not support as much magnetic flux as undamaged areas so
magnetic flux leaks out of the pipe wall at the damaged areas. An array of sensor around the
circumference of the pig detects the magnetic flux leakage and notes the area of damage. Pigs that use
ultrasound, have an array of transducers that emits a high frequency sound pulse perpendicular to the
pipe wall and receives echo signals from the inner surface and the outer surface of the pipe. The tool
measures the time interval between the arrival of a reflected echos from inner surface and outer surface
to calculate the wall thickness.

On some pipelines it is easier to use remote visual inspection equipment to assess the condition of the
pipe. Robotic crawlers of all shapes and sizes have been developed to navigate the pipe. The video
signal is typically fed to a truck where an operator reviews the images and controls the robot.

Rail Inspection
One of the major problems that railroads have faced
since the earliest days is the prevention of service
failures in track. As is the case with all modes of highspeed travel, failures of an essential component can have
serious consequences. The North American railroads
have been inspecting their most costly infrastructure
asset, the rail, since the late 1920's. With increased
traffic at higher speed, and with heavier axle loads in the
1990's, rail inspection is more important today than it has
ever been. Although the focus of the inspection seems
like a fairly well-defined piece of steel, the testing
variables present are significant and make the inspection
process challenging.
Rail is manufactured in different weights; there are
different rail conditions (wear, corrosion etc) present;
there are a significant number of potential defects
possible; and the task has to be performed with some
speed to reliably inspect the thousands of miles of track
stretching across the land. Sperry Rail Service, one of the
country's leading inspector of railroad tracks, has been
using specialized test equipment mounted on selfpropelled rail cars for over seventy years to protect the
safety of passengers and freight. This information
provides a brief look at rail inspection.
The history of railroading is rooted in the production of
the first metal rails near the city of Sheffield, England in 1776. The rail improved the transportation of
materials in industries such as mining. In 1803 the first railroad intended for public use was opened for
operation between the London docks and Croyden. This first railway, the Surrey Iron Railway, offered a
smoother ride than a wagon, but offered no real advantage in speed since draft animals were used for
locomotion. However, the first steam locomotive was soon to arrive on the scene. In 1804, a steam
locomotive pulled a train of cars carrying several tons of ore for the iron works at Merthyr Tydfil in
South Wales. The first American locomotive, the Best Friend of Charleston, was placed in operation on
the South Carolina Railroad in 1831.

The rails have evolved from cast iron plates to specially alloyed steels, which are rolled to a standard
shape and specially heat-treated to obtain the desired properties. The figures above show the progression
of rail development. Present day steel rails are vastly superior to their predecessors in both strength and
wear qualities, however defects still develop. The heavy loads and high speed of today's trains can cause
rails to fail in service unless regular inspections are performed.
Rail inspections were initially performed solely by visual means. Of course,
visual inspections will only detect external defects and sometimes the subtle
signs of large internal problems. The need for a better inspection method
became a high priority because of a derailment at Manchester, NY in 1911, in
which 29 people were killed and 60 seriously injured. In the U.S. Bureau of
Safety's (now the National Transportation Safety Board) investigation of the
accident, a broken rail was determined to be the cause of the derailment. The
bureau established that the rail failure was caused by a defect that was entirely
internal and probably could not have been detected by visual means. The
defect was called a transverse fissure (example shown on the left). The railroads began investigating the
prevalence of this defect and found transverse fissures were widespread.
In 1915, the Bureau of Standards began research to determine if magnetic testing could be used to detect
transverse fissures. The inspection technique involved passing a magnetizing solenoid along the rail to
establish a flux in the rail. Flux leakage caused by a defect was detected with search coils. The technique
was successful in the laboratory but was unable to differentiate between defects and non-relevant rail
features in the field.

In 1923, Dr. Elmer Sperry, started to develop and build a

rail inspection car with the capability of detecting
transverse fissures in railroad rails. In 1927 Sperry built an
inspection car (shown on the right) under contract with the
American Railway Association. The small flatbed in front
of the cab contained the inspection equipment. The
operator and recording devices were housed in the cab.
In 1928, a Sperry built inspection car, SRS 102, was testing
rail on the Wabash Railway in Montpelier, Ohio. The
inspection technique Sperry used established a strong
magnetic field in the rail by passing a large amount of low voltage current through it. A pair of search
coils, fixed at a constant distance from the rail, detected any changes in the magnetic field around the
rail. This magnetic induction flux leakage technique became the foundation of early rail inspection.
This drawing on the left shows the basic operation of
rail inspection using the induction method. Brushes are
used to contact the rail and "inject" electrical current.
The current creates a strong magnetic field in the rail.
Where there is a defect in the rail, the steel material
will not support magnetic flux and some of the flux is
forced out of the part. The sensing coil detects a change
in the magnetic field and the defect indication is
recorded on the strip chart. Computers are now being
used to record and evaluate the date.
Unfortunately, transverse fissures are not the only types
of defects found in rail. Other manufacturing and service-related defects that can occur include
inclusions, seams, shelling, and corrosion. Fatigue cracks can initiate from these defects, as well as
normal features of the rail such as bolt-holes. If these defects go undetected, they can lead to rail head
and web separations. Many of these defects are not detectable with the flux leakage method because the
flaws run parallel to the magnet flux lines or the flaws are too far away from the sensing coils to detect.
The induction technique inspects mainly the railhead.
To complement the flux leakage method, and detect additional flaw types, ultrasonic inspection has
become common. High-frequency sound is transmitted into the metal rail and reflections from rail joints
and surface conditions, as well as internal defects, are displayed on a screen or cause movement of a pen
on a recording tape. Both normal- and angle-beam techniques are used, as are both pulse-echo and pitchcatch techniques. The different transducer arrangements offer different inspection capabilities. Manual
contact testing is done to evaluate small sections of rail but the ultrasonic inspection has been automated
to allow inspection of large amounts of rail, like the electromagnetic technique previously discussed.
The first all-ultrasonic inspection car was introduced in 1959. This car was developed specifically to
meet the needs of the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA).
Fluid filled wheels or sleds are often used to couple the transducers to the rail. Sperry Rail Services has,
over the years, developed and made use of Roller Search Units (RSU's) comprising a combination of
different transducer angles to achieve the best inspection possible. A schematic of an RSU is shown
below.

At Sperry, there are two primary inspection units. The Sperry

Rail Detector Car, referred to as the "big" car, uses both
ultrasonic and electromagnetic technologies to identify defects.
The inspection equipment on a Sperry test car is carried in a
carriage slung between the axles.
The Hi-Rail trucks
currently use only
ultrasonics because
the electromagnet
equipment is too large
for this vehicle. The detector car will test rail between 6.5 and
13 miles per hour. However, higher speed units are in
development.
The data from the inspection
equipment is fed to the operator
inside the car. A picture of the
operator station is shown on the right. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA)
rules require that any indication considered suspect by the test equipment on
the test car are hand verified immediately. This leads to a stop-start test mode.
When the operator sees something on the tape indicating a problem, he uses a
buzzer signal system to tell the driver up front to stop. The car then backs up
to the point of examination where the operator gets out to hand test the rail
with an ultrasonic test set mounted on the rear of the car. If a defect is
confirmed, it is marked and a railroad work crew following the Sperry car will change the rail. If they
can't get to it right away, the section of track is assigned a slow order (slower speed) until the crew can
repair it. The amount of rail being tested can be increased by the use of chase cars following the testing
vehicles. The chase cars will receive a radioed signal of the test being done by the lead truck and will
stop to do the necessary hand testing. This elimination of the need to back up to hand test, allows the
testing vehicle to move forward, continuously testing, with the results being sent and recorded for
examination by the chase car.

Wire Rope (Cable) Inspection

Most skiers and snowboarders rate ski resorts by their average powder base and the
overall quality of the slopes. Few likely give serious consideration to the safety of
chair lifts at their favorite mountains. It is likely, however, that many have looked
up at that relatively small cable that they are dangling from high in the air and
hoped that someone had check to see that it was in good working condition.
Luckily, ski resort operators and governing authorities perform regular inspections
and maintenance of chair lifts to ensure passenger safety. One of the components
that gets close scrutiny is the cable.

Wire rope or cable is made by weaving many

individual wires together to produce a product that is both strong and
flexible. Wire rope is used in many safety critical applications in
addition to chair lift and gondola systems. Some of these applications
include hoisting systems, such as cranes and winches; guy wires used in
tall antennas and towers; and mooring lines of oil drilling platforms at
sea. A cable failure in one of these applications could have very serious
consequences.

All wire rope eventually wears out making periodic inspections necessary
throughout the service life of the rope. Wire rope is prone to damage and wear due
to abrasion, fatigue, corrosion, and improper handling. NDT personnel look for
localized flaws or loss of metallic cross-sectional area using a variety of inspection
methods. The least sophisticated method is visual inspection. Inspector simply look
for broken strands, wear and corrosion on the surface of the cable. However, for a
more thorough evaluation, a number of instruments have been developed that allow
inspectors to assess the internal areas of the cable.
One of the more widely used of
these instruments uses magnetism
to inspect the rope. The inspection
instrument is placed around the
wire rope and moved along the rope or the rope is
pulled through the instrument. Strong permanent
magnets or electromagnets are used to create a strong
magnetic field within the rope. The rope is said to be
magnetically saturated because it is caring all the
magnet flux that it possibly can. In areas where the rope
is damaged, it can not support as much of the magnet
flux and some of it "leaks" out of the rope. Sensors in
the inspection head detect the magnetic flux leakage
caused by the internal or external defects in the rope.
Defects as small as 0.05 % of the rope's cross-sectional area can often be detected.