Concentration by flotation

There are two fundamental operations in mineral processing, namely, liberation and
concentration of valuable mineral. Liberation is accomplished by comminution, which was
discussed previously; however concentration of valuable mineral can be accomplished by
several methods, including, froth flotation (Mulenshi et al., 2005). Flotation is the most
widely used concentration tool in the mineral processing industry and has proven essential for
the extraction of sulphides from low-grade and complex ore bodies (Parekh & Miller, 1999;
Asianet al., 2003; Mulenshi et al., 2005; Wills, 2006).
Flotation process utilises the physicochemical surface properties of particles of different
minerals to effectively separate the valuable mineral grains from the gangue minerals (Wills,
2006; Rahman et al., 2012). This is accomplished through chemical alteration of mineral
surfaces with the use of chemical reagents to increase the hydrophobicity of certain minerals
(Klimpel, 1995). This results in the capturing of hydrophobic particles by air bubbles in
aqueous slurry, which carries the particles to the surface and remove them from the froth
layer. The hydrophilic particles do not get attached to the air bubble and remain in the liquid
phase (Lynch et al., 1974; Fuerstenau et al., 1985; 1997; Harris et al., 2002 Wills, 2006;
Shean & Cilliers 2011).
The theory of froth flotation is complex, involving three phases (solids, water, and froth) with
various subprocesses and interactions. The process of mineral recovery by flotation from the
pulp consists of three mechanisms:
1. Selective attachment of particles to air bubbles (true flotation)
2. Entrainment of gangue material from the water into froth.
3. Physical entrapment between particles in the froth attached to air bubbles (often
referred to as aggregation) (Fuerstenau et al., 1985; Warren, 1985; 1997; Harris et
al., 2002; Johnson & Munro, 2002; Wills, 2006). (where do I put this reference)
The attachment of valuable minerals to air bubbles (i.e. true flotation) is the most important
mechanism and represents the majority of particles that are recovered to the concentrate
(Cilek, 2009). Although true flotation is the dominant mechanism for the recovery of
valuable mineral, the separation efficiency between the valuable mineral and gangue is also
dependent on the degree of entrainment and physical entrapment (Cilek, 2009).

Entrainment and entrapment cause the flotation of both gangue and valuable minerals,
differing from true flotation where minerals are chemical selected (Cilek, 2009). Authors
such Ross, (1991) showed recovery by entrainment increases as particle size decreases which
can result in the dilution of the concentrate and consequently decrease in concentrate grade
(Lynch et al., 1981, 1974; Ross, 1991; George et al., 2004; Cilek, 2009). Conversely,
recovery by true flotation is optimal at an intermediate particle size (Cilek, 2009; Gontijo et
al., 2007; Jameson, 2010; Awatey et al., 2013). Entrainment of unwanted or deleterious
mineral are common occurs and as a result industry flotation plants often have multiple
flotation stages, including; rougher-scavengers, cleaners, re-cleaners and cleaners-scavengers.
These different stages are sent in place to optimize the recovery and grade to and
economically acceptable quality of valuable mineral in the final product (Wills, 2006). The
rougher-scavenger and cleaner-scavenger cells are designed to maximize Cu recovery to
concentrate. The cleaner and re-cleaner cells maximize concentrate grade (Davenport et al.,
2002).
True flotation utilises the differences in physicochemical surface properties of particles of
various minerals. This is accomplished by the addition of reagents, which can manipulate the
chemical environment of the flotation pulp, therefore determining the degree of separation of
the valuable minerals from the undesired gangue minerals (lynch et al., 1974; Herreran &
Urbina, 1990; Bradshaw et al. 1998), as chemicals control the relative hydrophobicities of the
mineral surfaces, and in turn maintain the optimal froth characteristics. The reagents include
collectors which control selectivity, modifers are chemicals that influence the way that
collectors attach to mineral surfaces and therefore govern the selectivity of the flotation
process (Bulatovic, 2007) and frothers are mainly used to stabilize the froth (Malukunta,
1993). The following Figure illustrates the principles of flotation in a mechanical flotation
cell currently been drawn. The impeller provides enough turbulence in the pulp phase to
promote collision of particles and bubbles which results in the attachment of valuable
particles to bubbles and their transport into the froth phase for recovery (Feng &Aldrich,
2000 Jameson, 2010; 2012). The process can only be applied to relatively fine particles,
because if they are too large the adhesion between the particle and the bubble will be less
than the particle weight and the bubble will therefore drop its load. Coarse and fine particles
are more difficult to recover by froth flotation compared to intermediate size particles this
concept is illustrated in Figure 2 (Feng &Aldrich, 2000; Pease et al., 2004; Jameson, 2012;
Govender et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2012).

As Coarse particles are more prone to detachment and consequently require a quiescent
environment for flotation to occur (Govender et al., 2012; Rahman et al., 2012; Xu et al.,
2012). Fine particles have low collision efficiencies with gas bubbles and float slowly
(Gontijo et al., 2007; Miettinen et al., 2010; Govender et al., 2012).

Fine particle

Optimal particle size- good

Coarse particle size-

size- good

liberated and recoveries

Poor liberation and

liberated and

Coa

recovery

poor recoveries

Figure 2: The relationship between particle size and recovery (Adapted from Pease et al.,
2004)

Flotation of copper sulfide minerals

Copper sulphide minerals such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) chalcocite (Cu2S), covellite (CuS),
bornite (Cu5FeS4) are usually accompanied by iron sulphides (e.g. pyrite) and other unwanted
gangue minerals (i.e. clay, silicates, and carbonates). When liberated, sulphide minerals are
relatively easy to float due to their natural hydrophobicity, caused by reluctance to form
hydrogen bonds (Fuerstenau et al. 1985). The flotation of copper sulfide entails; conditioning
of the pulp, with reagents to increase the flotabilty of Cu mineral, depress unwanted gangue
minerals and to stabilize the froth.
Collectors are used to increase the hydrophobicity of the Cu-sulfide mineral surface.
Collectors are heteropolar molecules with a polar and non-polar end, the polar end of the
molecule attaches to the Cu-sulfide mineral surface and the non-polar end extends outward
(Lynch et al., 1974; Klimpel, 1999; Davenport et al., 2002). The most common collectors are
Xanthers (i.e. thio-compunds), were the sulfur group perfferentail attaches to the Cu-sulfide
mineral and overlook the gangue minerals. Other collectors used are di-thio-phosphate and
di-thio-carbamate (Lynch et al., 1974; Klimpel, 1999; Herreran-urbina et al., 1990).
Often the primary grade control issue relates to iron sulphide minerals since these also float
with the copper, therefore producing poorer copper concentrate grades. Iron sulphide mineral
(i.e. pyrite) depression can be controlled by modifiers, which change the surface of the iron
sulphide mineral such that the collector does not attach to it. The most common modifier is
OH- (hydroxyl) ion that is used in lime or sodium carbonate to change the basicity of the
pulp. The hydroxyl ion selectively absorbs on pyrite, therefore preventing collector absorbs
and consequently depressing pyrite. Optimal flotation of Cu-sulfide occurs between a pH of
6.5 and 7.5 see Figure 3.
It has long been recognized that the behavior of the froth phase affects flotation performance.
It is generally accepted that froth stability is essential for the achievement of good grade and
high recovery after flotation (Johansson & Pugn, 1992; Tao et al., 2000; Bulatovic, 2007). A
froth that is to stable decrease the recovery of Cu- minerals, because the product will not flow
out of the cell. A unstable froth will affect have a larger effect on the grade of the concentrate
due to entrainment of gangue material ( Cho, 1993; Sweet et al., 1997)

The primary role of Frothers are to form a froth, they can also be used to increase the strength
of the bubbles and stability of the froth and create finer bubbles and reduces coalence
amongst others (Davenport et al., 2002;Wills,2006;Bulantovic, 2007). The most common
frothers are branch chain alcohols (Mulukutla, 1993) in the past natural compounds such as
pine oil or terpinol were used but recently more synthetic compounds methyl isobutyl
carbinol, polyglycols and proprietary alcohol blends are utilized Chevron Phillips, 2002).

Complexity associated with sulphide ores

Many of the sulphide minerals do not occurs singly. They are generally associated with other
sulphides e.g deposits of chalcopyrite may also have chacolcite, covellite, pyrite and
pyrrhotite and at times association of precious mineral of gold and cobalt. Some oxide
minerals may be associated with copper sulphide minerals, particularly in upper zone of a
deposit if the deposit has undergone supergene process. Beneficiation of copper ores
containing multiple minerals and other metals to produce specified quality or separate
concentrates is difficult. The problem becomes more challenging when such ore contain
impurities which are difficult to remove and their presence in concentrates is not acceptable
to smelters and heavy penalties are levied if these are beyond limits.
Some major factors adding to complexity of sulphide minerals are The intricate mineralogy
of various minerals in. close association with each other and gangue minerals, the fine
dissemination texture of ore minerals in matrix, occurrence of oxide and oxidized minerals,

excessive presence pyrite and pyrrhotite, the presence of naturally floatable gangue minerals
like talc, graphite, and tarnishing of minerals surface after mining or during storage and
transportation.
Processing of such complex sulphide ore deposit is difficult and challenging. Development of
flow-sheet needs extensive process mineralogy to generate a flow-sheet that takes into
account of how each processing stage may affect the other. Process mineralogy can be used
to predict when integration of different beneficiation techniques besides conventional
flotation is required.

Reference

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