THE FORMATION OF

ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS

A01

REWARD/NEED SATISFACTION THEORY

BYRNE & CLORE 1970
We are attracted to people who we find satisfying/gratifying to be with. Most stimuli in our lives can be viewed
as being rewarding or punishing in some way. The sort of thing we find rewarding tend to reflect our unmet
needs (e.g. the need for company, financial security, attractive partner) Mutual attraction occurs when each
partner meets the other persons needs.
Reward/Punishments: Rewarding stimuli produce positive feelings in us (make us happy) & punishing stimuli
lead to negative feelings (unhappy) According to the principals of operant conditioning we are likely to repeat
any behaviour that leads to a desirable outcome and avoid any that doesnt.
Byrne & Clores theory therefore suggest that we enter into relationships because the presence of some
individuals is directly associated with reinforcements which makes them more attractive to us.
Attraction through association: We are attracted to people who are associated with pleasant events. They
acquire positive value because of their association with something else that makes us happy. (classical
conditioning) A relationship is likely to succeed when the positive feelings outweigh the negative feelings and
likely to fail when negative outweigh the positive.
OTHER FACTORS:
Proximity Physical closeness we are social animals and need to be with others (affiliation) More likely to meet, so
more likely to form a relationship. The more often people are exposed to an object, the more positively they
evaluate that object: Humans like familiar things, they make us feel safe and happy which is rewarding.
Exposure and Familiarity Proximity increases possibility of interaction (exposure) which leads to familiarity. We like
familiar things and find them rewarding. Moreland & Beach, 4 women attended classes, 0, 5, 10 and 15 times. More
classes she attended=more favourable her ratings.
Physical Attractiveness According to the attractiveness stereotype (Dion et al 1972) we think attractive looking
people have more attractive personalities , and we are rewarded with kudos of being with an attractive person.
Teachers judge attractive students as more intelligent than unattractive students (Clifford & Walster, 1973),

A02/A03

RESEARCH SUPPORT: R/NST - Veitch and Griffitt (1976)

Placed participants in a waiting room where they listened to either good or bad news with a stranger present.
When they were asked to rate the stranger the degree of liking was related to the kind of news they has been
listening to.
RESEARCH SUPPORT: Attraction through association: Griffitt & Guay
Participants had to say how much they liked an onlooker. The onlooker was rated more highly in the condition
where the performance of the participant has been positively evaluated by the experimenter. In fact,
participants rated both individuals (experimenter & onlooker) the same.

SIMILARITY THEORY

BYRNE, CLORE & SMEATON 1986

The essence of this view is that similarity promotes liking. According to
this model, we first sort potential partners for dissimilarity, avoiding
those whose personality/attitude is different from ours. Then from
those remaining, we can then choose the ones who are most similar to
ourselves. We are therefore, more likely to form relationships with
people similar to ourselves.
Personality: We are more likely to be attracted to others who have
similar rather than dissimilar or complementary personality traits.
(e.g. 2 people who are serious and hardworking are more likely to be
attracted to each other than a serious, hardworking person and
someone whose main interest are having fun and avoiding
responsibility. Of course this isnt always the case)
However, research suggests that similarity is more often the rule,
particularly in long-term relationships. Caspi & Herbener (1990) found
that married couples with similar personalities tend to be happier than
couples with less similar personalities
Attitude: If partners attitudes towards important issues differ, the
process of attitude alignments may occur, as one or both partners
modify their attitudes to produce similarity.

RESEARCH SUPPORT: Pairs selected based on attitudes; similar attitudes

& dissimilar attitudes, the pairs went on a date
Results: Highly similar pairs were more attracted to each other than
dissimilar pairs
RESEARCH: (IDA) CULTURAL SIMILARITIES - Rosenbaum (1986)
Suggested that dissimilarity rather than similarity was the more important
factor in determining whether a relationship will form. This dissimilarityrepulsion hypothesis has been tested in a number of cultures, e.g. Singh &
Tan (1992) in Singapore, and Drigotas (1993) in the USA. These studies
established that the participants were first attracted to each other because
of similarity of attitudes, and that, as they got to know each other better,
those who discovered more dissimilarities than similarities became less
attracted to each other.

CULTURAL/INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES (IDA) : The theory doesnt account for cultural and gender differences in the formation of relationships, suggesting that it is not a universal explanation of
the formation of relationships. Lott (1994) suggests that in many cultures women are more focused on the needs of others rather than receiving reinforcement.
MUNDANE REALISM: Most of the studies carried out in this area are laboratory studies, and therefore do not necessarily show that the principles of need satisfaction and similarity apply to
real life.
It does not account for unrewarding relationships and explaining why some individuals choose to stay or are attracted to those.
Caspi & Herbener 1990 - However, some studies have been conducted on real-life couples, and have tended to support these claims
The theory has face validity: is supported by everyday experiences i.e. happy, warm people with a good sense of humour have more friends.
Accounts for research findings: The theory explains why factors such as proximity, similarity and physical attractiveness are important factors.

THE MAINTENANCE OF
ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS

A01

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY

THAIBAUT & KELLEY 1959
PROFIT & LOSS - Individuals attempt to maximise their rewards and minimise their costs. In our
society, people exchange resources with the expectation (or at least the hope) that they will earn a
profit. Rewards include: being cared for, companionship and sex. Costs may include: effort, financial
investment and time wasted. Commitment to a relationship is dependent on its profitability, with less
profitable relationships being more vulnerable to termination.

A02/A03

COMPARISON LEVEL - which involves comparing the current relationship with a general expectation of
how rewarding relationships are. It is the product of experiences in previous relationships plus
expectations of current relationships. If potential profit from new relationship exceeds our CL, the
relationship will be judged as worthwhile and the person will be seen as attractive. If final result is
negative (profit less than CL) the person seems less attractive.

EQUITY THEORY
WALSTER ET AL 1978
INEQUITY & DISTRESS People strive to achieve fairness in relationships and feel
distressed if they perceive unfairness. Inequitable relationships exist when a person
perceives that they ; give a great deal in a relationship and get little in return and
receive a great deal and give little in return. Both are inequitable relationships and
would leave them feeling dissatisfied. The greater the inequity the greater the
dissatisfaction

RATIO OF INPUT & OUTPUT An equitable relationship is one where one partners
benefits minus their costs equals the other partners benefits minus their costs.
Perception of inequality in a relationship motivates a person to try to restore it (e.g.
by changing perceptions to relative inputs and outputs) or end the relationship.

Comparison level for alternatives (CLAlt) is where the person weighs up a potential increase in
rewards from a different partner, minus any costs associated with ending the current relationship.

RESEARCH EXCHANGE RUSBULT & MARTZ (IDA), REAL WORLD APPLICATION explained why some
people stay in abusive relationships. They argue than when investments are high (e.g. children, financial
security) and alternatives are low (e.g. nowhere to live, no money) this might be considered a profit
situation and so the woman might choose to stay in the relationship.
RESERACH SUPPORT COMPARISON LEVEL SIMPSON ET AL. asked participants to rate members of
the opposite sex in terms of attractiveness; those participants who gave lower ratings were already in a
relationship.
MAIN CRITICISM concerns the selfish nature of the theory, i.e. the claim that people are only
motivated to maintain relationships out of selfish concerns. It is possible that the principles of social
exchange theory apply only in individualists cultures, which are characterised more by individual concerns
CULTURAL BIAS MOGHADDAM 1998, IDA - Argues that such economic theories only apply to
western relationships. The more short term a relationship is the more relevance in being concerned with
give and take. Long term relationships however, more likely to value security over profit! Suggests that
SET doesnt represent a universal explanation of relationship maintenance.
Theory doesnt explain why people leave relationships despite having no alternative, nor does it
suggest how great the disparity in CL has to be for it to become unacceptable.

RESEARCH SUPPORT: STAFFORD & CANARY 2006 - Asked over 200 couples to complete
questionnaire measuring relationship satisfaction. Satisfaction highest = couples who
perceived their relationship as equitable. Followed by over benefited partners and lowest for
under benefited.
RESERACH SUPPORT HATFIELD 1972 - Interviewed over 500 students about equity in
their relationships. Three months later the inequitable relationships were more likely to have
ended.
CLARK & MILLS argue that a concern for equity may only characterise relationships
between colleagues or business associates rather than relationships between friends or
lovers. They claim that romantic relationships are governed by a desire to respond to the
needs of the partner rather than about any concerns of equity.
GENDER DIFFERENCES- STEIL & WELTMAN (IDA) studied married working couples.
Found that the woman generally rated their husbands careers as more important than their
own. They concluded that because women tend to seek less for themselves in a relationship,
this makes equity a less relevant explanation of relationship satisfaction in real-life
relationships. Therefore, it challenges the universality of equity as a determinant of
relationship satisfaction.

Argyle (1987) challenged this theory by saying that people only monitor this cost and reward system after they become dissatisfied with the relationship.

THE BREAKDOWN
OF RELATIONSHIPS

A01

A02/A03

REASONS FOR RELATIONSHIP BREAKDOWN DUCK 1999

MODEL OF BREAKDOWN DUCK & ROLLIE 2006

3 MAIN REASONS FOR RELATIONSHIP BREAKDOWN

1. LACK OF SKILLS
Some people lack interpersonal skills to make relationships mutually satisfying. These
include being poor conversationalist and poor at indicating interests in others. Others
then find them unrewarding because it leads your partner to perceive you as not being
interested in maintaining the relationship and so the relationship breaks down.
2. LACK OF STIMULATION
There is evidence that boredom or belief that the relationship is not going anywhere is
often the reason used when breaking up (Baxter 1994).
People expect relationships to develop and grow and when they do not this is enough
cause to break it off.
3. MAINTENANCE DIFFICULTIES
Although enduring romantic relationships can survive the strain of long distance
relationships, evidence has dominantly shown that distance can put a strain on
relationships (Shaver et al., 1985) Some circumstances (e.g. going away for university)
make maintenance of relationships difficult to manage because partners dont see each
other often. This places a strain on relationships, which may be responsible for their
break-up.

BREAKDOWN One of the partners becomes distressed with the way the relationship is conducted and
so they are dissatisfied.
INTRAPSYCHIC PROCESSES Characterised by brooding focus on the relationship. There is a social
withdraw and some resentment. Nothing is said to the other partner, although the dissatisfied partner
may express their dissatisfaction in other ways, e.g. diary, show lack of interest in sex. They think about
the relationship and what they are dissatisfied with & consider the costs of ending the relationship, and
the possible rewards. & possible alternative partners.
DYDADIC PROCESSES People confront their partners and discuss their feelings and the future.
Reassessment of goals and commitments. At this stage the relationship may be saved.
SOCIAL PROCESSES going public as dissatisfaction spills over to third parties such as friends and family.
Others may take sides, offer advice and support, or may help in mending any disputes between the 2
sides. The involvement of others may even speed the partners towards dissolution through revelations
about 1 or other of the partners.
GRAVE-DRESSING PROCESSES Partner construct a representation of the failed relationship that avoids
putting them in an unfavourable light. Tidying up memories. Both partners reflect on what happened,
who was to blame, and decide on how they wish to view and communicate the reasons for the breakup
to other people. Different people may be given different versions of what happened in an attempt to
gain sympathy and support, and to save face.
RESURRECTION PROCESSES -At this stage both partners start to prepare themselves for new
relationships. They may redefine themselves. They may also build on the mistakes that have been made
in the previous relationship. They may also review the sort of relationship they want in the future.
Partners attempt to re-establish their own individual sense of identity and self- esteem

RSEARCH SUPPORT: BOEKHOUT ET AL. 1999

Found that extramarital affairs were typically a direct reaction to a perceived lack of skills
and/or stimulation in the existing relationship. They asked undergraduates to rate various
sexual & emotional reasons for men and women to be unfaithful in a committed relationship.
They judged sexual boredom and the need for excitement as the main reasons for infidelity
among males, and lack of attention and emotional dissatisfaction as the main reasons for
infidelity among females.

ROLLIE & DUCKS model is supported by observations of real-life break-ups.

GENDER DIFFERENCES Women are more likely to stress unhappiness and incompatibility as reasons
for dissolution (BREHM & KASSIN) Men are more likely to cite sexual withholding
RESERACH SUPPORT TASHIRO & FRAZIER surveyed undergraduates who have recently broken up
with a romantic partner. They typically reported that they experienced emotional distress and personal
growth. Breaking up with their partner had given them insights to themselves and a clever idea about
future partners (resurrection process)

ROHLFING 1995 MAINTENANCE DIFFICULTIES

Long distant romantic relationships (LDRR) & long-distance friendships (LDF) are more
common than we think. One study found that 70% of students sampled had experienced at
least 1 LDRR and 90% said they had experienced 1 LDF
HOLT & STONE 1988 MAINTENANCE DIFFICULTIES
Despite this long distant relationships are increasingly common in our society. They found
there was little decrease in relationship satisfaction provided that lovers are able to reunite
regularly. This suggests that people use different management strategies to successfully
maintain long-distance relationships

MODEL IS IMPORTANT because it emphasises the value of communication in relationship

breakdown. Paying attention to what people say and the ways in which they talk about their
relationship gives a clue as to the stage they are at and therefore appropriate repair strategies that
might be employed.

IDA REAL WORLD APPLICATION - The importance of social skills deficits in relationship
breakdown has led to the development of training programmes to enhance relationship skills.
Cina et al, compared couples who had had received relationship skill training with those who
did not. The trained couples later reported much higher marital quality compared to couples
in the control group.

ETHICAL ISSUES (IDA) Carrying out research in such a sensitive area raises significant ethical issues
because participants may experience distress when revisiting the issues that led to the breakdown. This
means the researcher faces the dilemma of pursing valuable information or terminating a study to
prevent the participant experiencing further distress.
HETREOSEXUAL BIAS (IDA) Models of relationships tend to be developed from the experience of
white, middle-class, heterosexual participants, which may not represent the experience of other groups.

SEXUAL
SELECTION

INTER/INTRA SEXUAL
SELECTION

SHORT-TERM MATING
PREFERENCES

LONG-TERM MATING PREFERENCES

A01

NATURAL SELECTION = survival of the fittest

The gradual process by which individuals with characteristics that
are most suited to the environment are more likely to survive
and reproduce The genes that allowed the individuals to be
successful are passed onto the offspring in the next generation.
SEXUAL SELECTION = survival of the sexiest
Sexual selection is the process by which characteristics are
selected because they attract the opposite sex. It is the selection
of characteristics that increase mating success. These genes are
passed on to offspring.

PARENTAL INVESTMENT
This theory claims that men evolved a greater
desire for casual sex and would ideally seek sex
earlier in a relationship. Female behaviour would
not be subjected to the same evolutionary
pressures. In contrast, to women, men appear to
lower their standards in the context of short-term
mating opportunities and show a marked
decreases in attraction following sex (Buss)

SEXUAL SELECTION should favour high levels of choosiness in BOTH sexes. Poor
mate choices is disadvantageous for both sexes who will have wasted valuable
resources, but is particularly disastrous (unsuccessful/tragic) for women.

INTRASEXUAL SELECTION Members of one sex (usually

males) compete with other members of their own sex for access
to members of the opposite sex (mate competition) Whatever
traits lead to success in this competition will be passed on to the
next generation.
INTERSEXUAL SELECTION Members of one sex (usually
females) show preferences for members of the opposite sex who
possess certain characteristics (mate choice). These indicate the
chances of the mate being able to give protection and support to
offspring which makes them more attractive as a potential mate.

AO2/AO3

GENDER BIAS (IDA)

PI theory predicts that men are more likely to
have a preference for casual sex, GRELING &
BUSS suggest that women may profit from shortterm mating as a way of leaving a poor quality
relationship or to produce more genetically
diverse offspring

MEN are attracted to women who display signals of fertility, an indication of

their reproductive value (e.g. youth and physical attractiveness)

WAYNFORTH 2005 - Women were found to prefer men with a square jaw, ridged eyebrows, small eyes and a symmetrical face.
BRICE & YOUNG (1998) - found that both sexes prefer symmetrical faces

A NON-EVOLUNTIONRY EXPLANATION (IDA)

Some critics reject sexual selection as an explanation for male
preferences for younger women. An alternative explanation is
based on social power; younger women are easier to control and
therefore preferred as mates. KENRICK ET AL. rejected the claim
that males consistently prefer younger women, finding that
teenage males are most attracted to women that were actually
five years older than them, even though the older woman show
no interest in them

RESEARCH SUPPORT CLARK & HATFIELD

Study to investigate differences in reproductive
behaviour between men and women. Strangers
on university campus approached by attractive
experimenters and asked a series of questions
(date/apartment/sex)
Females agreed = 0 %
Males agreed = 75 %

REAL-WORLD APPLICATION (IDA)

Many of the studies carried out in this area have been restricted
to expressed mate preferences rather than real-life mate choice.

RESEARCH SUPPORT BUSS & SCHMIDT

Men appear to lower their standards in the
context of short term mating success and then
show a marked decrease in attraction following
sex an evolved adaptation to bring about a
hasty departure which prevents them spending
too long with one woman.

BUSS 1989
Support from other research Buss (1989) studied actual
marriages in 29 different cultures and found that men do choose
younger women and that a man who divorced and remarried
tended to choose a younger woman.

WOMEN have an obligatory biological investment in their children, therefore

are predicted to be very particular in heir choice of mate. Therefore women are
attracted to men who:
Are able to invest resources in her and any offspring
Are able to protect her and any offspring
Show promise as a good parent
Are sufficiently compatible to ensure minimal costs to her and the offspring

RESEARCH SUPPORT BUSS I989

Explored mate preferences among males/females. Involved over 10,000 people
from 37 different cultures, including a wide diversity of ethnic, religious, political
& economic groups. Found:
Women more than men desired mates who were good financial prospects
(i.e. had resources & ambition)
Men placed more importance on physical attractiveness in a mate because
it provides wealthy cues to a womans fertility & reproductive value
Men wanted mates who were younger, an indication that men value
increased fertility in potential mates
Both sexes valued intelligence in potential mates (linked to parenting skills),
kindness & dependability.
EVALUTION OF BUSS RESEARCH
VALIDITY - the study indicates preferences rather than being a true reflection
of real life. For example other people such as our friends and families can
influence our choice of partner.
SAMPLING Buss was criticised for misrepresenting rural and less educated
individuals and the sampling methods to gain participants varied across cultures.

PARENTAL
INVSTMENT

SEX DIFFERENCES IN PARENTAL INVESTMENT

PARENTAL INVESTMENT - any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offsprings chance of surviving (and hence reproductive success) at the cost of the parents ability to invest
in other offspring. (TRIVERS, 1972)
PI includes the provision of resources (such as food, energy and time used in obtaining food and maintaining the home and territory), time spent teaching offspring, and risks taken to protect young.
SEX DIFFERENCES Males can opt out of parental investment in a way that females cant.

A01

WHY DO FEMALES INVEST MORE? - Due to adaptive responses over time, brain size has increased (big headed babies). To compensate for this, childbirth in human occurs prematurely in comparison to most
mammals. Therefore, human babies are more immature at birth than others mammals. Therefore the mother not only carries the baby for 9 months but also must breastfeed and care for the baby after.
Resulting in prolonged care, both pre-natal and post-natal.
COST OF MATERNAL INVESTMENT - The cost of childcare are especially high for females. Females = 9 months + labor + breastfeeding + years of additional care, making random mating more costly for them.
Males = a few minutes of copulation and a teaspoon of semen (Symons, 1979)
PARENTAL INVESTMENT & CUCKOLDRY When males do invest parentally (time & resources) they are threatened by the concept of cuckoldry. Because human males invest considerably in their children they
have a greater concern about their female partners cheating (Miler, 1998). Therefore they take extra care to ensure that they are not investing in offspring that is not their own.
SEXUAL & EMOTIONAL JEALOUSY Men are likely to be jealous of sexual infidelity while woman are more likely to be jealous of emotional infidelity.

LOGIC OF SEXUAL SELECTION Being choosy requires time and energy, and the costs of mate choice can even impair survival in some cases. The rationale behind sexual selection is that random mating is
essentially stupid mating. It pays to be choosy, as the genetic quality of a mate will determine half the genetic quality of any offspring. Low-quality mate (e.g. unattractive, un healthy) will be more likely to
produce unattractive, unhealthy offspring. By joining forces with an attractive, high-quality mate, and offspring are higher quality an individuals genes are more likely to be passed on.
The implication is that males should be unwilling to invest resources in offspring that are not their own. However a study by ANDERSON ET AL. challenges this. They found that men didnt discriminate
financially between children born in to the current partner in a previous relationship and their own. It is possible that men would invest in their stepchildren to convince their partner that they are a good
provider in order to promote future mating possibilities.

A02/A03

SEXUAL & EMOTIONAL JEALOUSY - BUSS ET AL Found that when asked to imagine scenes of sexual or emotion infidelity involving their partner, males showed much higher physiological responses
(e.g. increase in heart rate & EMG response) for sexual rather than the woman who showed higher responses for emotional.

How do evolutionary psychologists explain maternal neonaticide? More tricky still for evolutionary theory to explain is the case of the woman who kills her new-born baby (neonaticide).
According to Pinker (1997), when such an act takes place in conditions of poverty, it could be regarded as an adaptationist response. The psychological module that normally induces protectiveness in
mothers in their new-borns is switched off by the challenge of an impoverished environment. This means that both killing and protecting are explained by evolutionary selection. As Hilary Rose (2000) says,
this explains everything and, therefore, nothing.

THE INFLUENCE OF
CHILDHOOD & ADOLESCENT
EXPERIENCES ON ADULT
RELATIONSHIPS

CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS

A01

SHAVER ET AL. (1988) claimed that what we experience as romantic love in adulthood is an integration of 3 behavioural systems acquired in infancy attachment, care-giving & sexuality.
ATTACHMENT The attachment system is related to the concept of the internal working model. Bowlby 1969 claimed that later relationships are a continuation of early attachment styles (secure or
insecure) because the behaviour of the infants primary attachment figure promotes an internal working model of relationships which leads the infant to expect the same in later relationships. In some
extreme cases a childs internal working model leads them to develop an attachment disorder.
CARE-GIVING - The care giving system is knowledge about how one cares for others, based on the monotropic bond, learned by modelling the behaviour of the primary attachment figure. This is then
reflected in their own behaviour as adults.
SEXUALITY - The sexuality system is also a result of early attachments. In particular, attachment styles. For e.g. if you suffered form an avoidant attachment you are likely to hold the view that sex without
love is pleasurable.

INTERACTION WITH PEERS

QUALTER & MUNN 2005 found that children also learn from experiences with other children. This determines how the child thinks about him/herself. Through these interactions, children develop a
sense of their own value, which determines how they approach adult relationships. The experience of having a friend to confide in promotes feelings of trust and acceptance, both important in adult
relationships.

A02/A03

SIMPSON ET AL 2007
An ongoing longitudinal study spanning more than 25 years, 78 participants were studied at 4 key points - infancy, early childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Care-givers reported on their childrens
attachment behavior at one year of age. At 6-8 years old, the childrens teachers were asked to rate how well the children interacted with their peers. At 16 years, participants were asked to describe
their close friendship. As young adults, participants romantic partners were asked to describe their relationship experience. The findings of this study supported the claim that expression of emotions in
adult romantic relationships can be related back to a persons attachment experiences during earlier social development. Researchers found that those participants that were Securely attached as infants
were rated as having higher social competence as children. Children who were Socially competent at ages 6-8 were found to be closer to their friends at the age of 16. Those who were Closer to their
friends at 16 were more emotionally expressive and attached to romantic partners
NANGLE ET AL. (2003)
Claim that childrens friendships are training grounds for important adult relationships. Close friendships are characterised by affection, a sense of alliance and intimacy, & the sharing of secrets &
personal information. The experience of having a friend to confide in promotes feelings of trust, acceptance and a sense of being understood. These Characteristics are vital to adult relationships.
LINKS TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGICAL DISORDERS (IDA)
Some children find any close relationship difficult. They may suffer from an attachment disorder, cause by early abuse or neglect. The resulting behaviour and emotions create a disturbed way of relating
to others, which can interfere with subsequent adult relationships
OTHER CAUSE - It is also possible that an individuals attachment type is caused by the current relationship, which is why happily married individuals tend to be securely attached.
DETERMINISM IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT RELATIONSHIPS (IDA)
Research suggests that early experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships. However, researchers have found many examples where participants were experiencing happy adult
relationships, despite not having been securely attached as infants. This suggests that an individuals past experiences do not determine the future course of their adult relationships

RELATIONSHIPS
IN DIFFERENT
CULTURES

A01

WERSTERN & NON WESTERN RELATIONSHIPS

Hofstede (1984) carried out a longitudinal study in 50 countries and found that differences between countries could be accounted for based on; Individualist vs. Collectivist AND Voluntary vs. Involuntary

VOLUNTARY OR NON VOLUNTARY RELATIONSHIPS

Western cultures are predominantly urban, ensuring relatively easy social and geographical mobility, and therefore interaction with a large number of people. This leads to a high degree of choice over whom people interact
with on a voluntary basis as they have a greater pool of potential relationships. Non-Western cultures lack these urban setting, therefore people have less social and geographical mobility, and people therefore have less
choice about whom they interact with on a daily basis.

INDIVIDUALIST OR COLLECTIVIST (group-based)

Attitudes in individualist cultures, is where they place great importance on the rights and freedom of the individual, with individual happiness and pleasure seen as fundamentally important. Their interests are more highly
regarded than group goals or interests, are consistent with the formation of relationships based on freedom of choice, whereas collectivist cultures leads to relationships that may have more to do with the concerns of the
family or group. Collectivist cultures are encouraged to be interdependent rather than independent.

CONTINUATION AND DISCONTINUATION

Cultures differ in the degree to which they value heritage and ancestry (many non-westerns) or progress (most western cultures). This is consistent with relationships in these cultures, with non-western cultures emphasising
continuity and therefore permanent relationships. Western cultures emphasise change and discontinuity, so favour more temporary relationships. The duration of relationships varies considerably between cultures. In some
cultures, divorce is much less tolerated. For example, in China, divorce is regarded as shameful, and the divorce rate is only 4% (Goodwin, 1999), compared to the USA which is approximately 40-50%. But why this difference?
Simmel (1971) claims that divorce is higher in individualistic cultures because of the philosophy are that one should constantly seek out the ideal partner.

NORMS & RULES

Act as guidelines for behaviour within a culture. The norm of reciprocity stresses that for a benefit received an equal benefit should be returned. In individualist cultures, reciprocity in personal relationships tends to be
voluntary, whereas in collectivist cultures it is more obligatory. ARGYLE ET AL. found different relationship rules applied to different cultures (e.g. Italy, Hong Kong & Japan) although there are also similarities. All 4 cultures
acknowledged the importance of courtesy and respect in relationships and the avoidance of social intimacy.

RESEARCH

A02/A0
3

EPSTEIN found that in societies with reduced mobility, non-voluntary (arranged) marriages seem to work well, with low divorce rates and surprisingly high levels of love between the partners.
MYERS ET AL. found no difference in marital satisfaction between Indian couples in arranged marriages and non-arranged marriages in the USA
XIAOHE & WHYTE - found that women who had married for love were happier than women who were in arranged marriages.
EVOLUNTIONARY EXPLANATIONS FOR UNIVERSAL LOVE (IDA) PINKER claims romantic love is a human universal that evolved to promote survival and reproduction among humans. JANKOWIAK & FISHER support this
claim with their finding that romantic love existed in 90% of the 166 non-Western cultures they studied.
SHAVER, WU & SCHWARTZ 1991 - Studied the cultural differences in attitudes towards romantic love. They found that in China, romantic love is associated with sorrow, pain and unfulfilled affection.
In the eyes of Chinese people, the western view that marriage should be based on romantic love is unrealistically optimistic.
LEVINE 1995 - Found a correlation between a cultures individualism and the perceived necessity of love for the establishment of marriage.
In other words, the more individualistic the country, the more important love was perceived. These results may be due to the fact that arranged marriages are more common in collectivist cultures and so love is seen as less
important than social status or family compatibility.
VENKATARAMAIAH & SRINIVASULU 1992 - Compared preferences for arranged or love marriage in female Indian students from professional and non-professional backgrounds Both groups were happy with the idea of
arranged marriages if the couples were giving their consent and or the parents approved of the choice. This shows the importance placed on the approval of the family in India which is a collectivist culture.
GUPTA & SINGH - They investigated the amount of love in Indian marriages, half of which had been arranged, comparing these feelings in short term and long term marriages. They found that initially love in arranged
marriages was lower than that in love marriages. However, love increased in arranged marriages and steadily declined in love marriages until marriages which had been together for ten years. After this, there was no
difference in levels of love.
Much of cross cultural research is time-sensitive.
SOCIAL CHANGE - Social changes such as the internet mentioned may be having a great effect on people, allowing individuals to be exposed to other ways of life, leading to cross cultural contamination.
OUTDATED - Research carried out 20 years ago may already be out of date. Even within our own western culture, attitudes towards sex, sexuality and relationships have altered drastically within the last few decades.
INDIVIDUALIST/COLELCTIVIST - A lot of cross cultural research has focused on the differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures. However it has been argued that such a distinction is artificial, and that some
cultures can have elements of both. In so called individualistic cultures for example, there can still be social pressure which influences choice of marriage partner.