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Chapter 1

Condenser Performance

Condenser Performance In Power Plants.


Table of content
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................2
Deaeration....................................................................................................................................5
HOT WELL.................................................................................................................................7
Cleanliness factor.......................................................................................................................12
Condenser Water Circulation Systems.......................................................................................14
The operating-point diagram for the pumping system..............................................................15
The energy-gradient curves for the circulating-water system...................................................16
Analyzing the pump operating points........................................................................................17
Choosing the type of intake structure and trash rack to use......................................................18

Table of Figures
Figure 1.1 Equipment arrangement, schematic...........................................................................2
Figure 1.2 One-pass rectangular surface condenser...................................................................5
Figure 1.3 Average inlet temperature of circulating water, F, United States.............................7
Figure 1.4.a- One throughcirculating water system discharges warm water from the condenser
directly to river or sea . fig 1.4.b - Recirculating water system reuses water after it passws
through cooling tower stationary Screen.................................................................................10
Figure 1.5 Operating Point Diagram shows the correct operating range of the circulating water
Pump..........................................................................................................................................13
Figure 1.6 Energy Gradiant Diagram shows the actual system values and valuable in system
design and operation..................................................................................................................15
Figure 1.7 Intake Structure has trash rack , traveling screen , pumps, and crane for dependable
operation of the circulating water System .............................................................................16

List of Table
Table 1.1 Steam Flow to Condensers*.........................................................................................7
Table 1.2 Normal Condenser Pressures and Circulating-Water Temperatures...........................8
Table 1.3 Pressure-Temperature Conversion Table for Water....................................................9
Table 1.4 Typical Small Condenser Proportions.......................................................................10

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INTRODUCTION
The functions of the condenser are to:
(a)

provide the lowest economic heat rejection temperature for the steam cycle; and

(b)

convert the exhaust steam to water for re-use in the cycle.

The associated cooling plant maintains a supply of cooling medium to extract the necessary heat for
these functions. The field cycle which attempted to pressurise exhaust steam without first
condensing it was not an economic proposition. The condensing plant is, therefore, still an
integral part of the cycle and is likely to remain so unless a method is adopted of utilising the 'low.
grade' heat that is rejected to waste. District heating and sea water distillation plant are possible
substitutes for the condenser.
It follows that the main problem in condenser design is to achieve conditions which will ensure
that only the unusable heat in the steam at the turbine exhaust is rejected. Any deviation from
these conditions will cause a decline in efficiency and a very small departure from the optimum
back-pressure can, if continuous, add thousands of pounds to the annual cost of running a
machine.
Modern condensers are generally of the surface type operating under vacuum. There are limits to
the vacuum which can be economically employed, since the volume of each pound of steam
increases rapidly with decrease in pressure. For a given size of l.p. cylinder, the velocity of the
steam leaving the last row of blades can be such that the loss due to kinetic energy in the exhaust
steam ('leaving loss') outweighs the gain from improved vacuum. Within the limits of 'leaving loss'
the vacuum should be as high as possible, but in practice it is dictated by the size of the
condenser, cooling plant, cooling towers, pumps, culverts, screens, etc. A point would be reached
when the efficiency advantage of better vacuum would be outweighed by the increased cost of the
cooling plant. This is an example of the 'law of diminishing returns'.In addition to its main
functions the condenser is a suitable point at which to reintroduce into the feedwater line, drains
from the turbine feedheating and other auxiliary plant and also any boiler feedwater make up
which may be required. If used in conjunction with a 'once through' boiler the condenser must be
capable of accepting steam direct' from the steam raising unit. On start-up this steam may be of a
low quality that is unsuitable for use in the turbine. When steam is passed direct to the condenser
it is referred to as 'steam dumping'.
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We will cover some points like a description of the construction of condensers and a discussion
of the thermal design and various design considerations. Air extraction equipment is necessary to
remove the air and incondensable gases from the steam space in the condenser and the
considerations governing its design are dealt with. The possibility and effect of leakages of air
and cooling water into the steam space are also discussed.

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The objectives of condenser design can be summarised as: to condense the exhaust steam
while providing
(a)the lowest economic heat sink temperature;
(b)minimum undercooling of the condensate;
(c)minimum pressure drop on the steam side;
(d)effective removal of incondensables in the steam, and air from leakages;
(e)effective deaeration of condensate;
(f) effective prevention of water leakages;
all these objectives to be qualified by the following practical considerations:
(i) Economy of overall size, i.e. surface.
(ii) Economy of space usage for a given size while still allowing good steam flow, small
pressure drops, etc.
(iii) Economy of cooling water pumping power.
(iv) Ease of maintenance and construction.

Figure 1.1 Equipment arrangement, schematic.

An economical turbine back pressure is from 1.0 to 3.5 in Hg abs. The factors involved in
establishing this pressure are involved and will not be discussed here. An equipment diagram
of a closed power plant cycle is shown in Fig. 1.1 , For a condenser to deaerate the condensate,
it must remove oxygen and other noncondensable gases to an acceptable level compatible with
material selection and/or chemical treatment of the feedwater (condensate). Depending on

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materials and treatment, the dissolved O2 level must normally be kept below 0.005 cm 3/L for
turbine units operating with high-pressure and - temperature steam.
Deaeration
Deaeration in a condenser is accomplished by applying Henrys law, which states that the
concentration of the dissolved gas in a solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure
of that gas in the free space above the condensate level in the hot well, with the exception of
those gases (e.g., CO2 + NH3) which unite chemically with the solvent. In a condenser droplets
of condensate are continually scrubbed with steam, liberating the O2 and permitting it to flow
to the low-pressure air-removal section, where it is discharged to the atmosphere by the
airremoval equipment.
To remove the last traces of O2 from the condensate, an ammonia compound such as hydrazine
is normally added. Free ammonia is liberated in the cycle and is either removed with the
noncondensables as a gas or is condensed and retained in the condensate, depending on the
detailed design of the condenser air-removal section. If the ammonia is concentrated as a
liquid, it can be very corrosive to certain copper-base materials.
Most condenser manufacturers have tube-bundle configurations unique to their design
philosophy. Basically, pressure losses from turbine exhaust to the air offtake are kept to a
minimum and tubes are arranged to promote good heat-transfer rates. Small condensers are
usually cylindrical, whereas large ones are rectangular for better utilization of space. Most
turbines exhaust downward into the condenser, but condensers are also built to accommodate
side as well as axial exhaust turbines.
Because of the inherent strength of cylindrical shapes as opposed to flat plates, condenser
water boxes are generally made with curved surfaces. This has come about because of the
increased pressure resulting from cooling towers, which in turn, are the result of
environmental influences. With a cooling tower, pressures are in the 60 to 80 lb/in 2 range,
whereas with water from lakes, rivers, etc., where a siphon system can be employed, waterbox design pressures are in the 20 to 30 lb/in 2 range. As a general rule, tube selection is based
on economics; 18 BWG (Birmingham wire gage : A system of standard sizes of brass wire,
telegraph wire, steel tubing, seamless tubing, sheet spring steel, strip steel, and steel plates, bands,
and hoops. Ab- breviated BWG.)

admiralty metal has been satisfactory for freshwater service and

90-10 copper-nickel material likewise for seawater. The current trend is to use 22 BWG
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titanium or one of the new specially formulated stainless-steel tube materials for this
application.
Titanium has found favor as condenser tubing material. Its long life offsets the higher initial
cost.Titanium in alloyed form suffers from reduced corrosion resistance and weldability but
generally exhibits higher tensile strength when compared to the unalloyed form. Material
prices fluctuate greatly, and selection can be influenced by first cost. Lost revenue due to
downtime caused by tube leaks or other causes, particularly in larger units, can usually justify
the use of more exotic and expensive materials.
Low-pressure feedwater heaters are frequently located in the steam inlet neck of a condenser.
This is done to minimize pressure drop in the extraction steam piping and to utilize floor space
surrounding the condenser better.
A sufficient number of tube supports must be provided within the condenser so that the tubes
will not vibrate excessively, which will cause tubes to rub or crack circumferentially. During
low-water temperature operation, the steam entering the condenser will often reach sonic
velocities, causing severe flow-induced vibration and ultimate tube failures if the tube support
system is inadaquate.
Where nuclear steam generators are used, it is imperative to dispose of large quantities of
steam during starting and stopping of a turbine unit. The condenser, because of its large
volume, has been used as a convenient dumping place for this steam. Means must be provided
within the condenser to accommodate the highenergy steam without damage to condenser
tubing, structural members, or the low-pressure end of the turbine.
Movement due to temperature differences between turbine and condenser is usually
accommodated by a stainless-steel bellow or rubber-belt-type expansion joint. For small units
the condenser may be supported on springs and rigidly connected to the turbine.
To accommodate differential expansion between condenser shell and tubes, a flexible
diaphragm or other expansion element may be installed.
The tube-to-tube sheet joint is usually rolled but has been welded in certain installations.
Proper material selection must be made regardless of whether the joint is rolled or welded.
Currently, considerable emphasisis placed on inward leakage of circulating water into the
condenser steam space.

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Double tube sheets have been supplied for some large central-station condensers for nuclear
units. They are standard in the Navys nuclear-powered ships and submarines to minimize this
source of contamination.
Condensers for some large turbine units having two or three low pressure ends are designed
for multipressure application. Usually there will be a gain, in the form of either heat-rate
improvement or a reduction in capital investment, with a multipressure condenser. A rather
complex analysis must be made for each application before a decision can be made.
Hot Well
To make sure that inlet water to condensate pump liquide we must care about NPSH ( Net
Positive Suction Head) , so saturation should be Subcooled by minimum 2 to 3 C to avoid
Cavitation at suction line for Condensate Pump but it is not economic to decrease temperature
less than satuation more than 2 to 3 C beacuse this will increase Cooling Temperature , which
Increas Condensate temperature , which increase saturation temperature , which increase
Saturation pressure , which reduce Cycle efficency .
As per self Explentry Supose the Condenser base Diamention ( L=20 mt , Width = 10 mt ) ,
and Condensate Volume 5 m , so the Water Level inside shell side will be = 5/200 = 2.5 Cm
Not enought NPSH ( Net Positive Suction Head) for Condensate Pump. So , HotWell is
required to avoid condensate water Head for suction pump.
Size of Hot Well = 120 sec of Steam Flow.
Ex : plant produce steam 600 ton / hour , at condensation we have 600 m/hour water flow =10
m/min , =20m/120 sec=20 m/2min
So the Volume of Hot Well = 20 m.
Ratio Between Cooling and Condensed water
msteam x h = mCw x Cp T cw
h =hi ho
ho : condensated water enthalpy

Cp T ( 4.18* 30 C)= 125 kJ/kg

hi 2125 kJ/kg

So if we have 1000 ton steam /hour ,approxmitly we need 50 000 ton


cooling water / hour , this as per raising cooling temperature 10 C only (vary from 7 C at

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summer to 12 C at winter), so now if we thinking to reduce cooling temperature to reduce


condensate temperature and reduce P sat to increase the efficiency at that time we loose to
much power for control Cooling temperature .
Cooling water Pump , we prefer to use three pumps , each working capacity 50 % (2Duty + 1
Stand by), this will be economical at part load .
The effect of increasing Velocity inside tube
Ex : if we increase V to 2 V , where V : Velocity in side tubes.
If V 1 = 1.5 m/sec
it will be V2 = 3 m/sec.
So h (coefficient of heat transfer ) will increase from h 1 = 1 to h 2 = 1.4 kJ/kg
But h (pressure Drop) = Fn(V)
h 1= V
h 2 = 4 V
We can notice that pressure Drop Inceasing by 3 times if i duplicate the cooling speed , so we
want to reach to economical speed inside condenser for operation.

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Figure 1.2 One-pass rectangular surface condenser.

Notaion
S = condenser tube surface area, ft2
Cc = cleanliness factor
C1 = heat-transfer-rate constant
Cm = material and gage factor
Ct = temperature correction factor
Cp = specific heat, Btu/lb, F
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G = circulating-water quantity, gal/min


h = enthalpy, Btu/lb
hr = heat rejected by steam, Btu/lb
L = length of water travel, ft
NPSH = net positive suction head, ft
OD = tube outside diameter, in
Q = heat transferred, Btu/h
R = temperature rise (to - ti), F
TDH = total dynamic head, ft
t = tube thickness, in
TTD = terminal temperature difference = ts - to
ti = inlet-water temperature, F
to = outlet-water temperature, F
ts = saturation temperature in condenser, F
Uo = overall heat-transfer rate, Btu/(ft2 . h . F)
V = water velocity, ft/s
Ws = steam to be condensed, lb/h
tm = log arithmic mean temperature difference, F
In sizing a condenser, the steam flow and heat rejected to the condenser are obtained from the
turbine heat balance. Table 1.1

gives representative steam flows; heat rejected to the

condenser is approximately 950 Btu/lb of steam for nonreheat turbines and 975 Btu/lb for
reheat machines. local water temperature should be used, when known. The number of passes
is usually dictated by the plant arrangement, with total length of water travel and tube diameter
dictated by economic considerations. Normally, small-diameter tubes, single-pass condensers
are used where water is plentiful, and larger-diameter tubes, two-pass condensers when water
is scarce. The vacuum, or back pressure, is determined by economic evaluation, but Table 1.2
gives normal recommended values for average water temperatures. Table 1.3 is a pressuretemperature conversion table.

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Table 1.1 Steam Flow to Condensers*

Table 1.2 Normal Condenser Pressures and Circulating-Water Temperatures

Cleanliness factor
A cleanliness factor is applied to the heat-transfer rate of new, clean tubes to allow for gradual
decrease by fouling. To clean the inside surfaces of the tubes, it is necessary to force brushes
or plugs through them individually by the use of water or air jets. To do this, the affected
portion of the condenser must be shut down. As an alternative, recirculating sponge rubber ball
or brush systems are available that can be used during normal operation.
To remove scale formations, sponge rubber balls with abrasive coatings are effective, but their
continued use will shorten tube life.
Major factor in condenser performance is tube cleanliness. Tubes can be plugged with leaves,
marine life, and other debris deposited on the face of the tube sheets. By valving, various
arrangements for back washing, or flushing, are effected to remove these materials.
A standarized cleanliness factor of 85 percent is frequently used, but this can often be
misleading and even erroneous. The fouling is attributable to (1) sedimentation, (2) scaling,
(3) steam-side deposits, (4) corrosion, and (5) biological growth. The fouling is correctly

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determined by use; in some cases the cleanliness factor may be 90 percent, whereas in other
cases it may never rise above 75 percent.
Velocities normally used are: for clean water, 7.0 ft/s; for very clean water with cooling
towers, 8.0 ft/s; and for seawater, with entrained sand, as low as 6.0 ft/s to minimize erosion.
Prevalent velocities are 6.5 ft/s with aluminum-brass tubes, 7.0 ft/s with admiralty metal, and 8
+ ft/s with stainless steel or titanium. Water-temperature rise is about 10 F for single-pass
condensers and 15 F for two-pass condensers, with a minimum 5

terminal temperature

difference (TTD).
Approximate general rules for condensers serving turbines rated up to 100 MW. The surface
area, ft2, is equal to the steam flow, lb/h, divided by 10 for single-pass condensers and by 7.5
for two-pass condensers.
Circulating-water quantity, gal/min, is equal to the area, ft 2, for a two pass condenser and is
twice the area for a single-pass condenser. Condenser proportions are given in Table.1.4.
Empty weight of an installed condenser is 5 to 6 lb/ft2 of surface.

Table 1.3 Pressure-Temperature Conversion Table for Water

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Table 1.1 Typical Small Condenser Proportions

Condenser Water Circulation Systems


Choosing the type of circulating-water system to use
There are two basic types of circulating-water systems used in steam power plants today , the
Once-through systems, Fig.1.4 a, and the Recirculating-water system, Fig.1.4 b. Each has
advantages and disadvantages.

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Figure 1.4 a- One throughcirculating water system discharges warm water from the condenser directly to
river or sea . Figure 1.4.b - Recirculating water system reuses water after it passws through cooling tower
stationary Screen

In the Once-through system, the condenser circulating water is drawn from a nearby river or
sea, pumped by circulating-water pumps at the intake structure through a pipeline to the
condenser. Exiting the condenser, the water returns to the river or sea.
Advantages of a Once-through system include:
1- Simple piping arrangement.
2- lower cost where the piping runs are short.
3- Simplicity of operationthe cooling water enters, then leaves the system.
Disadvantages of Once-through systems include:
1- possibility of thermal pollutioni.e., temperature increase of the river or sea into
which the warm cooling water is discharged.
2- loss of cooling capacity in the event of river or sea level decrease during droughts.
3- trash accumulation at the inlet, reducing water flow, during periods of river or sea
pollution by external sources.

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In Recirculating systems use small amounts of water from the river or sea, once the system has
been charged with water. Condenser circulating water is reused in this system after passing
through one or more cooling towers. Thus, the only water taken from the river or sea is that
needed for makeup of evaporation and splash losses in the cooling tower,the only water
discharged to the river or sea is the cooling-tower blowdown.
Advantages of the recirculating-water system include:1- low water usage from the river or sea.
2- little or no thermal pollution of the supply water source because the cooling-tower
blowdown is minimal.
3- remote chance of the need for service reductions during drought seasons.
Disadvantages of recirculating systems include:1- possible higher cost of the cooling tower(s) compared to the discharge piping in the oncethrough system.
2- greater operating complexity of the cooling tower(s), their fans, motors, pumps, etc.
3- increased maintenance requirements of the cooling towers and their auxiliaries.
The final choice of the type of cooling system to use is based on an economic study which
factors in the reliability of the system along with its cost. For the purposes of this procedure,
we will assume that a Once-through system with an intake length of 4500 ft (1372 m) and a
discharge length of 4800 ft (1463 m) is chosen. The supply water level (a river in this case)
can vary between +5 ft (1.5m) and +45 ft (13. 7 m).
The operating-point diagram for the pumping system
The maximum cooling-water flow rate required, based on full-load steam flow through the
turbine-generator, is 314,000 gpm (19,813 L/ s). Intermediate flow rates of 283,000 gpm
(17,857 L/ s) and 206,000 gpm (12,999 L/ s) for partial loads are also required.
To provide for safe 24-hour, 7-day-per-week operation of a circulating-water system, plant
designers choose a minimum of two water pumps. As further safety step, a third pump is
usually also chosen. That will be done for this plant.
Obtaining the pump characteristic curve from the pump manufacturer, we plot the operatingpoint diagram, Fig.1.5 , for one-pump, two-pumps , and three-pump operation against the
system characteristic curve for river (weir) levels of +5 ft (1.5 m) and +45 ft (13.7 m). We also
plot on the operating-point diagram the seal-well

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weir curve. The operating-point diagram is a valuable tool for both plant designers and
operators because it shows the correct operating range of the circulating-water pumps. Proper
use of the diagram can extend pump reliability and operating life.
The energy-gradient curves for the circulating-water system
Using the head and flow data already calculated and assembled, plot the energy gradient
curve, Fig.1.6 , for several heads and flow rates. The energy-gradient curve, like the operatingpoint diagram, is valuable to both design engineers and plant operators. Practical experience
with a number of actual circulating-water installations shows that early, and excessive,
circulating-pump wear can be traced to the absence of an operating-point diagram and an
energy-gradient curve, or to the lack of use of both these important plots by plant operating
personnel.
In the once-through circulating-water system being considered here, the total conduit (pipe)
length is 4500 +4800 = 9300 ft (2835 m), or 1.76 mi (2.9 km).
This conduit length is not unusual , some plants may have double this length of run. Such
lengths, however, are much longer than those met in routine interior plant design where 100 ft
(30.5 m) are the norm for long pipe runs. Because of the extremely long piping runs that
might be met in circulating-water system design, the engineer must exercise extreme caution
during system design checking and double-checking all design assumptions and calculations.

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Figure 1.5 Operating Point Diagram shows the correct operating range of the circulating water Pump

Analyzing the pump operating points


Using the operating-point diagram and the energy-gradient curves, plot the intersection of the
system curves for each intake water level vs. The characteristic curves for the number of
pumps operating, Fig.1.6 . Thus, we see that with one pump operating, the circulating-water
flow is 120,000 gpm (7572 L/ s) at 48.2 ft (14.7 m) total dynamic head. With a weir level of +
5 ft (1.5 m), and two pumps operating, the flow is 206,000 gpm (12,999 L/ s) at 79 ft (24.1 m)
total dynamic head. When three pumps are used at the +5 ft (1.5 m) level, the flow is 225,000
gpm (14,198 L/ s) at 79 ft (24.1m) total dynamic head.

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With a weir level of +5 ft (1.5 m), and two pumps operating, the flow is 206,000 gpm (12,999
L/ s) at 79 ft (24.1 m) total dynamic head. When three pumps areused at the 5-ft (1.5 m) level,
the flow is 225,000 gpm (14,198 L/ s) at 79 ft (24.1 m) total dynamic head.
Using the sets of curves mentioned here you can easily get a complete picture of the design
and operating challenges faced in this, and similar, plants. The various aspects of this are
discussed under Related Calculations, below.
Choosing the type of intake structure and trash rack to use.
Every intake structure must provide room for the following components: (a) circulating- water
or makeup-water pumps; (b) trash racks; (c) trash-removal screenseither fixed or traveling;
(c) crane for handling pump removal or installation; (d) screen wash pump; (e) access ladders
and platforms.
A typical intake structure having these components is shown in Fig.1.7. This structure will be
chosen for this installation because it meets the requirements of the design.
Trash-rack problems are among the most common in circulating-water systems and often
involve unmanageable weed entanglements, rather than general debris.
The type of trash rack and rack-cleaning facilities used almost exclusively in the United States
and many international plants, is shown in Fig.1.7. Usually, the trash rack is inclined and bars
are spaced at about 3-in (76.2-mm). The trash rake may be mechanical or manual. The two
usual rake designs are the unguided rake, which rides on the trash bars, and the guided rake,
which runs in guides on the two sides of the water channel. If the trash bars are vertical, the
guided rake is almost a necessity to keep the rake on the bars. But neither solves all the
problems.
If seaweed or grass loads are particularly severe, alternative trash rakes, such as the catenary
or other moving-belt rakes, should be considered. These are rarely put into original domestic
installations. There are many other alternative types of trash racks and rakes in use throughout
the world that are successful in handling heavy Loads , Log booms, skimmer walls, channel
modifications, and specialized raking equipment can sometimes alleviate raking problems.
Traveling screens follow the trash racks. These usually are of the vertical flowthrough type.
European practice uses alternative screens, such as center-flow, dualflow, and drum screens.
Traveling screens may be one- or two-speed. Most twospeed screens operate in the range of 3
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to 12 fpm (0.9 to 3.7 m/min) but speeds as high as 30 fpm (9.1 m/min) have been used. Wear
is much greater at higher speeds.

Figure 1.6 Energy Gradiant Diagram shows the actual system values and valuable in system design and
operation

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Figure 1.7 Intake Structure has trash rack , traveling screen , pumps, and crane for dependable operation
of the circulating water System .

Depending on the type of piping used in the circulating-water system - concrete or steel - some
form of cathodic protection may be needed, in addition to the trash racks and rakes. Cathodic
protection is needed primarily when steel pipe is used for the circulating water system.
Concrete pipe does not, in general, require such protection. Since the piping in once-through
systems can be 10 to 12 ft ( 3 to 3.7 m) in diameter, use of the cathodic protection is an
important step in protecting an expensive investment. Cathodic protection methods are
discussed Later.
Related Calculations. Designing a condenser circulating-water system can be a complex task
when the water supply is undependable. With a fixed-level supply, the design procedure is
simpler. The above procedure covers the main steps in such designs. Head loss, pipe size, and
other considerations are covered in detail in separate procedures later.

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Construction of the operating-point diagram and the energy-gradient chart are important steps
in the system design. Further, these two plots are valuable to operating personnel because they
give the design assumptions for the system. When pressures or flow rates change, the operator
will know that the system requires inspection to pinpoint the cause of the change.
The design procedure given here can be used for other circulating-water applications, such as
those for refrigeration condensers, air-conditioning systems, internal-combustion-engine
plants, etc.
Data given here are the work of R. T. Richards, Burns & Roe Inc., as reported in Power
magazine. SI values

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