CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE EDUCATION

Series Editoc Jack C. Riclnrds' ',

In

this series:
Agendas for Second Language Literacy by Sandra Lee McKay

Reflecdv Teaching in Second Language Classrooms !y,/ec& C.

Nchatds d Charles Loc*lurt

Educrtirg

Second Language Chtldreh: The Whote Chitd, the Whote

Curriculum, the Whole Commurity edited by Fred Genesee

Understanding Communication in Second Language Classmoms

English Language
Teaching Materials:
Theory and Practice

,,

Ka,ren E, Johnsor

:'

The Self-Directed Teachers Matraging the Learntug Pmcess

Nunat and Clorice Lamb

6.y

Davrd

Functional English Grammar: An Introduction for Second Latrguage

Edited by

Nigel Harwood
University ofEssex

Pr?+tiees by Jeny G. Gebhad aad Robert Opandy

Vocabul.ry iE Lrnguage Teachitrg ,), Norbert Schmitt

Curriculum De\dopuent

ir

Language Tf5lching by Jack C. Richards

Teachers' Narrative Inquiry as ProfessionrlDevelopment by Karcn E.

Johttsor @d Paula R Golonbek

A Practicum in TESOL by Gmhan Crookes

Second Laaguage Listening: Theory &rd
and Lindsay Miller

Pr*tice

by

John plowedew

I{ofesdonrl Development for Language Teachers: Strates for

Teacher Learnirg ,,, Jack C. Richards and Thomas S. C- Fartell
Seeond Language

Writing

Cooperative Learnirg
C.

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by Ken

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and- Second Langv geTeachingedited by Steeen

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PART
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Issues in materials development and

Nigel Harwood

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States

Libmrr ofcoaer.* Ca.aloging

aloilablefon

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bbrary.

in Pubticaao, data

E gli$h languagc lcs6hin8 matedals : thory and pracric. / editcd by

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tsBN 978+52_t-12 t58-t ()bk)
l. EngiLhledguagc- Study and teaching- Foreigo speakE L Ha$oo4

I[fida

PERSPECTIVES ON MATERIALS

The theory alld practice oftechnology io tnaterials

development ard task desigE 58
Hayo Reinde/s dnd Cynthia White

Prirciples ofeffective materials development 81

Brian Tomlhson

Critical praxis as materials delelopmeqt RespoEding to

military recruitrtrent on aU.S. campus 109
Sarah Benesch

IIl. S.des.

PART

2010

42A./4-e22

ISBN 9?&G521-198561
ISBN 978-0-521-12158-3

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A catalo tzcotdtor this publicdtion is

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materials 33

Fir.t pDblished 2010

Nigel.

design

Second language acquisition research and language-teaching

Rod

?riotcd in d|e Unitd

INTRODUCTION

colyright

Subjecl to sairtcry cxc.ptiol

and lo thc prwisions of rclel/aot collectivE liccnsing agr.cnEflts,
no reproduetioo ofary pan may take plac without the writien
perrnissioa of Cambridec Universiry Pnss,
is in

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MATERIALS FOR THE LANGUAGE SYLLABUS

20I0000132
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accuoc, ofuRls for xte$al or third-p&ty Intamet Web sites referrcd to ir
this publication and (bes not guamnlee tiat atry contcnt on $ch Wb sits is,
or will rEmriq aeurate or appropiiala

A principled approach to conle[t-based malerials deyelopment

forreading l3l
Norman

W!

Evdns, K. Jdntes

Ha/tshory and Neil

J. Andetson

A genre-bascd approach to developiw materials for

Christapher Tribble

writing

157

vi Confents

Listenirg

as prccess:

Leaming activities fur self-appraisal

andsetf-regulation 179

Contributors

Chrbrtne Goh

9
10

Materials to develop the speaking

Rebecca Hughes

skil

207

Developing outerials for discipline-specific vocabulary and

phrases ia academic seminars 225
Martha Jones and Norbert Schmin

PART

Ll

D:

MAIERIALS FOR SPECIFIC AND ACADEMIC PURPOSES

Materials for univqsity essay

xri.ing

251

Martin Hewings

12 Writiqg

for publicatiofi Corpus-iaformed materials for

postdocioral fellows itr perimtology 279
Chtistine B. Feak and John M. Swqles

13

Research-based materials to dmystiry acaderdc citation

forposqraduate! 301
Nigel

llarwood

14 Making Fofessional

academic

writirg practices visible:

Da6igdng resoarch-basd heurisrics to suppot

English-mediumtextproduction 322
Mary Jane Curry and Theresa Lillis

15
16

Eoglish for nursing: Developing discipline-specific

Susan Bosher

materials 346

Using textbook and rEal-liJb data to teach tum takiog

in business meetings 373
Jo Angouri

17

Desigoi4g materials for commrity-based adutt ESL programs 395

Coi Jafubiak dnd Linda Hotklaa

Authorindex 419
Subject index 428

Neil J. Anderson, Bdgham Young University, USA

Jo Argouri, University ofthe West ofEtrglaD4 UK
Samh Benesch, City University ofNew Yorlg USA
Susan Bosher, St. Catherine University, USA
Mary Jane Curry, University of Rochestef USA
Rod Etlis, Univesity of Aucklan4 New Zealand
Norman W. Evans, Brigham Young University, USA
Cbdstine B- Feak, Ijnive6ity of Michigan, USA
Christine Gob, Natio,nal Institute ofEducatioq Singapore
Linda llarklau, University of Georgia, USA
K. James Hartshom, Briglam Young University, UsA
Nigel llarwood" Univenity ofEssex, UK
Manin Hewings, Univelsity of Birmingham, UK
Rebecca Hughes, University ofNottingh"m, lrK
Cori Jakubialq University ofceorgi4 USA
Martha Jones, University of Nottingham, UK.
Theresa Lillis, Open Univenity, UK
Hayo Reinden, Middlesex University,

UK

Norbert Schmiq University of Nottingham, UK

John M. Snales, UDiversity of Michigan, USA
Brian Tomlinson, keds Metropolitan Unitsrsity, UK
Chrislopher Tdbble, Univffsity ofLondoq t K
Cynthia White, Massey University, New Zealand

Critical praxis as mateiials

development : Responding to
military recruitment on a
U.S. campus
Sarah Benesch

Summary
This chapter explores the influence of critical theory on materials development, focusing on situatedness, dialogue, praxb, hope, a\d refexdt!.
These theoretical constructs are exemplified through a discussion of classroom materials and activities developed in response to a particular
sociopolitical cootext military recruitment on a U,S. college campus. To
demonstrate the dialogic charactr ofcdtical teaching, students' responses
to tlle materials and subsequent modification ofprar.r are examined. The
chapter also raiss questions about balancing materials that challenge the
status quo with ones ttrat support it so that students may engage witi a range
ofpositions. In addition, questions about appropriateness artd effectiveness
of critical materials are taken up: Which ones beloug in the classroorn,
and which are more suitable for public posting, such as on all offce door?
Those inquiries demonstmte the reflexivity demanded of critical teachers
who must simultaneously present a riety of views, in the interest of
hope arrd. possibilities, while avoiding imposition of any particular ones.
This self-questioning stance acknowledges the limitations ofclassrooms as
arenas ofsocial change while encouraging hope for abelter world.

lntroduction
:r Itr 1995, Congress passed the first Solomon Amendment, derrying schools that

barred military rcoruiters from cahpus any fiinds flom the Department ofDefense.
: I The next year, Congrcss extelded the lawt reach to include ftnds from the
Depatmeds of E(fucatiorl Labor, and Health & Humao Services... .IrI 2005,
r, Coagress amended the law to explicitly state that military recruiters must be given
equal access to that prcvided other requiters. (wwwlaw.geo.getown.edu/solorEoD/
r: solomon.hhal)

109

Critical praxis as materials development 111

110 Sarah Benesch

For Spccialist James Garrovillas, edisting in the Army mca more thanjustjoining thc military. It meant joining the United St8tcs... . Specialist GErrovillas is
among 20,000 military servicc mombers who have become American citizcns sinca
July 2002, m,lny ofwhom applied ullder a fast-hack ploc$s approved by President
Bush, . , , The new citizcnship laws have offered a po\4erful iool to requiters at a
time when the military is strugglilg to meet its monthly enlistsnent quotas.
lNela, York nmes, Arg, 9, 2005; A I l)
Thc Army NatiorBl Guanq which h.s Euffcrcd a Ecveto thrco-year lecruiting slump,
hss bogun !o rcal in soldiers in record numbers, sidcd in part by a rcw initiative
that pays Guard memberi $2,000 for each person they onlist.
(lfas hihgtot Post, Mar, 12, 2006; A0 l)

The activities and materials described in this chapter are grounded in a

particular sociopolitical cortext: attempts by the U.S. armed forces to enlist
new recruits in the faoe of growing opposition to the U.S. occupation oflraq.
Given the pubtic's disenchantrnent witlr tlte war, va ous recruitnent tools

were dweloped, illustrated by the quotes above. Signing bonuses, fasthack citizenship,r and the Solomon Amendmsnt - legislation requiring
high schools and colleges to permit military rcquiters on their campuses aimed to bolster enlistrnent. viewed together, these recruitment tools point
to the taryeting of high school and college students, including immigrant
youth, as potetrtial recruits.
Also part ofthe context is the publicly funded postsecondary institution
in New York City wherc I teach. Military recluite$ maintained a consistent presence during the 2004-2006 period and approached studcnts on a
regular basis. Given my position as a teacher of imnigrants at this institution I, too, am part ofthis context. As a critical teachor, with atr interest in
power, inequality, and rcsistance, 1 choose to address militaly recruitment in
my ESL classes. The students are immigrants of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds (Chinese, Korean, Pakistani, Egyptian, Albaniaq Polish,
Russian, Sri Lankan, Nigerian, among others), the vast majority ofwhom

On July 3, 2002, Georye Bush signed Executive Order I 3269 declaring lhal'Those
persons serving honorably in active{uty $tatus in the Armed Foroes of thc Unitcd
States, during the pefod bgginning on September I I , 200 I , aod terrninatiry on th
date to be so designaterl are eligible for naturalizstion in accordance with the 6tatutory
exception to the natnalization requircoents- . . . For thc pupose ofdetotmining qual_
iffcatiofl for the oxception from the usual requiiernents for natutalizatioD, I designato

pcriod in which the Armed Forces ofthe United States uele engagd in arhed
conflict iviih a hostile foreign force thg period beginning on September 11, 2001.
Such period will be deemed to trminate on a date designated by future Executive
Order" (www.fas.org/irp/otrdocs/eo/eo- 3269,him).
as a

attended secondary and, in some cases, middle school in the United States.
Duc to their frnancial difrcultios, those shdents are vulnerable to military
recruitnent, with its promises ofjob haioing, money, and citizenship.
The materials described in this chapter ilclude those I used to intoduce the topic ofmilitary recruitment on U.S. college carnpuses to ar ESL
class. Students' respoDses to ttrc introductory matedals are also des*ibed
as coufire materials, to dcmonstrate how both the studcnts and I coltributed
to dialogic inquiry ofthe subject matter In addition, the pedagogical decisions I made in response to students' talk and writing are also regarded as
materials- That is, in critical pedagogies, teachers' ard students' responses
arejoint contributions to a mutually informing dialogue, with unpredictable
outcomes.

Theortical assumptions about language

and pedagogy in crltical applied linguistics
Oitical applied linguistics (CAL) has emerged over'ttre last 15 years as a
rcsponsc to the complexities of language use, learning, teaching, and kanslation in a globalizing world. Influenced by postmodem theories, critical
applied linguists address relationships between language and power, seeking to connect aspects ofapplied linguistics to bload social, cultural, and
political domains. In tleir research and teaching, critical applied linguists
examine and critique prevailing assumptions about language and language
use, moving fiom positivism, and viewing language as an autonomous
object, toward a socially constructed pamdigd (Reagan 2004). Theoretical
assumptions about language and pedagogy informing this ffitical paradigm
are discussed next.
Language as discourse(s)
The pedagogy and materials described in this chapter are grounded in
critical theory, based on the assumption that larguage is not simply a
biological instinct nor a neutral medium of communication, but, mther,
discourse(s) "embedded in social institutions and practices" @ennycook
1994: 32). The "social practice oflanguage use," according to Pennycoolq
"is always an act situated within some discouse" (p. 32). That is, there is
no language outside of discourse. Nor is discourse associated solely with
language. Rather, "ld]iscourses are ways of being in the world, or forms
of life which integrate words, acts, values, beliefs, attihrds, and social
identities, as well as gesh.fes, glances, body positions, and clothes" (Gee

112

Qritical praxis as materials development 119

Sa,"..h Benesch

1996: l2'l). Discourses signal membership in social groups and networks,

"people who associate with each other around a common set of interests,
goals, and activities" fu. 128).
Power is cenkal to the concept of discourses, an acknoy,,,ledgmeut of
hierarchical arEngemelts favoring some discourses and devaluing others
in social contexts. Power, as a theoretical tool, highlights the dominance of
certain discursive practices and the zubordination ofothers, in texts, institutions, and social interactions. Attending to power allows for an understanding of the "ordering and dominance relations between practices and
how people select ftom amongst a ilable practices on specific occasions"
(Fairclough 1995: 12). In other words, who is entitled to speak, to act, to
participa& in various contexts, and who is silenced and excluded?
Yet, language-as-discourse in critical applied linguistics does not conceptualize power as indomitable, but instead theorizes agency, the Foucauldian
notion ofresistance to power, Rather than viewing powff as deterministic
and all-encompassing, Foucault (1980) theorized the interylay ofpower and
resistarce, that is, humans actively engaging in the mechanisms of power
nther than surcndering to thefu conrol. Power "signifies a level ofcoDflict
a d struggle thatplays itselfout around the exchange ofdiscourse" (Giroux
1997: 121). On the other hand, acknowledgilg resistance to power does not
deny that humans are susceptible to regulation an4 when extemal reshictions have been intemalize4 self-regulation. Rather, language-as-discourse
conskucts the selfas "a terain ofconflict and struggle, and subjectivity . . . a
site ofboth liberation and subjugation" (Giroux 1997: 203).
The relationship between pou,er and resistance is examined by studying
*to call up for scrutiny, whethe! tkough embodied
discourses cdtically,
action or discourse practice, the rules of exchange wilhin a field:' (Luke
2004: 26). This critical stance requires dissociation ftom normative discursive practices, that is, Eays of walking, talkiog, gesturing, interacting
thinking, appearing, and so on, to enable analysis of the status quo. To
consider alternatives to the status quo requires "[o]thering ofthe selffrom
dominart text and discourse, . . a sense ofbeing beside oneselfor outside
oneself in another epistemological, discourse, and politicat space" (Luke
2004: 26). Self-othering in critical pedagogies is a process tfuough which
students can imagine better choices than the ones currently offered to them,
what Simon (1992) calted "possibilities" and Freir (1994, 1998q 1998b)
called "hope."

cu

:withouthope,forFreire,isaprocessofdespairandinaction.Distinguishing

::
'

"training" and "education" (Freire 1994: 9l ), he posits the former

as preparation for a predetermined i.rtue to which stude s must resign themselves.

Education, on the other hand, engages students in .,the problematization of
the future mther than its inexorability" (Freirc I 998a: 42). So, for example,
my choice of military recruiiment as a topic of study inyited students to
consider a range ofpossible responses to being approached by a recruiter,
from nlisting to resiriting.

Dialogue

, When concerns are raised about critical pedagogies, they often focus on
r

, the role ofthe critical teacher, seen as someone eager to

impose a political
agenda on students. Santos (1998), for example, expressed her belief that
"critical pedagogy. . . advocates and attempts to implement overt in-your-

face ideological activism inthe classmom" (p. 182). She promoteq instea4
"traditional teaching," claiming that it "prevents classrooms fiom becoming
bpen political training grounds and itudents from beirig used by their teachdrs for the purpose
mrrnose ofnnlitical
rrnsalwriziDo nh
/n I 9r\
ers
ofpoliticat proselytizing,
on rha
the lF+
left or
";-1,P, (p. lS2).
^" right,
I aim to show in this chapter that critical teschers can be scrupulous
about the dialogic nature oftheir praxis, avoiding undemocratic practices.
such as, "overt in-your-face ideological activism,' or .?olitical proselytizing." According to Freire (198b), in critical classrooms, studenh ..know
: that their teachers are continuously in rhe process
of acquiring new knowledgc and
that +Llthis new knowledge cannot simply be transferred to them,'
"-,1 1L.+
' 6/-(p. 33). Students are "engaged in a continuous hansfoffiEtion through
rr:r which they become authentic subjects ofthe construction ofwhat is being
: r taught, side by side with the teacher who is equally subject to the same

prooess" (p. 33).

:i,::

Hope

C tical

ent conditions ate acceptable to them or nol If coiditions are deemed

unacceptable, skategies for challenging the status quo may be developed.
That is, cdtical tsaching goes beyond a "languaBe of critique,' to promote
"a language ofpossibitity" (Giroux 1997: 122). Critique is ecessary for an
understanding of power relations, but it is insufrcient. Critique alone leads
to cynicism. A language ofpossibility offers hope and perhaps, strategies
for challenging the way things are.
Freiie theorizes hope as an "indispensable" aspect ofhuman life, without
which "we would have pure determinism" (Freire 1998b: 69). Education

As l show in my discussion of the materials, instead of proselytizin&

facilitated a dialogue about military recruihnert on college campuses
in which opinions seemed to be freely expressed and elaborated. In fact,

': ,I
teachers facilitate examination ofthe rolationship between power

and resistance in various disaourses so that students may determine whether

ffi.. proselytizing

F.

wuuld have been impossible because, rather than possessing a

Critical praxis as materials development 115

114 Samh Bonesch

fixed ideological position on the issue, I allowed my opinion to be informed
by the rich, multilayered clas$oom discussions. This is not to say that I had
no opiniofl atthe outset- Rather, I was initially opposed to military recruiters
on college campuses, wanting to shield students from their intimidating
presence. However, as shdents expressed and elaboratcd their responses to
the issue, my views changed. I was convinced by their arguments that the
presence ofreoruiters could provoke students to formulate various rcsponses
to these replesentativs ofthe military from approval to opposition, leading
to opon disoussion and informed decision making, both in and outsidc of
class. Had I bad a ffxed position on the issue before the disoussions began,
such a modification in my thinking would have been impossible.

beyond the safe and comfortable telraill of abstract ideas, definitions, ard
testable fact(oid)s. However, the topics and materials are not pulled from
a list ofteacher irterests, but are, instea4 situated in students' lives' Thus,
military recruitment, as an increasingly widesprcad phenomenon on U.S.
collcge campuses, was an aspect of studcnts' expedence that they may not
have been equipped to respond to and was iherefore an imPortant area to
explore

tically.

RefleiNW
Cdtical teachers must be sensitive to the demands of self-othering, of anathe status quo. Students who are unaocustom6d to positioning themselves outside of normative discourses can 6nd the process challenging
They may rcsist critical scrutiny because it seems to threaten their routine ways of thinking and behaving, Houever, resistance on the part of
some students does not require abandoning critical \[ork (Benesch 2001,
2006). Furthermore, there may be other students who have alrcady adopted
a critical stance to social norms, but from a cynical perspective leading to
alienation and hopelessness, These varied reactions point to tho need for
cdtical teachers to tread lighdy and thoughtfully, taking into account tlose
who identifu with the status quo, those rvho already stand outside ofit, and
those who have not yet considered their position. Critical teachels attend to
this range while being mindful of the limitations of classroom curricula in
enacting social change
Ilumility about limitations, what Pennyco ok Q00l) calls self-reflexivity,
avoids grand and self-aggrandizing ctaims aboit what can be accomplished

lyzhg

Praxts
Pennycook (2001)posits praxis, "a constant reciprocal rclationship between
theory and pmctice" (p. 3), as a contlal concern of cdtical applied linguistics. Yet, there continues to bo a shofiage of examples ofthe practice side
of praxis, some exceptions being Goldstein (2003), Lin (2004), Morgan
( i 99 8), and Rivera ( I 999). My support for more examples of critical teaching is not to oppose theory building, but, Ether, to argue for theorized
accounts of messy classroom interactions, including their unpredictable
responses and constant modifications in light ofthose rcsponses. Examples
of clas$oom interaction are needed to demonstrate the critical scrutiny of
discourses and diatogio toaching. These examples show that students do rot
passively absorb matedal, but, rather, respond in a variety ofways, including opposition, insights, boredom, and humor. How these varied responses
are taken up is an essential aspect ofcdtical pedagogy, one that needs to be
documented morc fuIly. This chapter aims to rcveal the textue of a oitical
dialogue betrveen students and teacher working togetier on a complex and
pressing issue.

Situatedness
Though my response to concems about proselytizing in previous paragraphs focused in part on the cenfality of dialogue, it is important to
distance critical pedagogies from student-centerod process pedagogy with
its promotion of students' individual voices. Critical pedagogies ale concerned, above all, with collective solutions to social inequality, encouraging

ways to achieve social justice. This is the reason for self-othering and for
scrutinizing topics not normally discussed in college classrooms, such as
military lecruiunent. That is, ffitical pedagogies iftroduce material that
has generally been ignored because of its political naturq and push inquiry

in a classroom to correct social ills and injustice. Humility is not just

rcflected in pedagogy, but also in the discourse used to report critical classroom activities and research results. Rather than adopting deflnitiYe language, the reports are tentative and speqdative, an acknowledgment of the
comptexity of teaching and leaming and-the difrculty of effecting change.
Reflexivity is also seen in how materials are gathered and prcsented.
For example, while working with students on militaly recruitment, I asked
myselfthe foltowing questions at various points: Should I push them beyond
their initial understandings? How do I do this without giving the impression
that I want them to take a particular position? How do I make room for
a va ety of opinions? These and other questions are taken up in the next
section on t}le materials and rcsponses to them.
In the spirit of reflexivity, in the section following the next one, l will
discuss what I might have done differently and might do in the tuture with
the same topic.

116 Sarah Benesch

Critical praxis as matorials devolopment 117

Critical praxis: Responding to military recruitment

.T9*o. r"ad the arricle, I wrore the debate quesrion, ,.Should

--,Pfor:be auowed to barmilitary recruiters?',on
coleges
the chaikboard and asked
sruoents to argue one side of the issue or the
other in a short essav Onlv
9 our of 15 studenrs turned in ftis inirial *.i,irg.
Oi,ir"r" g,i;iA";.,t

Va ous antiwar, civil librties, religious, and student groups have developed
couoter-recruitment materials as a rcsponse to the prcsence of military
rccruiters on U.S. high school and college campuses. These materials serve
to inform parents and studerfs of their ghts ao4 more generally, to offset
the impact of the morc widely available, and more expensively produce4
recruitnent materials. Howeyer, my aim in this section is not to desc be
certain pro- or counter-recruitment matcrials. Rathe!, I will discuss how
I intoduced the topic, bow students respooded to it and how I modified
my teaching according to students' responses. That is, in critical teaching,
there is reciprocity between the materials and praxis, or, to put it another
way, critical praxis can be seen cs materials development.

colleges should not be allowed ro bar recruiten;

b".iil;"-"i;;,;;;^;;
aUouijil;;;;
1:,:^.-t:ll"1"rd:rs
military
and do not, tlerefori, nied to be
rccruiters..Thorgb other..no', rcsponses in"tua"a
"hi"ld.Ji;;;;;;;;;;;"J;
,"riution, on tt i, ttr"rnl.
for

ourse.lves express opposition

t"

me rollowtng three responses make it their

main focus. I havc addcd italics
to emphasize that focus (R
response):

*",

rl"uldn't

bar the milirary recluire! because I think rhar

cvery_
about thar. so
;;
-?.y:*:r.ion
tr,at.om"uoay
l11; :*,"1,:::::
work 11":,1_1,,""n
r.l1s:,:n:lo
il a.Tiritary- ana if someboiy'aiiiii'""irai"."^.L ;'ffi,:.
do ,,[at For example, I know that I don,t
want to go to the military and nobody can

lr;..I::.1,1.1*

*!1r:

il;lt.;
niii

ifio.;b"dy;ffi

lu,ii;;;;; fi ,:ffi

_,,
change
^L,nd6 my mind.

'.:_r

R2: I think colleges should allow military recruiters

because some of the studenrs

might be iDsecure about their carcer 8nd maybe

the information thev

;;il;;

usctul.tbr.them, tlrcy wilt finaly find *ri", ,r,"y *"ri,i'i-",

Jusrsay tlo anl stick v,ith lheir believes and choices. As examplc,
"ii,J;",il;
is I wenr to
lhc cafcteria and orte ofrhe military recruiters
," _",i"'g;r"
informatior\ but he didnl convincei me, because
"pp-*h"a
that is rot wbat I will like to do
in the futurc
be

";
;" ii,

Another concern about this particular article was that the title of the
essay

ffi
fu;;,il,t":liffiffit
fl:::I::Ja
(3) protecting the country is ;ur duty.
Th" ,lrr";;;;;;*il;;;;;:
are-equipied to mate a aecis-ion

beallowed-..").

Despite my rcservations, however, included the debate because I

expected the dialogic process to engage studcnts deeply with the question,
no matter how flawed the materials might be, Even if the structue of the
article seemed slanted to]vard favoring the presence of military recruiters,
the classroom discussion and subsequent readings might provide greater
balance.

'- *-'

sioil.

"no".answe$ according to three themes: (1) choosins

l^1t"*:t^:1:l- recruiters
provide

cloo-sing

I introduced the topic of military recruitrnent on campus in an ESL reading

class during the spring 2005 semester by distributing a reading that debated
the question, "Should colleges be allowed to bar military recruiters?" (Oz
Campus, November 2005). It included two short essays, one arguing for
and the othfi against barring rccruiters. Though the debate format of the
reading seemed to offer balance, the question itself was problematic for
several reasons. First, the Solomon Amendment requires colleges receivirg any type of federal funding to permit military recruiters on campus;
therefore, the question is moot, However, of greater concem was that the
question naturalized the power of the military, positioning colleges in the
weaker position ofneeding permission to bar reffuiters C'Should colleges

to make a choice.

saia they

Students' initial written /,esponses

lntroducing the topic

articulating the "no" position, "Students must choose for themselves,"

is an appealing proposition to you[g people. I therefore anticipated that
most students would side with this position. The "yes" essay, on the other
haJr4 was title4 "Campuses deserve the right to choose," a more abstract
formulation requiring students to imagitre what it might mean for a campus

R3l No, because stzdeir ts lave their ow|

rhey arc not.intensting, ;,r.".y ,,"i*ji""
get

miid, thqt are decidefor lhenselves.lf

[f,1".,i!ii,;li
"il,ii:7,rr{iii{trlfJ
ai-fo"si;;t"il;;

military infomation from lhcac peoplc. So f aisqzrc",iitf,

rearuite.s

,g *te rhat rhough Rl, v/riften by a young woman

born in
I-1r-l.1,"*rj,:q
rolano,
and Kz, by a young woman bom in Colombia,
argue for allowino
sluoenB to choose uhether or not to join the
military, botl had stroni

;"r*i:ii
whether the *rit"r, u youngrii, Uorr-i;H;;,
ffiilHr";:liff:?}:
coflr'icrions about notioining tlemsetre's. rf,."v

*"rijir,'Jr"#

oe lmpervlous to recruiters' appeals. R3,

on the other

han(

does not state

Critical praxis as materials development 1'l.9

118 Satah Benesch

studonts had v{fittsn, but, instead a testimonial from a student about being

However, like the others he, too, does not bcliev that recruiters persuade
people u/ho do not $,ant to join the military to do so.
ln addition, R3 includes an observation found in the response of thc
next group of "no" rcsponses: Remuitels prwide useful information to
stodents. This theme assumes that recruiters are no different from other

approached by a recruiter on campus,

Before tuming to that discussion, I will briefly summadze the three

"yes" responses. In contrast to the "no" rcsponses, they focus on possible
effects on students ofbeing recruited. That is, the stance is more personal,
a8 ifthe students were imagining themselves, or friends, being approaohed
by recruitrers whose seductive promises of belefits might prove difrcult to

job rccruiters. Their role, according to this positior, is to offer helpful

information students might use in making a career ctoicc. Not surprisingly,
this is the argument nnade by supPorters of the Solomor Amendment who
olaimed that tlo military is equivalent to any company seeking emplctyees
and that it, like other employe$, shor:ld be pemitted access to college
students to dist bute its information.
I note that though R4 focuses on information provided by recruiters in a
general way, R5 goes beyond, expressing the opinion that the U.S. military .
pays college tuition for stBdents who enlist. This cloim can be found in
rcquitment materials, belying the fact the goal is to sign up sotdie$, not
suppo students Snancially while they are earning degrees:

resist:

vill etect college student', destroy his

educatton.Mostmilitary benelt are very intercs, lo ,r?nr. Also his family will losc
R7: Yes, because the ,rililsry rccruite$
rheir children by the accident or war.

R8r I think that collegs should be allowed to bar military recruiters because rre
v'/ant other unlatown people in ott ciry colleges who v.'anl to lalk lor 30
min$es and teke our time. t think ifpeople want to join lhe military they'll go to
the military depahrrent and ask them about berc6ts and othe! information. Also, I
think that they shouldn't tell yourg people to join tlre military. People are tee and

doil

ihey don't want to be bother by others.

is college should allowed to military recruiters. ln my view college

can get more infortnation about job, be&6t yogmm thal 'Nhen thgy srad

R4: My opinion
studett

Yes, military rccluitcrs should not be allowed ir colteges. The amount of

student willing to leave school alld joit! the army is more than the students who
are $.illing to stay. Corbacts, ga ls, benefts and social sratus tempt the people to
44ir. Army recruiters m\stbe able ,o explatfi their rear r"aJon in those business,

R9:

college. Fo! example, in the college s&rdents leam differcnt opinion

'aboutjob. They can get ideqJrp military recruilet.

military

R5r No, I diragree and college studeots should not be allo\,red to bar military '
rccruiters, Thc college studnts still need to go to school, ald thly have e right
to join the military o! not. Many people said thal military glves benelts aid olfet

As I will show next, the author ofR9, Isaac, a yomg man bom in Nige a,
was writing ftom his experience, and those ofhis ftiends, ofbeing recruited.

t dny things. Like the milltary pay money for college sludeits, and the)
wit! pay the studentt dthey join the hilitary.But I think that colloge students have
their o$n decision to make a choice

stude ts

Finally, one "no" rcsponse agrees with others that "everyonc has a right
to make Oreir own decision," but includes a ncw theme, 'brotecting the
country is our du!/':

Discussion

Aflrr
'l

responses,
should choose for themselves whother or not to join the military afld that
colleges should therefore not ban recruiters. However, as I will show no(tt
this viewpoint was interrogated during the class discussion of the initial
written responses. What.infomed that discussion was not so much what

if

students had wrinen their rcsponses to the debate question, I asked

ttsn- Isaac did not
anyone wanted to read or summarize what they had
want to read. Imtea4 he wanted to speak about his rccruitment experience.

military. Rath$ than accepting Isaacb demura.l, the recruiter continued

talkhg to him for another I 5 minutes, trying to charge his mind. Isaac had

our cormlry or our community.

To summarize the'ho"

initial written responses

According to Isaac, he had been approached on campus by a recruitr

:. who persisted even after Isaac had cxpressed his lack of interest in the

R6r No, thg colleges should not be allowed to bar military rccruiiers. Because
ght to makc their owll decisioE. I think th^t ereO)one
everyone should has
should guatd thetu or,'k country which is d.uty. "the military recruiters arc related

five out of six state that students

r
'

of

felt comere4 unsure if he was permitted to simply walk away from this man
}l,earing a military miform.
The experience had upset Isaac, pa icularly becsuse he thought he had
been racially targeted. To test his hypothesis, I asked the class how many of
r them had been recruited either oII campus, in high school, or by phone. As
: it tumed out, only Isaac and Diana (R2), the young woman fiom Colombia,

Citical

praxis as materials development 121

12o SaE,h Benesch

could not agree more with this quote; my mother always tells me that she
will not be with me forcver, therefore the best she can do is provide me with
the knowledge to conduct myself successfully in iife. The same is true in
this case, college's obligation is to prepare us for the real worl4 they don't
need to defend us instead ttrey need to teach us to defend ourselyes."

none of the Russian or Polish-students

had been recruiled. Wc noted tlrat
onlv one had been
and that of se'e" chinese srudents'
iill iiJ"
recruitmcnt
military
the
to
n"*ever, had gone voluntarily
year before and had offered' contact

"trtJ;,
l"r.ri"ri!rl",

jou rali the

regretted after-receivine
Jrrw
shc
ItroYe
a
intormanon,
''"'-*'- --',"fhev knolw 1;1;::::,:it[,?t":::
Chinese will fail boot
"lr',"ot
man Joked.eoui]1il"A'*"J'r"..ed
Chinese
young
one
home.
to be an
camp." Despite the lsughs his- comm ^L--:^ was
er least
teest rrom
trom
--",,^h.td
upheld' at

lilri" Ii'"-rr*n

###;"; ;;';

Students mainly agreed with this proposition. Those who spoke up

:1Ti;#":H'"#'#""$ 'i"ii'-"1"fi'v'*n*is
approached on
ii,.-..^ii1"rt"r". The only two students who had been
i"*p.. #J"1-d*,i, 1111":::"t"i[fi: ",1''n,1'*** response that
that

'

seem surprisins
,"r,oor.
sctt ;:i1;:,ir";,"*y tr,"i.i"yin
more students are willing to leave
students
gerian-born
Ni
that
sripports the ob"ervation

It may

"*:

il;;;il;r;

tn dtsnronortionate numbefi ln
secmcd to have bcen enlisting
that time' two were
the university ttitt"a in tt"q at
addition'

from
:il";il;;.
Nigerian-bom

is thatwhile
mrtlarl responses' most stdking
To sum uP the findings ot thc

the"'"#';;;;nses

seeir

q vrew.miligr j;::}",'J;r::::";;*i#',"r:";

and a source of useful information'

il.p""iui.tkeatFrome"':"'1;::n'n"J"#"Tii:1ff
i'"l,$:+#.i
.".ond sroup has conceptualized po\^
and wouro
them
ovsr
military pcople
:il';;il;:;;;;;er'orunirormed
to
ill-prepared
fecling
intrusion' Derhaps

liilinfi;;

;"al
class period as part
was ratseo ouring thi fotlowing
concern
resoond. This
nil aiscussion ofttre homework assignment'
with the

Follow-uP discussion
wrrw two
LU write
was to
'-"""i.",ip'pt:ii" groups
homewolK wa.5
"'- rcsponse
The homework
:T.::::"i1"**:;
to share their
iret
about the "no" essay t'
and one aooul
essav
essay ano
t.] share with
wrtn
---.,^-^.^.
quote
qlesbons,o"tuttio* to u ^,,^rF to sharc
r"sponse papers and choose

--r f,^ -r"..,ri..!r.(ion

becatr bv

ffiXTIff Hiffi ;;ir,;;;ilb*d:1".:l:1dl::J:'j*,::'jj,H,.

*ii.i;'*,
;T: ]r1;j*"'J]3;iil1:
-'d'"""i"'X
ffi lffi :l XIHI Hil il
l""H'lP^:T'H::;"til. "."i.'i'
Yl:,i,':::::'::":* ::
-ri*"ii'r'"
::lH::["ffi ;;;;;;;-;'"d;*"*';"*::::ll^1':,'*""iTlJ!l
oi'"yn"-l*l 3ljll lll".i..1
#;i" iii"'" ''-"--;;\r,ork
crYrri u.""."
:U;'ffi
issues
;.#:ffthrougn
her reaction:
it to
the student who had written about
2 rhe

Self-reflexivity: What I might have done differently

In the spirit ofself-reflexivity, I asked myselfquestions while selecting and
presenting matedals and after the lessons were over. The focus of these
questions was not so much the matedals themselves, but, rather, whether
the dialogue facilitated thoughtful responses, ones that allowed stude s to
consider their positions and deepen their understanding of the issues.

to read

**1..:l:li:"Jli:T"?l ifiillillx.lJiil:Ti
Il

rour-parr rcspons".p"p*
wor4
wue phmse'
-_ sentence
v_'---' ol

wa
a rcactllrn
reaction to

vocabularY.

disagreed with barring recruiters becar$e they felt infantilized by that

proposition. Yet, they acknowledged needing tools for dealing directly with
rccruiten and for making the decision about whether or not to enlist,
Looking over what else students had w tten on the boar4 I uoticed this
question: "What should students do if they are not interested in militaiy,
but recruiters are keep talking about it?" This seerned to be a good focus
for addressing "teach us to defend ourselves." So, I asked what might be
possible ways to deal with a recruiter who would not take "no" for an
answer, but, instea4 kept talking, as had happened to Isaac. Thc students
came up },ith a variety ofssategies, includi[g tElling the recruiter they were
late for class or pretending they didn't understand English. Then I asked
whether they would feel comfortable simply walking away without offering
au excuse. Though at fust they seemed dubious, they began to consider this
as a possible response.
Because this was the first time I had worked with students on the topic
of recruitment, I wasn't sure whether I should pu$ue related issues. Should
I interogate the po$,er of the military, displayed in the uniform wom by
recruiters? Should I distribute some counter-recruitnent literature? Should
I tell them about students from the univercity who had been killed in Iraq?
Rather than raising these issues, I decided to end the second class by
sharing my opinion, one that had been changed by their responses. I told
them that before discussing the issue with them, I had been opposed to
the presence of military recruiters on campus. However, after reading their
responses and hearing their opinions, I began to consider the possibility that
having recruiters on campus allowed for the type ofdiscussions in which
we had been eugaged during the last two class pedods.

Citical

122 Sarah Benesch

In rehospect,

believe

military recruihent in their initial writing,

it is impo ant to encourage greater discussion of this viewpoint. In addi-

shrdents responded favorably to

could have done more to highlight the cen-

betw8en young immigrants and rePresontatives ofthe military. Though power was discussed implicitly when shrdents
sought shategies for avoiding or deflecting rccntiters' pitches, it was not
foregmunded in those discussions. Having had lime to think about lhe
lessons, I rcalize that there miSht h3ve been ways to laiso awaleness of
power differentials between students and recruiters, in terms of age, status,
and other social factors, including gender, in cases where young women
arc being recruited by men. Such a discussion would allow students to
examine the assumption expressed in R2 that studcnts can 'Just say no" to
reouiters. It might lead them to consider why it is hard for some to just walk

tality ofpower in interactions

tion, the contrast betwen the glossy military ads and the cheaply produced
courter-recruitment materials would lend itself to a discussion of power
relations.

Despit the berefits of self-reflexivity, I'm not suggesting that, having

introduced military recruitment and having considered additional ways to
pumue the issue, I nov/ have ready-made lessons to use next time. I may have

more pe<lagogical tools, but I would be guided by students' responses to

the introductory materials ralher than the tools themselves. That is, as l've
mentioned several times in this chapter, critical teaching is an'exploratory
dialogue ofunknown outcomes, through which teachers and students learl
ftom each other, not a tansfer ofknowledge from teacher to studert through

away.

of power would have been to pose the folcan

choose for themselves ',irhether or not to
If stude[ts
join the military, why are lecruit$ necessary? I believe that this question would get at the actual physical power of recruiters (their size and
experience as fighters) and their symbolic power (their uniform and social
status). Once these issues were engaged, I could ask the following questions, related tq class, race, and geuder: Are some students more wherable
than others to military recruitntent? How does your financial situation affect
your rcsponse? What about your family life? Srhat about your immigration '

Alother approach to

issues

matorials.

lowing questir:n:

Critical materials beyond the classroom:

l'm a counter-recruiter
During tlle semester the ESL reading class was working on military recruitment, I collected counte!-recruitmelt materials. Yet, I was unsure about
how to present tlrcm to students without short-circuiting open discussion of
their varying views. Oo the other hand, I was not comfonable about withholding counter-recruitment information, especially because on-campus
military recruitrnent y/as not regularly counter-balanced with requitrnent
toward other career paths. I considered postirig some counter-recruitnent
matedals on my ofrce door, but continued to hesitate about airing my
views, especially while students were working on the topic in the reading

status?

Another issue worth exploring is that, despite the awesome powo of

the military, the U,S. armed forces were desperate for lecruits at that time.
That is, atthough this bnrch of govemment appears to be a mighty force,
achieving recruitment goals was a struggle, especially given the absence of
a military draft. The military's lack of appeal during an unpopular war led
them to offer incenti\s, such as fast-tack citizenship. To get at this'issue,
I might have attended to micro-level discusive features by introducing

terms such as 'fast-track citizenship" and "posthumous citizenship," the

granting of citizenship to soldie$ who die in war zones. Students could
have read news articles and / or mititary documents about these ways of
gainiug citizenship and wdtten responses to them.
Though my focus in this section has been more on dialogue than materials, I want to add that I migh! experimert in the firtule with prG. and
afltirccruilment materials in tandem. For example, I could have students
carry out critical discouse analyses of rccruitment ads produced by the
military as well as counter-recruitment materials produced by peace grcups.
Offering both types ofmaterials might allow students who support rccruit'
ment on campus to voice their opinions more freely. Given that most ofmy

praxis as materials development 123

class. However, toward the end

ofthe semester I saw a film, discussed next,

that urged me to be more public about my views, outside the classroom,

yet on campus. The day after viewing"the film, I posted a flyer on my
omce door, "Ten Points to Consider Before You Sign a Military Enlistment
Agreement " published by the American Friends Service, a Quaker organization (www.afsc.org/resources/documents/l0pts-english.pdf). The points
include: "Do not make a hasty decision by enlisting the first time you see a
recniiter or when you arc upset"; "Take a witress with you when you speak
with a recruiter," and so on.
The flm, Das kwze Leben des JosO Antonio Gatierrbz (The Short Life
of Josl Antonio Gutierrez), tells the story of the fust U.S. soldier killed in
Iraq, an immigant from Guatemala. The dircctor, Heidi Spocogna, traces

Critical praxis as materials development 125

124 Sarah Benesch

Gutierrez's
\,ulrsrrsz!

impoverished childhood in the mountains of.

life back to an
-u IlPvYvrreuvq

Guatemala, his life on the stre;ts of Guatemala City as an oryhan, and his
eventual flight to the United States, riding dangerously on top of trains that
took him thiough Mexico to the U. S. border and then to Los Argeles' Gutier'
rez was assigned a foster family, eamed a high school dcgree, and attended
community aollege briefly. He then joined the U.S. Marines. After complet'
ing boot camp, Gutierrez was sent to Kuwait and ther to lraq whgre'
$e

fir;t day of lhe U.S. invasiorL

he was

killed, apparently by "ftiendly

-on
fire"l

'"fbn Points to Consider Before You Sign a Military Enlistment Agree-

'

:
.'

'

ment'' had been on my ofrce door all summer, when, one day in the fall 2006
semester walking toward my office, I saw a young man reading it intently' As
i apfroactred thJOoor, I introduc6d myselfto the young man, he introduced
himself, and I invited him into my office. I asked 'Angel" fuseudonym)
join
what had made him stop to read the list. He told me that he lYanled to
permismother's
his
years
needed
old
and
the U.S. Army, but was only l7
.ior. si" *uJ orr;ted. When t asked why his mother refused to sign the l

who are being recruited. Angel was surprised that such haterials existed.
He asked about the group and then, to my surprise, asked how he could
join it. Though I never saw Angel again and don't know whether or not he
chose to join the U.S. military, I ha( at least, introduced him to materials
that coutd help him make au informed decision.
As a self-declared counter-recruiter, l'm left with the question ofwhether
to present counter-rccruitment materials in the classroom, perhaps in conjunction with lecruitment materials. Or, should I instead continue to present
, ,an open-ended question, leadiog to debate in the classroom and leave
counter-rccruitment outside the classroom where I am more comfortable
expressing my antiwar views? Or, perhaps I will attempt both a debate and
: a presentation of competing materials, though these activities could lead to
spending more time on the topic than students will want to. These questions are characteristic of critical pedagogy with its constant reflectiofl on

.
.

nc""r.ury pupe.s, he told me that she aln'ays worried about him' Next I

asked wieihir he was a student at the college. He was an4 according to

join dre
what he told me, in good standing. Then I asked why he wanted to
as w
clear
became
Yet,
it
dream.
military. He told me it had always been a
what
his
war
or
the
about
nothing
almost
he
knew
contin;ed talking that
joined.
he
be
like
once
life might
I asked whether he had besn recruited. As it turns out, he had
pursue '
been approached in high school by a recruiter who continued to
from
It
seemed
visits.
phone
and
calts
him on a regular basis, through
trusted
him
a
he
considered
that
recruitel
the way Angil spoke about his

NJ,

liiend.'At tltat moment, I decided to cal[ myself a "counter-recruiter," a

term I had not previousiy applied to myself. I told Angel thatjust as thEre
join tbe military
are military recruiters who encourage young people to
The main
college'
to
stay
in
them
there are counter-recruiters who ulge
get
bonuses
signing
sr5'_"o
can
w4r
rccruiters
rlvrurlwrr
tlrcr
military
urtrrrd,
--':--:him, was that
5w'
loto IllElr
difference, I told
ol[erence,
Yes,
I
xplaine4
to
Angel'
news
was
This
they
enlist.
for each r.ecruit
your recruiter might be offered a bonus if you enlist. On the other hanq
;ounter-recruiters receive no bonuses. I don't krow you, I told him, so I'm
not worried about you like youI mother. HoYever, I think you should stay
in schoot and get ; degree, I said, because right now you seem confused
about what to do, referring him to the flrst item on the "Ten Points to
Consider . . . " tist. Next I give Angel "The New Yorker's Guide to Military
Recruibnent," a booklet published by an antiwar group, Friends of William
Blake (ww!r'.counterecruitmentguide.org), contaiDing adYice for students

Materials and the way they arc presented and explored reflect teachers' theories, whether or not those theories are cxplicitand conscious. My choiceof
military recruitment as a topic exprEssed my concern, as a critical teacher,
about the unequal power of the military whose presence on college cam, r, puses forces students to conftont a choice they may not be sumciently
informed to make. Amcd with glossy materials, psychological knowledge,
well-rehearsed pitches, and the promise of financia| rewards and citizenr ship, recruiters have abundant social capital. Immigraflt students, on the
oiher han( haye little. Conflonted by recruiters, they may not have the
knowledge required to make an intelligent and appropriate cholce. My goal
:,r in inEoducing recruitment in an ESL reading class was to equip students
with a vadety of ways to respond. And, of course, as they worked on the
: materials, +t"-,,,---they werc --.r;-^
reading, --^-L:nn
speaking, l:-+--:-listening, 6-,{
and *,-i}:-a;writing in 6^-,]-*lacademic
-"+-;-lEnglish. Because the materials were situated in their daity lives, students
had the chance to think deeply about matters affecting their daily lives, an
imporlant formdation for acquiring academic skills.
The pedagogy described in this chapter is situal
situated in a particular time
and place, during the U.S. occupation oflraq and at a publicly firnded U.S,
. college. I'm therefore not recommending that othrs adopt or even adapt
the materials. Rather, I hope that the descdption of students' responses !o
the materials in one class offers an example of critical praxis. Readers of

'

',

Crltlcal praxls as materlals development 127

'l2A Sarah Benesch

this chapter might fiucl equally pressing issues confronting 0reir students
as topics for critical academic engagement.

Discussion questions and tasks

Beflection
which aspccts ofcdtical theory did you find most aocssible? Which
did you find more difficult to grasP?
2. Hor easy or difficult do you think it woutd b to apply criticol theory

l,

to selecting and developing materials?

3. What might be somi advantages for language leamers of e cdtic-al
approach to materials and teaching, in terrns ofskills dwelopment? 4. What challenges might students face when using materials grounded
in criticat theory? How could you try to address these challenges as

ard (ii)

a matedals designer?
in this chapter were designed for lgamers in
described
5. ihe materials
a postsecondary setting in the United States. To vr'hat extent could a
similar approach be taken when designing materials for the context
in which you are or will be teaching?

(i)

a teacher;

Evaluation
6. Look at some textbook materials you havc used with a class in the
past. Ir light of this chapter, how might you modi$ these materials
to experiment with teaching critically?
Adaptation

Design

Bcnesch, S. (2006). Critical media awareness: Teaching resistaice to interpellatior In Edge (ed.). (Relocatihg TESOL in an age of enpire. Houndsmil|
Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 49-64.
Dss kune Lebea des Jote Anbnio Gutierrez (2006), dir. Hoidi Specogna, New
Yo*: The Cinema Guild.
Fairclough, N. (1995). C/,!icdl discourse onabsis: ?he qitical stu6, of language.
London: Longman.
Foucault, M, (1980). Power and strategies. ID C. Cordon (ed.). Powet / knowledge:
Selected interviews and other wltlnqs, 1972-7 7. New York Pantheou Bools,

w. 13445.
Frcitre,P. (1994). Pedagog/ o/rppe. New York Corltiouum.
*eke,P. (1998a). Pedagog of the heart.Ne'N Yotk: Continuum.

Preire, P (1998b). Pedagogr offteedom: Ethics, democracy, and ciic coumge.

Lanham, MD: Rowraan & Littleffeld Publishers, Inc.
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7. Using what you have learned in this chaptor, choose one issue afecting
the lives ofstudents you teach or will teach. Prcpare a reading / writing

On

task on this issue. Explain the rationale behind your approach.

8r Apptying wh'at you have learned about critical pmxis in this chapter, adapt or design some materials. Then try these materials out ou
the students in your group. Discuss their views on your materials /

Pennycook, A. (1994).

teaching.

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