Transducer sensitivity and linearity

Introduction
In this experiment, we will use three types of transducers: photonic, inductive proximity, and capacitive
proximity. These transducers function to measure small linear displacements. Each type is explained
below.
Photonic transducer:
This transducer emits a steady light source through optical fibers, which will hit the object. This light
will reflect off the object and come back to be received by a photocell detector. The longer it takes for
light to bounce back off the object, the larger the linear displacement between the object and the
transducer. The graph below shows the voltage output as a function of displacement. At very close
distances, the receiving fibres can capture most of the reflected light, and therefore the sensitivity is
highest (the slope of the graph is largest). This linearity only lasts for a certain range; after a certain
displacement, the voltage output decreases dramatically due to the inverse square law. Reflected light
intensity also depends on the surface material of the object.

Inductive proximity sensor:

An important property of this device relies on the reluctance Rm of a magnetic circuit. This reluctance
determines how much flux is produced for a given current in a coil. Therefore, this transducer uses an Eshaped piece with a coil wrapped around, as seen in the following diagram. With an AC source, the coil
produces an alternating magnetic flux, which permeates through the air gap and the plate which is to be
moved. When this plate does move, the magnetic flux will change and therefore the current will change
(since the reluctance remains constant). The change in current is outputted as a voltage by a control box.

Given the following formula:

= I(t) = L Imax cos ( t)

and

N= number of turns of wire

Capacitive proximity sensor:

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on d, the separation of the plates; A the overlapping area; and
the dielectric constant Ke . To measure small linear displacements between the plates, A and K are kept
constant.

As the capacitance changes with displacement, a simple circuit can be set up to output voltages that
depend on C.

Objectives:
In the first part, we will calibrate the voltage outputs simultaneously for each transducer for many small
displacements. Once our data is recorded, we will graph our results and analyze the response curves.
From these graphs we can identify the three transducers respective linear ranges, their corresponding
linearity, and the sensitivity which they produce. We will then compare these values for each transducer
to determine which is most suitable for a particular measurement range. Knowing this is essential for
any future experiments requiring the most accurate measurements for small linear displacements.

Equipment and procedure

- One X-Y sliding table equipped with micrometers. A flat plate is mounted on it.
- One capacitive displacement transducer BC10-G30-Y0X
- One inductive displacement transducer BI10-G30-Y1
- One Photonic system. Please be aware the fiber optic must not be bent.
- All transducers are mounted on a fixed support.
- Power supply.
- One DVM
- Three signal conditioners (Photonic: 3B11-01, Capacitive: 3B31-03, Inductive: 3B41-03).
- LabVIEW virtual digital voltmeters.

Procedure
1. First check the lab setup. Make sure that the transducers are properly connected to their
respective control boxes and power supplies. Record the model and gain of each signal
conditioner used to amplify the signal of each transducer.
2. Use LabVIEW to record the measurements. The program has already been created for you
and is available on WebCT. Copy the file Lab7.vi to your desktop. Also download the excel file
named Lab7.xls. This excel file contains the table you will use to record the data.
3. Turn on the power supply and the photonic controller (the switch is on the back of the box).
Use the digital voltmeter to measure and record the supply voltage. You will need this value to
calculate the static sensitivity of the Inductive and Capacitive transducers.
4. The LabVIEW program allows you to record three voltage signals simultaneously. Specify
the minimum and maximum limits as -1 and +10 respectively, and the channel numbers
corresponding to the connections of your transducers (drop the arrow, click Browse, press the
CTRL key and click on the 3 channels in the following order: 10,12,14). After this, you should
see in the Physical channels box display DEV1/ai10, DEV1/ai12, DEV1/ai14. If you dont
see that repeat the previous step.
5. Using the X-axis micrometer, adjust the flat plate position until the micrometer reads zero.
This plate position should be close to, but not touching, the transducers.
6. Move away from the plate in increments corresponding to the values given in the Lab 7 spreadsheet. The resolution of the micrometer is 0.01 mm. At each displacement, run the LabVIEW
program once and record the voltage readings in your table. You will take approximately 70
readings. The number of readings is the minimum needed to fully resolve the response curves of
each transducer.
7. When you finish collecting the data turn off the power supply, the photonic controller and the
backplane.

Results and Discussion:

Inductive: 3B41-03

Photonic: 3B11-01 Capacitive: 3B31-03

Gain=1.0 for all three transducers,

supply voltage = 5.0446 V

Response Curve of Three Transducers

10.0
9.0

Photonic

8.0

Capacitive

7.0

Inductive

output (volts)

6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

displacement (mm)

Figure 1. Response curve of three transducers; photonic, capacitive, and inductive sensor

10.0

1) Photonic Sensor

Displacement
(mm)
0.2
0.225
0.25
0.275
0.3
0.325
0.35
0.375
0.4
0.475
0.55
0.625
0.7

Photonic reading
(volts)
0.942383
1.235352
1.28418
1.713867
1.972656
2.006836
2.485352
2.807617
2.856445
3.520508
4.560547
5.253906
5.776367

Table 1. Range of readings with high sensitivity and an approximate linear response

Calibration Plot for Photonic Reading

7

V = 9.947*d - 1.0628
R = 0.9949

Output (volts)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Displacement (mm)

Figure 2. Calibration plot for photonic readings with linear best fit line (Sensitivity = 9.947)

0.8

Displacement
(mm)
0.2
0.225
0.25
0.275
0.3
0.325
0.35
0.375
0.4
0.475
0.55
0.625
0.7

Points on the line

of best fit (volts)
0.9266
1.175275
1.42395
1.672625
1.9213
2.169975
2.41865
2.667325
2.916
3.662025
4.40805
5.154075
5.9001

Residual
(volts)
0.015783
0.060077
-0.13977
0.041242
0.051356
-0.163139
0.066702
0.140292
-0.059555
-0.141517
0.152497
0.099831
-0.123733

Displacement
(mm)
0.2
0.225
0.25
0.275
0.3
0.325
0.35
0.375
0.4
0.475
0.55
0.625
0.7

Residual
(volts)
0.015783
0.060077
-0.13977
0.041242
0.051356
-0.163139
0.066702
0.140292
-0.059555
-0.141517
0.152497
0.099831
-0.123733

Table 2. Points on the line of best fit and residual values of photonic readings

Residual values for corresponding displacements can be identified through two ways. 1) By
subtracting points on the line of best fit from photonic reading 2) Using data analysis on excel

Residual Data for Photonic Reading

0.2
0.15

Deviation (volts)

0.1
0.05
0
-0.05

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

-0.1
-0.15
-0.2

Displacement (mm)

Figure 3. Residual data for photonic readings with straight line connecting terminal points

0.7

The lower and upper accuracy limits of the response curve are -0.163139 volts and 0.152497
volts, respectively, or -2.82% and 2.64% full scale. The full scale value of the response curve is
taken at 0.7mm, therefore full scale value is 5.776367 volts.
Equation of the line is V= -0.279032*d +0.0715894 (linear line of residual plot)

Displacement (mm)
0.2
0.225
0.25
0.275
0.3
0.325
0.35
0.375
0.4
0.475
0.55
0.625
0.7

Point on the line

(volts)
0.015783
0.0088072
0.0018314
-0.0051444
-0.0121202
-0.019096
-0.0260718
-0.0330476
-0.0400234
-0.0609508
-0.0818782
-0.1028056
-0.123733

Residual
(volts)
0.015783
0.060077
-0.13977
0.041242
0.051356
-0.16314
0.066702
0.140292
-0.05955
-0.14152
0.152497
0.099831
-0.12373

q
1.11022E-16
0.0512698
0.1416014
0.0463864
0.0634762
0.144043
0.0927738
0.1733396
0.0195316
0.0805662
0.2343752
0.2026366
3.33067E-16

Table 3. Points on the line of residual plot, residual and q values

= 1

|| = 0.2343752

||
0.2343752
100% = 1
100% = 95.94%

5.776367

2) Capacitive Sensor
Displacement
(mm)
2.90
3.05
3.20
3.35
3.50
3.65
3.80
3.95
4.10
4.25
4.40
4.55
4.70
4.85

Capacitive
reading (volts)
0.86426
0.82520
0.78125
0.75195
0.67871
0.59082
0.54688
0.54199
0.47852
0.41016
0.35645
0.31250
0.27344
0.24902

Table 4. Range of capacitive readings with high sensitivity and an approximate linear response

Calibration Plot for Capacitive Reading

1.0

V = -0.3332*d+ 1.8383
R = 0.9924

0.9
Output (volts)

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

Displacement (mm)

Figure 4. Calibration plot for capacitive readings with linear best fit line (Sensitivity = -0.3332)

Displacement
(mm)
2.90
3.05
3.20
3.35
3.50
3.65
3.80
3.95
4.10
4.25
4.40
4.55
4.70
4.85

Point on the line of

best fit (volts)
0.87202
0.82204
0.77206
0.72208
0.6721
0.62212
0.57214
0.52216
0.47218
0.4222
0.37222
0.32224
0.27226
0.22228

Residual
(volts)
-0.00776
0.00315
0.00919
0.02987
0.00661
-0.03130
-0.02527
0.01983
0.00634
-0.01204
-0.01578
-0.00974
0.00118
0.02674

Displacement
(mm)
2.90
3.05
3.20
3.35
3.50
3.65
3.80
3.95
4.10
4.25
4.40
4.55
4.70
4.85

Residual (volts)
-0.00776
0.003155
0.00919
0.029873
0.006611
-0.0313
-0.02527
0.019832
0.006336
-0.01204
-0.01578
-0.00974
0.001177
0.026743

Table 5. Points on the line of best fit and residual values of capacitive readings

Residual Data for Capacitive Reading

0.04
0.03

Deviation (volts)

0.02
0.01
0
-0.01

2.9

3.1

3.3

3.5

3.7

3.9

4.1

4.3

4.5

4.7

-0.02
-0.03
-0.04

Displacement (mm)

Figure 5. Residual data for capacitive readings with straight line connecting terminal points

The lower and upper accuracy limits of the response curve are -0.0313 volts and 0.029873 volts,
respectively, or -3.62% and 3.46% full scale. The full scale value of the response curve is taken
at 2.9mm, therefore full scale value is 0.864258 volts.

Equation of the line is V=0.017693846*d 0.059072153 (linear line of residual plot)

Displacement
(mm)
2.90
3.05
3.20
3.35
3.50
3.65
3.80
3.95
4.10
4.25
4.40
4.55
4.70
4.85

Point on the line

(volts)
-0.00776
-0.005105923
-0.002451846
0.000202231
0.002856308
0.005510385
0.008164462
0.010818539
0.013472616
0.016126693
0.018780769
0.021434846
0.024088923
0.026743

Residual
(volts)
-0.00776
0.003155
0.00919
0.029873
0.006611
-0.0313
-0.02527
0.019832
0.006336
-0.01204
-0.01578
-0.00974
0.001177
0.026743

q
2.0004E-06
0.008260923
0.011641846
0.029670769
0.003754692
0.036810385
0.033429462
0.009013461
0.007136616
0.028170693
0.034555769
0.031174846
0.022911923
1E-10

Table 6. Points on the line of residual plot, residual and q values

= 1

|| = 0.036810385

||
0.036810385
100% = 1
100% = 95.74%

0.864258

3) Inductive Sensor

Displacement
(mm)
5.45
5.60
5.75
5.90
6.00
6.50

Inductive reading
(volts)
1.01563
1.25488
1.53809
1.85059
2.06055
2.92481

Table 7. Range of inductive readings with high sensitivity and an approximate linear response

Calibration Plot for Inductive Reading

3.5

V = 1.845*d - 9.0501
R = 0.9985

Output (volts)

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
5.2

5.4

5.6

5.8

6.0

6.2

6.4

Displacement (mm)

Figure 6. Calibration plot for inductive readings with linear best fit line (Sensitivity = 1.845)

6.6

Displacement
(mm)
5.45
5.60
5.75
5.90
6.00
6.50

Point on the line of

best fit (volts)
1.00515
1.2819
1.55865
1.8354
2.0199
2.9424

Residual
(volts)
0.01047
-0.02702
-0.02056
0.01519
0.04065
-0.01759

Displacement (mm)
5.45
5.60
5.75
5.90
6.00
6.50

Residual
(volts)
0.010475
-0.027017
-0.020564
0.015186
0.040647
-0.017595

Table 8. Points on the line of best fit and residual values of inductive readings

Residual Data for Inductive Reading

0.05
0.04

Deviation (volts)

0.03
0.02
0.01
0
-0.01

5.45

5.65

5.85

6.05

6.25

6.45

-0.02
-0.03
-0.04

Displacement (mm)

Figure 7. Residual data for inductive readings with straight line connecting terminal points

The lower and upper accuracy limits of the response curve are -0.027017 volts and 0.040647
volts, respectively, or -0.92% and 1.39% full scale. The full scale value of the response curve is
taken at 6.5mm, therefore full scale value is 2.92481 volts.
Equation of the line is V=0.017693846*d 0.059072153 (linear line of residual plot)

Displacement (mm)
5.45
5.60
5.75
5.90
6.00
6.50

Point on the line (volts)

0.010475001
0.006465001
0.002455001
-0.001554999
-0.004228332
-0.017594999

Residual (volts)
0.010475
-0.02702
-0.02056
0.015186
0.040647
-0.01759

q
1.15E-09
0.033482
0.023019
0.016741
0.044875
1.5E-09

Table 9. Points on the line of residual plot, residual and q values

= 1

|| = 0.044875

||
0.044875
100% = 1
100% = 98.47%

2.92481

From the readings generated from each transducer, usable range for the transducers which has a
high sensitivity and an approximately linear response are identified. From the linear best fit line
superimposed on the calibration plot of each transducer, the sensitivity of each transducer was
identified. Sensitivity of photonic, capacitive, inductive transducer is 9.947, -0.3332, and 1.845
V/mm, respectively. Therefore, it can be seen that inductive transducer has the highest
sensitivity. Therefore, inductive transducer is most responsive to small changes in displacement
as the equation for the sensitivity is, =

Linearity of each transducer was identified using the equation:

= 1

||

100%, whereas || were found by observing Table 3, Table 6,

and Table 9. Linearity of photonic, capacitive, and inductive transducer is 95.94%, 95.74%, and
98.47% respectively.

Usable range of photonic, capacitive, and inductive transducer is 0.2mm to 0.7mm, 2.9mm to
4.85mm, and 5.45mm to 6.50mm respectively. This means there are number of gaps in the range
of the displacement given by the micrometer that are not within usable ranges of the transducers.
These are: 0 to 0.2mm, 0.7mm to 2.9mm, 4.85mm to 5.45mm, and 6.50mm to 10mm
To account for these gaps and have accurate measurements, there is one method I can think of.
We introduce a new reference point from which to measure; it can be a metal plate at an arbitrary
point. However this reference point must be within an existing usable range of one of the
devices. Therefore we can measure its distance relative to the transducer. Then we measure the
distance from the object to the transducer (object must be within usable range). Finally, we

subtract these two distance values to determine the displacement of the object from the new
reference plate. Thickness of the reference plate must be known.
For all three transducers, our results showed very high linearity over their usable ranges.
Although each device had its own unique usable range, we are confident they will output
accurate measurements over that range. When it comes to high sensitivity and high linearity over
their usable range, the inductive sensor was superior to the other two. However, the capacitive
sensor had a larger usable range by 186% compared to that of the inductive sensor, with only a
linearity of 3% lower. Therefore, determining which transducer is the best depends on the
measurement range of the experiment, and the small changes in displacement that need to be
measured (the resolution), which relies on the sensitivity.

Conclusion
There are three main objectives we have learned from this lab. The first is how each of the three
types of transducers work. The second is how to perform a static calibration using a micrometer
and setting up the virtual instruments in LabView. The third is how to do a statistical analysis of
the response curves obtained from the calibration. In other words, how to determine linear range;
calculate sensitivity and linearity from a residual plot using Microsoft Excel. Once weve
obtained these values for each transducer, we can appropriately and effectively use these devices
for future experiments. Knowing this information is essential for future experiments, where we
must decide which transducer is most suitable for a particular displacement range. The most
suitable choice of transducer will have the largest linear range over which we are measuring, the
highest percentage linearity, and the highest sensitivity within that range. From our results, we
can conclude that the inductive sensor has the highest sensitivity and linearity over its usable
range. But most importantly, if we are measuring displacements outside its usable range, then
another transducer, such as capacitive or photonic, would be much more accurate.

Reference:
Wheeler, Anthony J., and A. R. Ganji. Introduction to Engineering Experimentation. Upper
Saddle River: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2004. Print.