START WITH BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR WRITING

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/04/
On Paragraphs
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to
write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and
revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece
of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized
fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).

The Basic Rule: Keep One Idea to One Paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you
begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple
ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and several
bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in
a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single
points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in
their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a Paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity,
Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these
traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you
construct effective paragraphs.
Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with a one
focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within
different ideas.
Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can
help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.
Logical bridges

The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence

Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges

Key words can be repeated in several sentences

Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

A topic sentence
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the
paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic
sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph
(as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to
make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence
near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced
writers, although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an
explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily summarize what the paragraph
is about.
Adequate development
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and
adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's
purpose, but writers should beware of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences.
It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:

Use examples and illustrations

Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
Use an anecdote or story
Define terms in the paragraph
Compare and contrast
Evaluate causes and reasons
Examine effects and consequences
Analyze the topic
Describe the topic
Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph when:

When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new
paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each
new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast
sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short
"break" for your readersadding these in will help your writing more readable.
You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is
complex.
When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your
introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many
introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their
content, length, and the writer's purpose.

Transitions and Signposts

Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and transitions. Signposts are
internal aids to assist readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a paragraph
outlining what the article has covered and where the article will be going.
Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition" from one idea to the
next. Transitions can be used at the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow
one into the next.

Paragraphing (Length Consistency)

Paragraphs are units of thought with one idea developed adequately. Listed here are some
rules of thumb to use when paragraphing. As your writing improves, you'll be able to
break these "rules" to meet your own needs. Until then, these suggestions can be helpful:

Put only one main idea per paragraph.

Aim for three to five or more sentences per paragraph.
Include on each page about two handwritten or three typed paragraphs.
Make your paragraphs proportional to your paper. Since paragraphs do less work
in short papers, have short paragraphs for short papers and longer paragraphs for
longer papers.
If you have a few very short paragraphs, think about whether they are really parts
of a larger paragraphand can be combinedor whether you can add details to
support each point and thus make each into a more fully developed paragraph.

You can check on whether your paragraphs are balanced by looking at your paper.
Some balanced pages:

Image Caption: Paragraph Balance

Unbalanced pages with ideas not equally developed:

Image Caption: Unbalanced Paragraphs

Use the following graphics as a tool to organize your paper with one main idea in
each box. Use as many pages and boxes as needed.

Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements

Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement
1.Determine what kind of paper you are writing:

An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts,
evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the
audience.
An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with
specific evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an

evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the

argumentative paper is to convince the audience that the claim is true based on the
evidence provided.
If you are writing a text which does not fall under these three categories (ex. a narrative),
a thesis statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.
2. Your thesis statement should be specificit should cover only what you will discuss in
your paper and should be supported with specific evidence.
3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.
4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to
reflect exactly what you have discussed in the paper.

Thesis Statement Examples

Example of an analytical thesis statement:
An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors:
accepting students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular
backgrounds.
The paper that follows should:

explain the analysis of the college admission process

explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:

The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending
class, and socializing with peers.
The paper that follows should:

explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing
with peers

Example of an argumentative thesis statement:

High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service
projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness.
The paper that follows should:

present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should
pursue community projects before entering college

Four Main Components for Effective Outlines

Ideally, you should follow these four suggestions to create an effective outline. The
examples are taken from the Sample Outline handout.

Parallelism - How do I accomplish this?

Each heading and subheading should preserve parallel structure. If the first heading is a
verb, the second heading should be a verb. Example:
1. Choose Desired Colleges
2. Prepare Application
("Choose" and "Prepare" are both verbs. The present tense of the verb is usually the
preferred form for an outline)

Coordination - How do I accomplish this?

All the information contained in Heading 1 should have the same significance as the
information contained in Heading 2. The same goes for the subheadings (which should be
less significant than the headings). Example:
1. Visit and evaluate college campuses
2. Visit and evaluate college websites
1. Note important statistics
2. Look for interesting classes
(Campus and websites visits are equally significant. They are part of the main tasks you
would need to do. Finding statistics and classes found on college websites are parts of the
process involved in carrying out the main heading topics.)

Subordination - How do I accomplish this?

The information in the headings should be more general, while the information in the
subheadings should be more specific. Example:
1. Describe an influential person in your life
1. Favorite high school teacher
2. Grandparent
(A favorite teacher and grandparent are specific examples from the generalized category
of influential people in your life.)

Division - How do I accomplish this?

Each heading should be divided into 2 or more parts. Example:
1. Compile resume
1. List relevant coursework
2. List work experience
3. List volunteer experience
(The heading "Compile resume" is divided into 3 parts.)
Technically, there is no limit to the number of subdivisions for your headings; however, if
you seem to have a lot, it may be useful to see if some of the parts can be combined.

Why and How to Create a Useful Outline

Why create an outline? There are many reasons; but in general, it may be helpful to create
an outline when you want to show the hierarchical relationship or logical ordering of
information. For research papers, an outline may help you keep track of large amounts of
information. For creative writing, an outline may help organize the various plot threads
and help keep track of character traits. Many people find that organizing an oral report or
presentation in outline form helps them speak more effectively in front of a crowd. Below
are the primary reasons for creating an outline.

Aids in the process of writing

Helps you organize your ideas
Presents your material in a logical form
Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
Constructs an ordered overview of your writing
Defines boundaries and groups

How do I create an outline?

Determine the purpose of your paper.

Determine the audience you are writing for.
Develop the thesis of your paper.

Then:

Brainstorm: List all the ideas that you want to include in your paper.
Organize: Group related ideas together.
Order: Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract
to concrete.
Label: Create main and sub headings.

Remember: creating an outline before writing your paper will make organizing your
thoughts a lot easier. Whether you follow the suggested guidelines is up to you, but
making any kind of outline (even just some jotting down some main ideas) will be
beneficial to your writing process.

Types of Outlines and Samples

Alphanumeric Outlines
This is the most common type of outline and usually instantly recognizable to most
people. The formatting follows these characters, in this order:
Roman Numerals
Capitalized Letters
Arabic Numerals
Lowercase Letters
If the outline needs to subdivide beyond these divisions, use Arabic numerals inside
parentheses and then lowercase letters inside parentheses. Select the "Sample Outlines"
PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of this outline.
The sample PDF in the Media Box above is an example of an outline that a student might
create before writing an essay. In order to organize her thoughts and make sure that she
has not forgotten any key points that she wants to address, she creates the outline as a
framework for her essay.
What is the assignment?
Your instructor asks the class to write an expository (explanatory) essay on the typical
steps a high school student would follow in order to apply to college.
What is the purpose of this essay?
To explain the process for applying to college
Who is the intended audience for this essay?
High school students intending to apply to college and their parents
What is the essay's thesis statement?
When applying to college, a student follows a certain process which includes choosing
the right schools and preparing the application materials.

Full Sentence Outlines

The full sentence outline format is essentially the same as the Alphanumeric outline. The
main difference (as the title suggests) is that full sentences are required at each level of
the outline. This outline is most often used when preparing a traditional essay. Select the
"Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of this outline.

Decimal Outlines
The decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline. The added benefit is
a system of decimal notation that clearly shows how every level of the outline relates to
the larger whole. Select the "Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to download
the sample of this outline.

Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for

an Argument Paper
The following sections outline the generally accepted structure for an academic argument
paper. Keep in mind that these are guidelines and that your structure needs to be flexible
enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.
You may also use the following Purdue OWL resources to help you with your argument
paper:

Creating a Thesis Statement

Establishing Arguments
Organizing Your Argument
Organizing Your Argument Slide Presentation
Logic in Argumentative Writing
Paragraphs and Paragraphing
Transitions and Transitional Devices

Introduction
The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important
questions:
1. What is this?
2. Why am I reading it?
3. What do you want me to do?
You should answer these questions by doing the following:
1. Set the context provide general information about the main idea, explaining the
situation so the reader can make sense of the topic and the claims you make and
support

2. State why the main idea is important tell the reader why s/he should care and
keep reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay
people will want to read and act upon
3. State your thesis/claim compose a sentence or two stating the position you will
support with logos (sound reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced
emotional appeal), and ethos (author credibility).
For exploratory essays, your primary research question would replace your thesis
statement so the audience understands why you began your inquiry. An overview of the
types of sources you explored might follow your research question.
If your argument paper is long, you may want to forecast how you will support your
thesis by outlining the structure of your paper, the sources you will consider, and the
opposition to your position. Your forecast could read something like this:
First, I will define key terms for my argument, and then I will provide some background
of the situation. Next I will outline the important positions of the argument and explain
why I support one of these positions. Lastly, I will consider opposing positions and
discuss why these positions are outdated. I will conclude with some ideas for taking
action and possible directions for future research.
This is a very general example, but by adding some details on your specific topic, this
forecast will effectively outline the structure of your paper so your readers can more
easily follow your ideas.
Thesis Checklist
Your thesis is more than a general statement about your main idea. It needs to establish a
clear position you will support with balanced proofs (logos, pathos, ethos). Use the
checklist below to help you create a thesis.
This section is adapted from Writing with a Thesis: A Rhetoric Reader by David Skwire
and Sarah Skwire:
Make sure you avoid the following when creating your thesis:

A thesis is not a title: Homes and schools (title) vs. Parents ought to participate
more in the education of their children (good thesis).
A thesis is not an announcement of the subject: My subject is the incompetence of
the Supreme Court vs. The Supreme Court made a mistake when it ruled in favor
of George W. Bush in the 2000 election.
A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact: Jane Austen is the author of Pride and
Prejudice.
A thesis is not the whole essay: A thesis is your main
idea/claim/refutation/problem-solution expressed in a single sentence or a
combination of sentences.

Please note that according to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers,
Sixth Edition, "A thesis statement is a single sentence that formulates both your
topic and your point of view" (Gibaldi 56). However, if your paper is more
complex and requires a thesis statement, your thesis may require a combination of
sentences.

Make sure you follow these guidelines when creating your thesis:

A good thesis is unified: Detective stories are not a high form of literature, but
people have always been fascinated by them, and many fine writers have
experimented with them (floppy). vs. Detective stories appeal to the basic human
desire for thrills (concise).
A good thesis is specific: James Joyces Ulysses is very good. vs. James Joyces
Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious.
Try to be as specific as possible (without providing too much detail) when
creating your thesis: James Joyces Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to
deal with the unconscious. vs. James Joyces Ulysses helped create a new way for
writers to deal with the unconscious by utilizing the findings of Freudian
psychology and introducing the techniques of literary stream-of-consciousness.

Quick Checklist:
_____ The thesis/claim follows the guidelines outlined above
_____ The thesis/claim matches the requirements and goals of the assignment
_____ The thesis/claim is clear and easily recognizable
_____ The thesis/claim seems supportable by good reasoning/data, emotional appeal

Body Paragraphs
Body Paragraphs: Moving from General to Specific Information
Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific
information. Every time you begin a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - the
broadest range of information sits at the top, and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the
author becomes more and more focused on the argument ending with specific, detailed
evidence supporting a claim. Lastly, the author explains how and why the information she
has just provided connects to and supports her thesis (a brief wrap up or warrant).

Image Caption: Moving from General to Specific Information

The four elements of a good paragraph (TTEB)
A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: Transition, Topic
sentence, specific Evidence and analysis, and a Brief wrap-up sentence (also known as a
warrant) TTEB!
1. A Transition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth
reading. This acts as a hand off from one idea to the next.
2. A Topic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the
paragraph.
3. Specific Evidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides
a deeper level of detail than your topic sentence.
4. A Brief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information
supports the papers thesis. The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The
warrant is important to your argument because it connects your reasoning and
support to your thesis, and it shows that the information in the paragraph is related
to your thesis and helps defend it.
Supporting evidence (induction and deduction)
Induction
Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general conclusion.
When you use induction in your paper, you will state your thesis (which is actually the

conclusion you have come to after looking at all the facts) and then support your thesis
with the facts. The following is an example of induction taken from Dorothy U. Seylers
Understanding Argument:
Facts:
There is the dead body of Smith. Smith was shot in his bedroom between the hours of
11:00 p.m. and 2:00 a.m., according to the coroner. Smith was shot with a .32 caliber
pistol. The pistol left in the bedroom contains Joness fingerprints. Jones was seen, by a
neighbor, entering the Smith home at around 11:00 p.m. the night of Smiths death. A
coworker heard Smith and Jones arguing in Smiths office the morning of the day Smith
died.
Conclusion: Jones killed Smith.
Here, then, is the example in bullet form:

Conclusion: Jones killed Smith

Support: Smith was shot by Jones gun, Jones was seen entering the scene of the
crime, Jones and Smith argued earlier in the day Smith died.
Assumption: The facts are representative, not isolated incidents, and thus reveal a
trend, justifying the conclusion drawn.

Deduction
When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move to a
specific conclusion. There is a precise pattern you must use when you reason deductively.
This pattern is called syllogistic reasoning (the syllogism). Syllogistic reasoning
(deduction) is organized in three steps:
1. Major premise
2. Minor premise
3. Conclusion
In order for the syllogism (deduction) to work, you must accept that the relationship of
the two premises lead, logically, to the conclusion. Here are two examples of deduction
or syllogistic reasoning:
Socrates
1. Major premise: All men are mortal.
2. Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
3. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
Lincoln

1. Major premise: People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a crisis are
great leaders.
2. Minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear
purpose in a crisis.
3. Conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader.
So in order for deduction to work in the example involving Socrates, you must agree that
1) all men are mortal (they all die); and 2) Socrates is a man. If you disagree with either
of these premises, the conclusion is invalid. The example using Socrates isnt so difficult
to validate. But when you move into more murky water (when you use terms such as
courage, clear purpose, and great), the connections get tenuous.
For example, some historians might argue that Lincoln didnt really shine until a few
years into the Civil War, after many Union losses to Southern leaders such as Robert E.
Lee.
The following is a more clear example of deduction gone awry:
1. Major premise: All dogs make good pets.
2. Minor premise: Doogle is a dog.
3. Conclusion: Doogle will make a good pet.
If you dont agree that all dogs make good pets, then the conclusion that Doogle will
make a good pet is invalid.
Enthymemes
When a premise in a syllogism is missing, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme.
Enthymemes can be very effective in argument, but they can also be unethical and lead to
invalid conclusions. Authors often use enthymemes to persuade audiences. The following
is an example of an enthymeme:
If you have a plasma TV, you are not poor.
The first part of the enthymeme (If you have a plasma TV) is the stated premise. The
second part of the statement (you are not poor) is the conclusion. So the unstated premise
is Only rich people have plasma TVs. The enthymeme above leads us to an invalid
conclusion (people who own plasma TVs are not poor) because there are plenty of people
who own plasma TVs who are poor. Lets look at this enthymeme in a syllogistic
structure:

Major premise: People who own plasma TVs are rich (unstated above).
Minor premise: You own a plasma TV.
Conclusion: You are not poor.

To help you understand how induction and deduction can work together to form a solid
argument, you may want to look at the American Declaration of Independence. The first
section of the Declaration contains a series of syllogisms, while the middle section is an
inductive list of examples. The final section brings the first and second sections together
in a compelling conclusion.

Rebuttal Sections
In order to present a fair and convincing message, you may need to anticipate, research,
and outline some of the common positions (arguments) that dispute your thesis. If the
situation (purpose) calls for you to do this, you will present and then refute these other
positions in the rebuttal section of your essay.
It is important to consider other positions because in most cases, your primary audience
will be fence-sitters. Fence-sitters are people who have not decided which side of the
argument to support.
People who are on your side of the argument will not need a lot of information to align
with your position. People who are completely against your argument - perhaps for
ethical or religious reasons - will probably never align with your position no matter how
much information you provide. Therefore, the audience you should consider most
important are those people who haven't decided which side of the argument they will
support - the fence-sitters.
In many cases, these fence-sitters have not decided which side to align with because they
see value in both positions. Therefore, to not consider opposing positions to your own in
a fair manner may alienate fence-sitters when they see that you are not addressing their
concerns or discussion opposing positions at all.
Organizing your rebuttal section
Following the TTEB method outlined in the Body Paragraph section, forecast all the
information that will follow in the rebuttal section and then move point by point through
the other positions addressing each one as you go. The outline below, adapted from
Seyler's Understanding Argument, is an example of a rebuttal section from a thesis essay.
When you rebut or refute an opposing position, use the following three-part organization:
The opponents argument Usually, you should not assume that your reader has read or
remembered the argument you are refuting. Thus at the beginning of your paragraph, you
need to state, accurately and fairly, the main points of the argument you will refute.
Your position Next, make clear the nature of your disagreement with the argument or
position you are refuting. Your position might assert, for example, that a writer has not
proved his assertion because he has provided evidence that is outdated, or that the
argument is filled with fallacies.

Your refutation The specifics of your counterargument will depend upon the nature of
your disagreement. If you challenge the writers evidence, then you must present the
more recent evidence. If you challenge assumptions, then you must explain why they do
not hold up. If your position is that the piece is filled with fallacies, then you must present
and explain each fallacy.

Conclusions
Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from
general to specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion
should begin pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of
your argument. Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research.
The following outline may help you conclude your paper:
In a general way,
restate your topic and why it is important,
restate your thesis/claim,
address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your
position,
call for action or overview future research possibilities.
Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your
instructor, you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with
a whiz bang(!) conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your
conclusion. Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing message.
The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument
papers:
1. Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).
2. Tell them (body).
3. Tell them what you told them (conclusion).