'^^i

Inttritatbngl

Cntual Commtntarg

UNDER THE EDITORSHIP OF

The

Rev.

SAMUEL ROLLES DRIVER,

D.D., D.Litt.,

Regius Professor o/ Hebrew, Oxford;

The

Rev.

ALFRED PLUMMER,

Late Master of University

The

Rev.

College,

M.A., D.D.,
Durham;

CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS,

D.D., D.Litt.,

Professor of Theological Encyclopcedia and Symbolics,

Union Theological Seminary, New York.

The International Critical Commentary

AND EXEGETICAL
COMMENTARY

CRITICAL

ON

THE BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES

BY

GEORGE AARON BARTON,

Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE AND SEMITIC LANGUAGES

BRYN MAWR COLLEGE, PENNSYLVANIA

EDINBURGH
T.

&

T.

CLARK,

38

GEORGE STREET

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN By

MORRISON

AND GIBB

LIMITED

FOR
T.

&

T.

CLARK. EDINBURGH

KEW YURK: CHARLES

SCRIBNUR'S SOKS

First Impression

Reprinted

....

16

1908
1959

1964

^0
MY BROTHER

JOSHUA LINDLEY BARTON, M.D.

WHOSE GENEROUS ENCOURAGEMENT
AND SELF-SACRIFICE OPENED TO ME
A student's career

this

volume

is
affectionately
dedicated

PREFACE

THE

commentary on the Book

Those who expect to find here the
advocacy of new and startling theories of this fascinatperplexing book will be disappointed.
In the judgment
following pages are a plain
Ecclesiastes.

of

ingly

been something too much of these

has

of the writer there

things in the recent literature

made

An

on Qoheleth.

endeavour

is

examine the important theories

in the following pages to

concerning the book, both ancient and modern, in an impartial

spirit,

and, in the formation of judgments, to go whither the

evidence

Obviously,

points.

novel

Occasionally the

discovery.

differing

from

his predecessors,

all

evidence has pointed

will

commend

He

mentary

shall

themselves to

have a

of scholars

labour expended upon

In conclusion,
Spoer,
of

much more

but

his colleagues,

is

some MSS. of

Library

of

the

will

for

the

placing at

of

in

metrical

reading

use,

com-

judgment on
involved,

Dr.

the

Hans H.

his collation

Greek Version of Ecclesiastes

Church of the Holy Sepulchre;

to

this

sufficiently objective

my thanks to
my disposal

Paul Haupt, for permitting me,

theory,

if

be more than rewarded.

desire to express

of Jerusalem,

but

in recalling criti-

concerning the problems

it

often the

cannot hope that his conclusions

all

some ultimate promise of a consensus

part

opportunity for

has found himself

however humble,

part,

work which has

little

writer

cism to regions in which the evidence

to give

the

is

conclusion already anticipated by

to a

some previous worker.

treating

in

been studied so many centuries, there

while

in the

to Professor

my disbelief in his
my proofs, advance

spite of

PREFACE

v\

sheets of his

Hebrew Text of Ecclesiastes ;

Charles A. Briggs, for his helpful

to the Editor, Professor

criticisms

and many kindand

nesses while the book has been passing through the press
to

my wife,

for her valuable aid in reading the proofs.

GEORGE
Bryn Mawr,

Pa.,

April 2nd, 1908.

A.

BARTON.

CONTENTS
PAGE

ABBREVIATIONS

ix

NAME OF THE BOOK

PLACE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

CANONICITY

TEXT

1.

Hebrew Text

2.

The

3.

The Greek Version

4.

The Version

of Theodotian

11

5.

The Version

of Symmachus

12

6.

The

Coptic Version

13

7.

The

Syriac Peshitta

13

8.

The Syro-hexaplar Version

14

9.

Old Latin Version

14

10.

The Latin Vulgate

iS

11.

The Arabic Version

iS

12.

The Targum

15

13.

Quotations in the Talmud

16

14.

Recensions of the Text

17

Septuagint Version
of Aquila

11

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION

18

THE RELATION OF "QOHELETH" TO GREEK THOUGHT

32

1.

Supposed Linguistic Influence

2.

Relation to

Greek Thought

32

34
TU

CONTENTS

vui

PACK

THE INTEGRITY OF ECCLESIASTES

43

QOHELETH'S THOUGHT IN OUTLINE

46

WAS QOHELETH WRITTEN IN METRICAL FORM?

50

...

52

THE RELATION OF ECCLESIASTES TO BEN SIRA ...

53

LINGUISTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

QOHELETH

THE ATTITUDE OF THE BOOK OF WISDOM TO

ECCLESIASTES

57

DATE AND AUTHORSHIP

COMMENTARY
INDEXES

58
-

67

205

ABBREVIATIONS.
TEXTS AND VERSIONS.

I.

AV.

= The Arabic Version.

= Version of Aquila.
= Aldine text of
= Authorized Version.

BD.

A
'A
Aid.

Chr.

K
Kt.

Baer

The

& Delitzsch, Heb. text.

Chronicler, author of

The Deuteronomist
in

author

Mas.

MT.
NT.

in Dt.,

other books Deuter-

onomic

of

The Coptic

Version.

K^thib, the

Hebrew

text as

written.

(S.

Ch. Ezr. Ne.

D.

=
=

OT.
P.

= Old Latin Version.

= Massora.
= TheMassoreticpointedtext.
= The New Testament.
= The Old Testament.
= The priestly sources of the

Re-

Hexateuch.

dactor.

Qr.

E.

Ephraemitic sources of Hex-

EV^

English Versions.

Greek Scptuagint Version,

(g

(gc

(gN
<gv

= The Alexandrine text.

= The Vatican text.
= Codex Ephraemi.
= The Sinaitic text.
= Codex Venetus.

H.

=
=

Hebrew consonantal text.

Code of Holiness of the

Hex.

The Hexateuch

J-

Judaic sources of the Hexa-

Hexateuch.

RV."'

The

Version.

Jerome, Commentary.

Syriac

Peshitto Ver-

sion.

=
=

The Version of Symmachus.

21

==

The Targum

&"

Syriac-Hexaplar Version.

or

Aramaic

Version.

H
Vrss.

WL.

= The Vulgate Version.

= Versions, usually ancient.
= The Wisdom Literature of
the

teuch.

J.C.

text as

The Redactor, or editor.

The Revised Version.
The margin of the Revised

Vatican text of Swete.

(&^

Hebrew

=
=
=

R.

RV.

Q^rc, the
read.

ateuch.

(&

The

OT.

Version of Theodotian.

ABBREVIATIONS

BOOKS OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.

I I.

Am.

Bar.

BS.

I,2Ch
Col.
I,

=
=
=

2Cor.=

Ct.

Amos.

Jon.
Jos.

Baruch
Ecclesiasticus of

Ben

Ju.
Sira.
I,

I,

La.

Lk.

Corinthians.

Canticles

The Song

of

Songs.

Dn.
Dt.
Ec.
Est.

Eph.
Ex.
Ez.
Ezr.

Gn.
Gal.

Hb.
Heb.
Hg.
Ho.
Is.

Is.2
Is.'

Jb.
Je.

Jn.
Jo.

=
=

2K .=1,2 Kings.

Chronicles.

Colossians.
I, 2

= Jonah.
= JoshiK".
= Judges.

Lv.

Mai.

=
=
=
=

i,2Mac.=

Daniel.

Deuteronomy.

= Ecclesiastes.
= Esther.
= Ephesians.
= Exodus.
= Ezekiel.
= Ezra.
= Genesis.
= Galatians.
= Habakkuk.
= Hebrews.
= Haggai.
= Hosea.
= early parts of Isaiah.
= exilic parts of Isaiah.
= post-exilic parts of Isaiah.
= Job.
= Jeremiah.
= John.
= Joel.
III.

Lamentations.

Luke.
Leviticus.

Malachi.
I,

Maccabees.

= Micah.
= Mark.
Mk.
= Matthew.
Mt.
= Nahum.
Na.
= Nehemiah.
Ne.
= Numbers.
Nu.
= Obadiah.
Ob.
= Philippians.
Phil.
= Proverbs.
Pr.
= Psalms.
Ps.
=
Qoheleth or Ecclesiastes.
Q.
= Qoheleth or Ecclesiastes.
Qoh.
= Revelation.
Rev.
Rom. = Romans.
= Ruth.
Ru.
= 2 Samuel.
2S.
2 Thes. =
2 Thessalonians.
= 2 Timothy.
2 Tim.
= Zechariah.
Zc.
= Zephaniah.
Zp.
Mi.

I,

I,

I,

I,

I,

I,

AUTHORS AND WRITERS.

=
=

Aben

Aug.

Augustine.

specially referred to

BDB.

Hebrew and English

BDB.
BDB.
BDB.

AE.

Ezra.

Briggs.

is

Lexicon of the OT.,

edited by F. Brown,
S.

R. Driver, C. A.

Bar Heb.

The editor
by
Brown,

designated
F.
S.

R. Driver,

C. A. Briggs.

Bar Hcbracus.

ABBREVIATIONS
Be.

= G.

Beer.

Bick.

Bickell,

G.

Ew.
Das Buck Ew.^

= H. Ewald.
= his Lehrb.

Br.^'^

= F. Bottcher.
= C. A. Briggs.
= Messiah of the

Br.^

Bo.
Br.

of

Br.sHs

= Messianic Prophecy.
= Study of Holy Scripture.

Br.HHx.

Higher Criticism
the Hexateuch.

J. Furst.

Gen.

Genung, Words of Ko-

Ges.

Gesenius, Thesaurus.

Ges.2"-

Ges.*^-

heleth.

Gesenius, Wo'rterbuch,
13th ed.

Co.

CT.

= Cuneiform

buch.

Grot.

= his Lehrgebdude.
= Ginsburg, Coheleth.
= Gratz, Kohelet.
= Grotius.

H.

Gins.

Gr.

Texts front

Ha.

P.

Mu-

Heil.

Heiligstedt,

seum.

Houb.

=
=
=

Ja.

JBL.

Davidson, Hebrew Heng.

Hit.

DB.

=
=

Del.

Dod.

= Doderlein, Ecclesiastes
= S. R. Driver, Ecclesi-

Dathe, Ecclesiastes.
Hastings'

Dictionary

of the Bible.

Franz Delitzsch, Das

Biblia Hebraica.

Dr.'

= Heb. Tenses.
= Introduction to Literature of

Ecclesias-

OT.

Hengstenberg.
F. Hitzig, Ecclesiastes.

C. F. Houbigant.

J astro w. Diet, of the

and
Targ., Talm.
Lit.

Journal of Biblical Literature.

Jos.A"t-

= Jewish Encyclopaedia.
= Jerome.
= Fl. Josephus, Antiq-

Jos.BJ.

astes in Kittel's JE.

Dr.^

Haupt, Koheleth
and Ecclesiastes.

Midrashic

Buch Koheleth.
Dr.

Hebrew

tes.

Syntax.

Dat.

R. Harper,

Syntax.

Babylonian Tablets

Da.

W.

C. H. Cornill.

in the British

ed.

Kautzsch.
Ges.^

ChWB.

Heb. Gram.,

his

of

= John Calvin.
= T. K. Cheyne.
= Levy, Chald. Worter-

Calv.

Che.

the Gos-

pels.

Br.MP

Heb.

Fii.

Apos-

tles.

Messiah

der

Sprache.

Kohelet.

Jer.

uities.

Fl.

Josephus, Wars of

the Jews.

EB.
Elst.

Eph. Syr
Eur.

= Encyclopaedia Biblica.
= Elster.
= Ephraem Syrus.
= Euringer, Masorahtext
des Koheleth.

JQR.

Jewish Quarterly Review.

Kam.
Kau.

= A. S. Kamenetzky.
= E. Kautzsch.

ABBRF.VIATIONS
Kenn.

Benj. Kennicott, Vetus

R6.

Testamentum He- Rob.

hraicum cum variis
lectionihus.

Ki.

E. Rodiger
E. Robinson, Biblical
Researches.

RS.

=
=

W. Robertson

Sieg.

D. C. Siegfried, Predi-

Ros.

Daniel Kimchi (Qam-

=
=

RosenmuUer.
Smith.

chi).

Kn.

W. Knobel, Das

A.

Buck
Ko.

Qoheleth.

F. E. Konig,
b

a tide

ger tind Hoheslied.

Lehrge-

der

H eb

Lag.
Lag.^-v

Luz.

=
=
=
=

Siegfried

Sta.

B. Stade.

Sm.

Sprache.

Kue.

SS.

=
=
=

Siev.

M.

MA.

R. Smend.

and Stade's
Heb. Wdrterbuch.

A. Kuenen.
P. de Lagarde.
his

S.

Bildung der No-

mina.

Talm.

D. Luzzato.

Tisch.

Tr.

=
=

Marsh.

E. Sievers.

= The Talmud.
= C. Tischendorf.
= Tristram, Natural
History of the Bible.

Marshall, Ecclesiastes.
Miiller's

Hebrew Syn- Ty.

T. Tyler, Ecclesiastes.

=
=
=

W.

=
=
=
=

J.

tax.

W. Muss- Arnold, As- Van

syr. Dictionary.

McN.

A.

Mich.

=
=

J.

H.

McNeile,

d. P.

VI.

Vaih.

In-

van der Palm.

Vlock.

J. C. Vaihinger.

trod. to Ecclesiastes.

Mish.

D. Michaelis.

Wang.
We.

The Mishna.

Wild.

NHWB. =

Levy, Neuhebr. Wor-

Wr.

Dr.

Wildeboer.
C. H. H. Wright, Ec-

terbuch.

clesiastes.

No.

W. Nowack, Pr. Solom.

PI.

E. H. Plumtre, Eccle-

Zap.

V. Zapletal, Metrik

Zo.

O.

= Rawlin son's Ctmeiform

d.

Kohelet.

siastes.

R.

Wangemann.

Wellhausen.

Zockler,
in

Prediger

Lange's

Bibel-

werk.

Inscriptions of

Western Asia, IV. R.

= Vol.
Ra.
Re.

=
=

IV. of

ZAW.

it.

Zeitschrift

E. Renan,

L'Eccle- ZMG.

Z. d. deutsch.

Riehm's Handwdrter- ZPV.

Z.

d.

deutsch.

huch.

Morgen-

land. Gesellschaft.

siasle.

^imyB

alttest.

f.

Wissenschaft.

Rashi.

Vereins.

Pal.

ABBREVIATIONS
IV.
abr.
abs.
abstr.

ace.
ace. cog.
ace. pers.
ace. rei
ace. to
act.

adj.

adv.
a.X.

GENERAL, ESPECI ALLY GRAMMATICAL.

= abbreviation.
= absolute.
= abstract.
= accusative.
= cognate ace.
= ace. of person.
= ace. of thing.
= according to.
= active.
= adjective.
= adverb.
= dira^ \ey6iJ.evov,

elsw.
esp.

emph.
Eth.
exc.
exil.

f-

fig.

fpl.
fr.

word

or phr. used once.

Aram.

= aliier, and elsw.

= always.
= antithesis, antithetical.
= apodosis.
= Arabic.
= Aramaic.

art.

== article.

As.

= Assyrian.

alw.
antith.

apod.
Ar.

Bab.
B. Aram.
c.

=
=
=

Biblical Aramaic.
circa,

about; also cum,

consec.
contr.

== contract, contracted.

codd

cog.
coll.

comm.
comp.
concr.
conj.

cstr.
d.f.

def.
del.

dittog.

=
=
=
=
=
=

=
=
=
=
=
=

feminine.
figurative.

feminine plural.
from.
frequentative.

feminine singular.

=
=
=

genitive.

Heb.

=
=

Hebrew.

Hiph.

== Hiphil of verb.

Hithp.

gent.
gl-

gen.

haplog.

impf.

imv.
indef.

with.

cf.

= elsewhere.
= especially.
= emphasis, emphatic.
= Ethiopic.
= except.
= exilic.

gentilic.

gloss, glossator.

haplography.

Hithpael of verb.

Babylonian.

= causative.
= codex, codices.
= confer, compare.
= cognate.
= collective.
= commentaries.
= compare.
= concrete.
= conjunction.
= consecutive.

caus.

dub.

fs.

ei

al.

cod.,

freq.

inf.
i.p.
i.q.

intrans.

J.Ar.
juss.

lit.

loe.

m.

construct.

Mand.

daghesh

metaph.

forte.

=
=
=
,=

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

defective.

imperfect.

imperative.
indefinite.
infinitive.

in pause.

id quod, the

same with

intransitive.

Jewish Aramaic.
jussive.

literal, literally.

local, locality.

masculine.

Mandican.
metaphor, metaphorical.

dele, strike out.

mng.

dittography.

mpl.

dubious, doubtful.

ms.

=
=
=

meaning.
masculine plural.

masculine singular.

ABBREVIATIONS
n.

= question.
= quod vide.
= read.
= reflexive.
= relative.
= Sabaean.
= suffix.

qu.

n. p.

n. pr. loc.

n. unit.

Nab.

NH.

Niph.

proper name.
proper noun of
noun of unity.
Nabathean.
New Hebrew.

q.v.

place.
rd.
refl.

rel.

Niphal of verb.

Sab.
sf.

obj.

object.

opposite, as opposed to

pf.

perfect.

subst.

Ph.

Phoenician,

s.v.

phr.

phrase.

syn.

Pi.

Piel of verb,

synth.

pi.

plural.

Syr.

= singular.
= si vera lectio.
= simile.
= followed by.
= status, state, stative.
= strophe.
= subject.
= substantive.
= sub voce.
= synonymous.
= synthetic.
= Syriac.

post-B.

post-Biblical,
t.

postex.

postexilic.

pred.

predicate,

opp.

sg.

vera

si

or contrasted with.

sim.

P-

parall.

person.

sq.

parallel with.

St.

part.

particle,

str.

pass.

passive,

subj.

times (following a num

ber).

=
=
=
=

tr.

preex.

preexilic.

preg.

pregnant,

trans.
txt.

prep.

preposition,

prob.

probable,

txt. err.

pron.

pronoun,

V.

ptc.

participle.

vb.

Pu.

Pual of verb.

vs.

V.
II

OTHER

words or clauses chiefly

synonymous.

parallel, of

equivalent, equals,

-f-

plus denotes that other passages

might be
[ ]

cited.

form enclosed
the Hebrew, so far as

indicates that the

is

not in

known.

\/

transfer.
transitive.
text.

textual error.

== vide, see.

=
=

verb.
verse.

SIGNS.

= the root, or stem.

= sign of abbreviation

in

Hebrew

words.
"*

( )

= Yahweh.
= Indicates

that Massoretic text

has not been followed, but

either

Vrss.

emendations.

or

conjectural

INTRODUCTION.
NAME.

1.

The name
T^9)

is

The meaning

Qoheleth.

of this

the

word

is

an assembly," (see

critical

uncertain, but

note on ch.

meanings which have been supposed

'E/^/cXeo-tao--

unique Hebrew word,

"one who addresses an assembly," or "an

signifies
in

Greek

Ecclesiastes (Latin, Ecclesiastes,

apparently a translation of

it

probably

official

speaker

where the various

i',

to attach to the

term are

reviewed).

PLACE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE.

2.

Hebrew

In the

Bible Ecclesiastes stands in the third division

canon among the KUtibim, or Hagiography, where

of the

follows Lamentations

and precedes Esther.

It

so-called Megilloth, or "Rolls," the only parts of the

which were publicly read

Ecclesiastes

In the

was admitted
of

list

at the

books given

to
in

Jewish
its

festivals.

are not even grouped together.

Qoheleth

is

13,

now

Hagiography

At what period

present position

Baba Batra,

it

forms one of the

14,

is

uncertain.

the Megilloth

included,

and

im-

it

mediately follows Proverbs and precedes Canticles, as in our English Bibles.

final

In the Talmudic treatise So/eritn, which reached

Canticles,

Lamentations and Esther are mentioned twice (14'

but Ecclesiastes

is

omitted from both passages.

and W. R. Smith, OT.

Samuel

edited by
it

is

its

redaction about the middle of the eighth century, Ruth,

in

JC, 2d

ed., p. i73n.)

),

(JE., XI, p. 427''

In the Mahzor,

of Vitry at the beginning of the twelfth century,

said that at the feast of tabernacles the congregation, seated,

read the

"book"

Ecclesiastes.

was, perhaps, not

I

It is

not here called a "roll"

then included in the Megilloth.

1

(Cf.

and
JE.,

ECCLESIASTES

MSS.

In the extant

VIII, 429.)

of the Bible the Megilloth are

usually grouped together, though the order varies, especially in

Spanish MSS.

(C/. the table in Ryle's Cano7i,

281/.)

after the twelfth century, apparently, the present order

Soon

(Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes) was established in French and

German MSS., and has been maintained ever since.

printed editions of the Hebrew Bible were made,

first

had, at

all

events, taken

Before the
Ecclesiastes

present position as one of the five

its

first printed Hagiography, 1486Bomberg's great Biblia Rahhinica of 15 17, whicli

contained three Targums and a Rabbinic commentary.

Megilloth.

This

is

true of the

1487, as well as

CANONICITY.

3.

Ecclesiastes is not mentioned in any canonical writing of the

Old Testament. Evidence has, however, come to light in recent
years which proves quite conclusively that it was known in an
edited form to the author of Ecdesiasticus, or the Wisdo??i of
Jesus Son of Sirach, who wrote about 180-175 B.C. This evi-

dence

is

given in detail below in 11; but Noldeke's article in

ZAW., XX, 90

and McNeile's Introduction to Ecclesiastes,

34 ff., may also be compared. There is no reason to suppose,
however, that Ecclesiastes had been canonized at the time of Ben
Sira; on the contrary, the very opposite would seem to be the fact,
for Ecclesiastes

/.,

was also known

to a later extra-canonical writer, the

author of the Wisdom of Solomon,

century B.C.

The author

who probably wrote

of this last-mentioned

in the first

book, in his

second chapter, sets himself to correct the sinful utterances of

certain ungodly

men, and there can be no question but that

in

number
Whether
of the utterances of Qoheleth (for details, see below, 12).
Qoheleth was known to the author of Wisdom in the Hebrew or in
a Greek translation is unknown; and the fact, if known, would

verses 1-9 he includes

among

the sayings of the ungodly a

have no bearing on the question of canonicity, for uncanonical

books were often translated.

The

(See, however, below, 4, (2)

tone of the attack upon Qoheleth, which

indicates that to

him

the

is

made

book was not yet Scripture.

in

and

(3).

Wisdom,

The

ear-

CANONICITY

nestness of the attack makes rather the impression that the book
was a candidate for canonical regard that it was so esteemed in
some quarters and that the writer wished to open the eyes of his

readers to the true character of

Talmudic

to

story,

sentiments.

its

which McNeile

calls attention,

Talm.
j

Jerusalem, Berakoth, iib

attached to
authority

it,

(vii,

2),

indicate that in the

was by some assigned

says,

It

"The

first

if

any weight can be

century B.C. canonical

to the book.

cerning an incident in the reign of

B.C.).

would,

The

story

is

con-

Alexander Janna^us (104-79

king (Jannaeus) said to him (Simon ben

Shetach, the king's brother-in-law),

'Why

didst thou

mock me by
when half
mocked thee

saying that nine hundred sacrifices were required,

would have been

sufficient ?

For the protection

thus making a

wisdom

of

literal

Simon answered, I
and I mine ... as
*

'

not; thou hast paid thy share

is

it

written.

is

as the protection of money,'"

quotation from Eccl. 7'^

Another Talmudic story quoted by Wright (Baba Batra, 4a)

relates to the time of

members

of the

Herod.

That monarch, having put

to death

Sanhedrin and deprived Baba ben Buta of his

and endeavored to betray him

some unguarded expression with reference to Herod's own
tyranny.
Ben Buta steadily refused to utter an incautious word,
and in his replies he quotes from all three parts of the Biblical
sight, visited the latter in disguise

into

canon

from the Pentateuch, Ex. 22", from the Prophets,

and from
lo*"

the

KHuhim,

introducing

and

Isa. 2,

in three different parts Eccl.

each quotation with the formula for quoting

canonical Scripture.

quoted

Pr. 6",

The

passage from Qoheleth which

is

thus

is:

Do

not even in thy thought curse

Nor

in thy

And

the

tlie

king,

bedcliamber curse a rich man

For the bird of heaven shall carry the voice,

Wright
to

(p.

owner

of wings shall

21 jf.) also gives in

which Bloch had called attention

full

tell

a thing.

another Talmudic story,

Rabbi Gamaliel
hath^ 30b),

a story relating to the great Q)

I (r. 44 A.D.).
According to this tale {SabGamaliel had a dispute with a brilliant pupil, whom

Bloch believed to be the Apostle Paul, and in the course of the

ECCLESIASTES

dispute, the pupil quoted as Scripture twice Eccl. i": ''There

is

nothing new under the sun."

Talmudic

If these

came from a contemporary

tales

would prove that Ecclesiastes had been admitted

by the

that the

centuries
to

century B.C.

first

A.D.

had

traditions

canon

passages prove

fact, all that the

the

Rabbis of the Talmudic period

is

third to the fifth

which they apparently believed

be authentic that Qoheleth had been recognized as Scripture

at the dates

mentioned.

The New Testament

of

In

source, they

into the

Ecclesiastes.

affords us

There

siastes.

When, however,

account,

it

silence

is

cannot

of our book.

no help

in the

is

in tracing the canonicity

NT. no

quotation from Eccle-

not strange that no reference

fairly

(See

book

the character of the

made

is

is

taken into

to

This

it.

be made an argument against the canonicity

pp. 131-132.)

Br.^"-^,

McNeile, however, goes farther than the evidence

when he argues {op. cit.,

of the word Scripture (17

p.

6^.) from the

ypacj)!],

three divisions of the

its

will

warrant

Testament use

at ypacjyai), that the canon

definitely so closed to the writers of the

another book could not find

New

way

into

it.

canon are mentioned

New
As

was

Testament that

is

well

known

the

in the prologue to the

Greek Ecclesiasticus, proving that they existed when that work

was translated, c. 130 B.C., and are also referred to in the Gospel
There is absolutely nothing, however, to
of Luke (ch. 24").
show us exactly what the New Testament writers had in the third
division of their canon.
It is quite possible, as McNeile claims,

them a definite body of writings, but that

no additions could be made to it, is an
unproved assumption, and the "impression that 'Scripture' meant
to the Apostolic writers the same body of Old Testament writings
that it means to us," if it is to be understood that their canon could
not have differed from ours by even one book, rests on no ademeant

that

T)

that

body was so

ypa(l)rj

to

fixed that

quate evidence whatever.

Some

(See Br.^"^, pp. 124

Jf.,

131.)

scholars find quotations from Ecclesiastes in the

New

Testa-

Thus Plumtre thinks that Paul may have had Qoheleth in mind
when he wrote "The creation was subjected to vanity" (Rom. 8*); and

ment.

that the Epistle of

James

alludes to

it:

"For ye

are a vapor which ap-

CANONICITY
pearcth for a

little

away"

time and then vanisheth

Such par-

(ch. 4").

however, too vague to be convincing.

allels are,

may

Neither writer

have been thinking of Qoheleth at all. Haupt believes that Jesus alludes
to Ecclesiastes with the purpose of combating its sentiments in the par-

man who

able of the rich

Lk.

Eccl.

much more

(Solomon in

Haupt

probable.

all his glory) is

Philo, like the

New

is

"above all" an

and

in 12^"'', to

The

an elaboration of BS.

5'",

12"= Matt.

6^,

allusion to Ecclesiastes, but

not convincing.

is

Solomon

able that the account of

in

Kings was

It is quite as

in the

mind

prob-

of Jesus.

Testament, makes no reference to Qoheleth,

but, as in the case of the

The

2*

also holds that Lk.

again one must say that the likeness

other books

barns to build greater,

his

an allusion to Eccl.

Rendel Harris, that the parable

J.

drawn from

down

pulled

sees in Lk. 12**

Again, the allusions are too vague to be convincing.

2'**'.

view of
is

He

12'**-^*.

New

this silence, as

Testament, no argument

is

to

be

he makes no reference to a number of

Ezekiel, Daniel, Canticles, Ruth and Lamentations.

suggestion

made

above, that Qoheleth was in some quarters

regarded as canonical, but was not universally received, receives

confirmation from one or two famous passages in the Mishna,

which reached
of the

Mishna

''defiles the

way

Holy Scriptures

of calling a

defile the

hands, but Koheleth

35,

we

is

to say that

of Songs and Qohe'The Song of Songs

disputed.'
Rabbi Jose says,

is

says,

^Qoheleth does not defile the hands, and the Song of Songs
disputed.'

things of

school of

it

read: "All the

The Song

hands.

Rabbi Judah

hands.

In the terminology

book canonical

In the Tract Yadaim,

hands."

leth defile the

defiles the

form about 200 A.D.

its final

the

is

Rabbi Simeon says, ^Qoheleth belongs to the light

the school of Shammai, but to the weighty things of the
Hillel.'
Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai says, 'I received from

mouth of the seventy-two elders on the day when they placed

Rabbi Eliezer ben Azariah in the president's chair, that the Song

the

of

Songs and Qoheleth

be

and peace!
Song of Songs

it

the

in all the

world

defile the hands.'

No man
that

like the

it

most holy.

And

cerning Qoheleth.^

if

said,

'Far

doubted concerning

defiled the hands, for there

day on which the Song

to Israel, because all the

is

Rabbi Aqiba

of Israel has ever

of

is

not a day

Songs was given

K^tuhim are holy, but the Song of Songs

they had doubts, they only doubted con-

Rabbi Johanan, son

of Joshua, son of the

ECCLESIASTES

6
father-in-law of

Rabbi Aqiba

says, 'so they differed

and so they

concluded.'"
Again, Eduyoth,

says: ^'Qoheleth does not defile the

5',

hands

according to the school of Shammai, but according to the school

of Hillel

the

it

These passages are echoed in

Now it seems very clear

does defile the hands."

Talmud and

Jewish writings.

in later

from these statements that down

to the

end

of the first century

A.D. Ecclesiastes was among the ''Antilegomena"

Ryle

Testament canon.

of the

Old

quite right in saying (Canon, 174),

is

century B.C., when the

and Sadducees became so
marked and their contentions so virulent, for a new book to be
introduced into the canon. It seems clear that, if Qoheleth had
not begun to gain a foothold before that in some influential quarter,
its chances of canonicity would have been slight, but it seems
equally clear that it was not universally accepted as a part of Scriptthat

it

would be

antipathy

difficult after the first

between

the

Pharisees

ure until after the great council of Jabne (Jamnia), at the end of
the

first

century A.D.

(See

The book probably won

Br.^""^, p.
its

way

130.)

at last, because as these pas-

show it had a part of the Pharisaical influence in its favor.

was not a question of Pharisee against Sadducee. The Sadducees would find no fault with the book. The line of cleavage was between the schools of Shammai and Hillel, and ultimately, probably because the work passed under the great name
sages
It

of

Solomon, the school of

Hillel

won and

Ecclesiastes

became a

part of the Scriptures.

The view arrived

OT. in J.C,

Smith,

at

2d

above agrees substantially with that of W. R.

185/. Wildeboer, Origin of the Old Testa-

ed.,

ment Canon, 147^.; and McNeile, Ecclesiastes. For attempts to explain

this evidence, see Ginsburg, Coheleth, i$ff.

away

The statement of Josephus (Contra Apion, i") that the Jewish

canon contained 22 books might be significant, if we knew how
the 22 books were reckoned.
in 2 (4)

Esdras

14*'"

*%

The same

is

true of the statement

which, according to the Oriental versions,

makes the Jewish canon consist of 24 books. In neither case

do we know how the number was made up. Different scholars

TEXT

have their theories, but, as positive evidence, both passages arc too
indefinite either to confirm or to refute the conclusion

reached.

(See

Br.^"*",

p.

The

127 f.)

we have

canonicity of Qoheleth

was soon accepted by Christians as well as Jews, for Hermas,

Mand., VII, quotes Eccl. 12" and Justin Martyr, in his dialogue
with Trypho, ch.
Alex, quotes

quotes Eccl.

6,

seems to

by name,
3'

in

recall

Stromata,

Eccl.

i'*-'^

three times, {Adv. Marc. 5% -De

Virg. Vel. 3); while Origen has several quotations

4.

(l).

The
of

the

text of the

book

HEBREW

Monog.
from

De

TEXT.

was written

a late form

in

form which evinces considerabl

Aramaic must have been

ployed by the Jews of the period, for there are

to the

largely

em-

many Aramaisms

both of vocabulary and construction in Ecclesiastes.

(See be-

low, 10.)

We

3,

it.

decay from the earlier tongue, and a considerable approach

language of the Mishna.

of

7"; Tertullian

TEXT,

of Ecclesiastes

Hebrew language

Clement

Qoheleth I2^

V\

do not

know whether

Ecclesiastes was written in the older Hebrew character, in the square Aramaic character, or in a modified form
intermediate between the two.
The last is probably the fact, for we
know from many documents that the older characters of the Moabite
Stone had undergone much modification. It is possible that the square
character had come in at the time Ecclesiastes was written.
The oldest inscription in the square character is that of Arak-el-Amir, which
dates from about 180 B.C.
This
(Cf. Lidzharski in JE., I, 443.)
was probably slightly later than the date of our book (see below ^13).
It is possible, therefore, that the square character may have been employed by the author of Ecclesiastes, but it may have been a form
intermediate between the old Hebrew and the square character, such as
is

found

in the

Jewish papyri recently discovered

in

Egypt.

(See Sayce

and Cowley's Aramaic Papyri Discovered at Assuan, London, 1906.)

As these papyri are some tw o hundred years o lder than Ecclesiastes,
the alphabet used by the Jew s had probably_ciurin^ the period lundgrgone considerable development towards the square form.
(See

LA

Br.sH.s,

pp. 172-3.)

manuscript of the Pentateuch exists

in St.

Petersburg which

ECCLESIASTES

some Jewish scholars think was written before 604 A.D., but

know no manuscript

far as

which

is

known

is

These MSS.,

older than the eleventh century.

They

contain the text of the Massorets only.

some

hibit

so

that contains Qohelelh

of course,

do, however, ex-

variations.

The Massorets

consulted a number of MSS. which are known by name,

but which have long ago disappeared, such as Codex Muggeh, Codex
Hilleli,

Sinai,

Codex Sanbuki, Codex Jerusalami, Codex Jericho, Codex

Codex Great Mahzor, Codex Ezra, and Codex Babylon. (For
Broyde

description, see

Many

of these

MSS.

in

JE., Ill, 473^^., esp. Br.^"^, pp. 183-4.)

exist in the various libraries of

Europe,

and have been studied and employed by scholars. }3enjamin

Kennicott, in his Vetiis Testamentum Hebraicum cum variis leclionibus, Oxford, 17 76-1 780, noted the variants as they

several

hundred MSS.

collations

of

350 of

His

Among

these.

the

texts

edited in recent years, those of Baer, Ginsburg

last

in

Kittel's

Biblia Hebraica)

rest

MSS.
number

they exhibit

well illustrated in his notes.

numbers

of

is

(2).

Most important
Greek

The Greek
one time,

translated in
later dates.
It is

is

(the

the fruit of a collation of

of variation

which

THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION.

men,

is

in the following

the legend that

commonly

it

was

is

the

trans-

called the Septuagint.

pages designated by

05.

Old Testament was not all made

or by one hand.
The Pentateuch was apparently
the third century B.C., and the other parts at various
translation of the

The KHubim were

naturally translated last of

probable that the Psalter existed

but there

Ecclesiastes,

and Driver

for the history of the text of Ecclesiastes

lated by seventy-two
is

is

and the kind

version, which, because of

This version

at

Driver's text
of these,

of

in

on the

on a collation of vary-

a considerable

ing

appear

text of the Megilloth rests

in

all.

Greek as early as 130 B.C.,

reason to think that the version of Ecclesiastes

now

was not made till the end of the first century A.D.,
and that it was made by Aquila, a native of Pontus, who was a
convert first to Christianity and then to Judaism, and who is said
found

in ($

TEXT
by Jerome

The

have been a pupil of Aqiba.

to

view are that the version of Qoheleth

most marked pecuHarities of the

reasons for this

many

in (^ exhibits

of the

style of Aquila's version as pre-

served by Origen in his famous Hexapla

pecuh'arities

which

occur to the same extent in the Septuagint version of no other

This view was

Old Testament book.

schichted. Juden, IV, 437,

by Dillmann
berkhte

by Graetz {Ge-

set forth

and Kohelet, 173-179).

was opposed

It

thorough paper

in a characteristically

in the Sitzungs-

preus. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, 1892,

d. kg.

I,

3-16; but

Dillman has been ably and successfully answered by McNeile

his Introduction to Ecclesiastes,

Some

Aquilan marks of

of the

which appear

style

in the Ecclesiastes

the rendering of pn, the sign of the ace, by

of <8 are as follows:

in

(See Br.^"^, p. 192.)

15-134.

(^vp;

and en by Kal ye; ^, with an infinitive, by tov with an infinitive,

even where it forms simply the complement of a verbal expression as
CI

in

i"

8'^

4'''

3'^

lo'-^

5''

Aquila, 13), where the

inappropriate to render
TOV

von

<xo<pov
Sd"',

0':iji^^

4" Kal

II^

etc.,

it

by

els;

it

is

-'ns'^i,

9^

as

Aquila

in

preceded by

is

Tw dv^/5wirv=

2^'

6 Its

8''^

Hebrew noun

rendered by the

D^x'^j

tw

^"

it

would be
2"

article, e.g.

iravri

etc.;

K-i5a>'=3,^;|!'^,

Burkitt's

(cf.

and

*^,

ir

pdy jxar

used

in

i.

com-

more than twenty times, as e.g.,

by Kadbbovs, 6'' 7-^ ^^); of hy^ by TrapA,
"6'- 7"- "
12"; 31:3 by i.yaduiav-n, 4'

parison, rendere<i by virkp with ace.

in 2"; the rendering of

with a Gen.,

5>- '^

7'^-

a'::;*D
<'*'

8''

s'"-

These are but a few of the examples. Many more will be

found in the work of McNcile already cited. Jerome mentions twice
{Opera, V, 32 and 624) Aquila's second edkion, which the Hebrews
call Kar oLKpl^eiav, and Graetz and McNeile have made it altogether probThus only can
able that Aquila's first edition is that embodied in (ft.
one account for the marked approach to Aquila's style and peculiarities,
9".

combined with some equally

Aquila, preserved by Origen.

striking differences

from the fragments

of

Dillman had urged these differences as

an objection to the theory that .\quila translated our (8, but as McNeile observes, a second edition presupposes differences, and it is difficult
to think that a later

doing

it

in

hand adapted

Whether there had been an

Aquila's

first

(ft

to Aquila's later

work without

a more thorough-going manner.

edition

that there probably

is

earlier translation of Qoheleth

uncertain, but on the whole

had not been.

The work had

been approved as canonical beyond dispute

(see

than

we conclude
only recently

above

3),

and

ECCLESIASTES

lO
it

probable that shortly afterward Aquila undertook

is

The

lation.

translation

made from a

which we have

Possibly

edition

first

was

trans-

its

at all events

which differed a good deal from our present

text

Hebrew, and was therefore made from a

revised.

in (^

it

text that

Aqiba had not

was, as McNeile thinks, in part, because his

was made from a

text that

Aqiba, his teacher, did not

approve, that Aquila undertook his revision which resulted in

his ''second edition."
If

these views are correct, the translation of Qoheleth which

we have

was made

in (g

second quarter of

in the

the second

century A.D.

The

text of

five uncial

(6

for the

MSS. and

book

of

Ecclesiastes has been

in fifteen cursives,

of the cursives three contain only a part of the book.

The famous Codex

are: (i)

Rome,

preserved in

which have been studied, though

The

MSS.

uncial

Vaticanus (<8^) in the Vatican Library at

The

usually cited as B, which dates from the fourth century.

labors of Westcott and Hort on the

New

Testament vindicated the text

of this MS. as on the whole the best for that part of the Bible, and the
labors of Swete on the Greek text of the Old Testament tend to confirm
these results for the older part of the Canon.
(2) The famous Codex
Sinaiticus ((&^), found by Tischendorf on Mount Sinai, 1844-1859,
and now preserved in the Library at St. Petersburg. It is sometimes
It was also written in the fourth
cited by scholars as v, sometimes as S.
century and as an authority for the text falls little short of B.
(3) The
Codex Alexandrinus {(&^), written in the fifth century, now in the British Museum cited as A.
(4) Codex Ephraemi {(&^), also of the fifth
century

fine

cited as C.

century,

and

palimpsest

(5)

now

in

MS. now

in the

National Library at Paris,

Codex Venetus (<8^'), written

St. Mark's Library, Venice.

in

the eighth

It is

or ninth

usually cited as

"^,

often allies itself with ^^.

Of

the cursive

MSS.,

68, written in the fifteenth century,

treasures of the Library of St.

tion.

It often allies itself

portant

when

Greek MS.
For

fuller

it

differs

Marks

with B.

one of the

at Venice, deserves especial

McNeile considers

from B, and holds

it

to

it

men-

especially im-

be the most important

of Ecclesiastes extant (see his Ecclesiastes, 136).

accounts of the MSS., see Swete's Introduction

to the

Old

Testament in Greek, 122-170; Gregory's Prolegomena to Tischendorf 's

Novum

Testamentiim Greece, also his Textkritik des

and Scrivener's Plain Introduction

ment, 4th ed. by Miller, Vol.
It is possible
its

I.

to the

Br.^Hs^ p.

from the extant witnesses

Neuen

Criticism of the

Testaments,

New

Testa-

195/.
to the text of (& to detect in

text recensions or tyi)es, kindred to those

which Westcott and Hort

TEXT
have identified for the
in citing the
(S^**, etc.

New

evidence of

Testament.
the

(ft

For analyses of the

It is for this

Symbols

of

MSS.

text of (S, see

reason that often

are affixed as <8^,

De

Klostcrmann's

Libri

Coheleth Versione Alexafidrina, Kiel, 1892, and McNeile's Introduction

to Ecclesiastes,

Cambridge, 1904, pp.

15-168.

THE GREEK VERSION OF AQUILA.

(3).

Aquila was a native of Pontus, and a connection of the emperor

who employed

Hadrian,

a relative of Aquila's to build ^lia

Aquila accompanied him,

and while there was converted to Christianity. As he refused to
abandon the heathen practice of astrology, he was excommuniHe undertook a translation
cated, and in disgust joined the Jews.
of the Scriptures into Greek in order to set aside the renderings
of the Septuagint which seemed to support the Christians.
Of
Capitolina on the

site of

Jerusalem.

Jerome's testimony to his second edition of his rendering of

Qoheleth,

we have already spoken, and have shown

that in all

probability the version which Origen preserved as Aquila's

this

the text revised

by Aquila,

the Massoretic Text.

no Greek version

was

This second edition was probably made from

second edition.

If

for

we

it

differs far less

widely than (S from

are right in thinking that there

was

of Ecclesiastes until Aquila's first edition, then

both his editions have survived, the

first

entire as (^

second in fragments as *A, the symbol by which Aquila

and the
is

quoted

These fragments have been collated by Montfaufon

below.

in

Hexaplorum Originis quce super sunt, 1713? and by Field in his

Originis Hexaplorum quce supersunt, Oxford, 1875, ^^^ cover
his

practically the

For

fuller

whole book.

accounts of Aquila's version,

cf.

Swete, op. ciL, 31-42

and

55; McNeile, op. cit., 11 5-134; Burkitt's Fragments of the

Books of Kings according to the Translation of Aquila, 1897;

C. Taylor's Cairo-Genizah Palimpsests, 1900, and Schiirer's Geschichte ds judischen Volkes, etc.,

(4).

who seems

ed.. Vol.

HI, 318-321.

THE VERSION OF THEODOTIAN.

Another version was made

dotian,

3d

to

in the

second century A.D. by Theo-

have lived at Ephesus.

His work was

ECCLESIASTES

who calls him a native of Pontus,

became a convert to Judaism in mature life.
It is thought that in some of these details Irenajus confused TheIt is hardly likely that two different men
odotian with Aquila.
who learned Hebrew in mature life should make translations of
Irenacus is,
the Scriptures for the Jews in the same century.

known

to Irenacus (d. 202 A.D.),

and says

that he

however,

probably right in saying that Theodotian lived at

Theodotian's version of Daniel seems to have found

Ephesus.

way

translation of Ecclesiastes

wise

its

we have supposed that Aquila's first

did.
The work of Theodotian is other-

into the Septuagint, as

known

to us only through the

differ so

Hexapla

and

of Origen,

that

Theodotian's renderings do not

has survived only in fragments.

widely from the Septuagint as do those of Aquila, nor so

often from

MT.

But Dr. Swete

as those of ($.

says: *'He

seems

have produced a free revision of the Septuagint rather than an

to
in-

Theodotian's renderings of Qoheleth which

dependent version."

have survived afford interesting variants to every chapter of the

They

book.

are contained in

the

works

of

Montfaufon and

Field cited above.

For a

fuller

account of Theodotian see Swete, op.

Gwynn, ''Theodotian,"
Biog.,

and

pp. 42-49;

321-324.

THE VERSION OF SYMMACHUS.

fourth translation of the

Symmachus near

cit.,

Smith and Wace's Diet, of Christian

Schiirer, Geschichte, etc.. Vol. Ill,

(5).

in

Hebrew

into

Greek was made by

the end of the second or the beginning of the

A.D. Eusebius and Jerome say that Symmachus

was an Ebionite Christian, but according to Epiphanius he was a
Samaritan who embraced Judaism. Epiphanius was a blunderer,
however, and the probability is that even if Symmachus was of
Jewish or Samaritan parentage, he became an Ebionite. Jerome
correctly declares that the aim of Symmachus was to express the
third century

sense of the

Hebrew

rather than to follow the order of

His version shows that he aimed

to set himself free

its

fluence of the Septuagint as well as to write good Greek.

thinks that

Symmachus had

before

him the

words.

from the

three other

in-

Swete

Greek

TEXT
versions

when he made his own, and that he exhibits his indepenall and sometimes of the Hebrew as well.
In spite

dence of them
of this

charge

it is

Hebrew and

often true that he has caught the

correctly expressed

it

in

Greek.

meaning

of the

His version was

employed by Origen as early as 228 A.D., and was so highly

garded by that ancient scholar, that he gave
Hexapla.

His

interesting

variants

translation
for

of

Ecclesiastes

it

re-

a place in his

numerous

affords

They

every chapter of the book.

are

presented by Montfaufon and Field in the works cited above.

For a

Gwynn,

fuller

op.

account of

cit.;

Symmachus

see Swete, op.

Harnack, Geschichte der

cit.,

40-53;

altchristlichen Litera-

ture, I,

209^., and Chronologie der altchr. Literatur, H, 164^., and

Perles,

"Symmachus,"
(6).

The

Bible

is

in JE.,

XI, 619.

THE COPTIC VERSION.

thought to have been translated into the Egyptian

end of the second century. This translation

was made from the Septuagint version, so that the various EgypBohairic, Memphitic, and Sahidic
tian versions
are in reality
dialects before the

witnesses for the text of the Septuagint.

sions are given in Swete, op.

cit.,

Accounts of these ver-

104-108, and in the works of

Gregory awid Scrivener cited above.

In S. Biblioriim Fragmenta

Copto-Sahidica Musei Borgiani, edited by Ciasca, 1880, Vol.

II,

pp. 195-254, the whole of Qoheleth in a Sahidic translation, ex-

This text was collated by Euringer for

is included.
work Der Masorahtext des Koheleth kritisch tmtersucht, 1890.
These readings usually support the readings of ($. This version
is cited below as K.

cept 9*-io,
his

(7).

The

THE SYRIAC PESHITTA.

much obscurity. Theoknew who the translator

was. (Cf. Migne, P. G., LXVI, 241.) The version was, however,
made during the early centuries of the Christian era. The Penorigin of this version

is

involved in

dore of Mopsuestia declared that no one

tateuch was translated from the Hebrew, though in Isaiah, the

Minor Prophets, and

the Psalms the Septuagint has

had consid-

ECCLESIASTES

14

erable influence.

study of the Peshitta text of Qoheleth with

a view of determining

hand and
in

its

relation to the Massoretic text

ZAW., XXIV (1904), 181-239.

my own use of the Peshitta

which

was

the most part the Syriac

in

leads

from

it

and
is

at

me

to agree,

Hebrew

translated from a

most places agreed with MT., though

version

on the one

was made by Kamenetzky

Kamenetzky's conclusion, with

the Septuagint on the other

some points

it

in

some places

is

that for

text
it

has been influenced by

which

differed

This

(S.

represented in the following pages by the symbol ^.

Fuller accounts of the Peshitta will be found in the works of

Swete, Gregory and Scrivener, already frequently referred

THE SYRO-HEXAPLAR VERSION.

(8).

This translation was made by Paul of Telia

616 and 617 A.D.

in

from the Septuagint column of Origen's Hexapla.

It is in reality,

therefore, a witness for the text of the Septuagint.

below as #".
op.
still

cit.,

1 1

For a

fuller

The

The standard

2-1 16.

it

and the

edition of

It

is

cited

literature see Swete,

it

for Ecclesiastes

etc.,

is

1835.

OLD LATIN VERSION.

origin of the early Latin version or versions of the Bible

involved in as

tian versions.
at

account of

Middledorpf's Codex Syraco-Hexaplaris,

(9).

is

to.

an early

much

obscurity as that of the Syriac or Egyp-

It is clear that

date,

and

were wide variations

a translation was

that by the

in its

furnished by Swete, op.

appears to have been

MSS.

cit.,

end

into Latin

Samples of these variations are

pp. 89-91.

made from

made

of the fourth century there

This early translation

the Septuagint.

Our

sources

Old Latin are in large part Patristic quotations

of the Old Testament.
These were collected with great care
and fulness by Peter Sabatier in his BiUiorum sacrorum LatincB
versiones antique, Rheims, 1743, which was employed by Euringer
and is "frequently quoted in his Masorahtext des Kohelelh. Sabatier's work, however, was published more than a century and a
half ago, and his quotations now need to be tested by later editions
for the text of this

of the Fathers.

Some

readings for Ecclesiastes from a

MS.

of

TEXT
St.
I

Gall

may

be found

in S. Berger's

have attempted to make

little

Notices

et extraits, p.

use of this version, but

The works

below a few times as H.

of Swete,

137

jf.

cited

it is

Gregory and Scriv-

ener contain discussions of this translation.

THE LATIN VULGATE.

(10).

was made by St. Jerome (Eusebius

and
Hieronymus) between 383
420 A.D. It was Jerome's plan
his version was made with a
Hebrew,
but
from
the
to translate
which
Origen had collected in the
material
of
the
full knowledge
from a text which generally
Ecclesiastes
was
made
His
Hexapla.

The

basis of this translation

agreed with

MT., though

it

sometimes departs from

it

most

in

work are given

suggestive ways.
the works of Gregory and Scrivener referred to above, and
Smith and Wace's Diet, of Christian Biography. This version
Full accounts of Jerome's

in

in
is

designated by the symbol H.

THE ARABIC VERSION.

(11).

In the commentary which follows the Arabic version

This

times quoted.

London

in the
It is

believed

is

the Arabic version which

Polyglot of 1656

to

is

some-

was published

and the Paris Polyglot

be the translation of Saadia Gaon,

of 1630.

who

died

in 942.

The Hexateuch seems

have been translated from the Hebrew;

to

Judges, Ruth, parts of Kings,

Nehemiah and Job from

shitta; while the other poetical

books and the prophets seem

be dependent on the Septuagint.

it

departs from

MT., usually

below by the symbol A.

lated

the Peto

In Qoheleth the Arabic, where

allies itself

with

(i.

It is

referred to

Possibly only the Hexateuch was trans-

by Saadia, as that was made from the Hebrew

accounts of the Arabic version, see Swete, op.

cit.,

text.

110

ff.,

For

and

Gottheil, in JE., Ill, 189.

(12).

As

THE TARGUM.

the K'tiihim were not interpreted in the synagogue services,

Targumim

of

them

{i.e.,

interpretations into the

Aramaic spoken

ECCLESIASTES

by the people) were not written as early as the

That on the

was not made

Psalter

ninth century.

No Targum

rest of the Bible.

in its present

of the Megilloth

is

form before the

mentioned

in

any

work older than the Ariik (Dictionary) of Nathan ben Jehiel,

which was completed in iioi A.D. These Targumim are probably, therefore, in their present form, not earlier than the tenth

century, though they

may go back

much earlier.
The Targum of

is

which

to oral interpretations

are

midrashic
closely,

Qoheleth

the

up

sceptical expressions

followed

is

commend

the study of the law

orthodox doctrines and devout course of

lieved to be the author of Qoheleth,

interpreted to refer to events in his

Nevertheless,

witness to the text,

the

it,

which were ob-

These expressions are often turned

noxious to orthodox Jews.

boam.

text

but more often the interpretation freely departs from

for the sake of covering

so as to

a free paraphrase combined with a

Occasionally

interpretation.

and many allusions in it are

and that of his son Reho-

life

Targum

and helps us

frequently

is

to correct

In addition to the publication of the

and support the most

life.
Solomon is be-

MT.

Targum

in the Polyglots a recension has recently

an important

It is cited

as

JJ.

of Qoheleth accessible

been published from

South Arabic MSS. by Alfred Levy, entitled Das Targum zu

Koheleth nach sudarabischen Handschriften, Breslau, 1905.

For

Targumim and the literature upon

"Targum," in JE., XIII, ^.

a more complete account of the

them, see Bacher's

article

(13).

The Jewish

QUOTATIONS IN THE TALMUD.

writers of the

era frequently quoted the

form

These quotations ought

for the text-criticism of the

tristic

text,

quotations perform for the

already referred

to,

seven centuries of the Christian

first

OT.

OT. the same

NT. Euringer

to per-

service that pain his

Masorah-

has collected these quotations for Qoheleth

from the Mishna, and the parts

Talmuds which were made up

of the

Babylonian and Jerusalem

to the seventh century.

Of

the

of 122 are quoted in these

221 verses in Qoheleth, a part or

all

Jewish writings, and some of them

many

times.

These quotations

TEXT

much

have too often been assimilated to MT., to be of

but they sometimes present interesting variations from

service,

Where

it.

quoted below, they are designated by the name of the Talmudic

which the quotation

tract in

An

idea of the sort of textual variation presented in these

quotations
written

may be

The

Sukkah,

2'',

Berakoth, 26', and in

all

Qoh.

4'^

13',

y'^i'\.

i*^,

has

I'^^Ji,

passage

and twice

in

the

cases but the

last

but the Qr. iSjn.

and MegilL,

71', all

In the same verse

quoted

is

read

MT.

twice

]p'^, is

Mishna,

the

in

Talmud, Yebamoth,
it

written fully,

is

Bab. Berakoth,
Tosephta,

"i^j"\,

Talmudic

In Qoh. i"

seen in the following examples.

defectively.

Khagiga,

4*,

made.

is

23*, Jer. Berak.,

only supporting

17',

has nc's^ in which

is

it

supported by

Berakoth, 23', but the other Talmudic quotations of the verse

given) read "irsa, as do (5 and 6.
Sifre 60* reads

Nin.

S"n

Qoh. i2hasasKt.
support the Qr.

44,

(14).

In Qo'a.

5"*

tlic

22^,

I'^p'':

Kt.

is

n"'i,

(just

the (^r.

with Kt.

pn-i- as Qr. ?:-\'.

Sabbath,

i5i'>,

and Semakhot,

p.'^"!'.

RI'XENSIONS

THE TEXT.

01'

There are persistent and probably trustworthy traditions that

Rabbi Aqiba, who had such an influence in systematizing and
perfecting the Jewish oral law and system of hermeneutics, also
with the aid of Aquila, his pupil, attempted to

He was

Bible.

Ginsburg's article ''Akiba," JE.,

(See

Greek translation
version,

where

it

of Qoheleth,

the text of

li.e

I,

commonly

306.)

That

the

first

called the Septuagint

was probably made by Aquila, has been shown above,

also was pointed out that the differences between tlie

Hebrew underlying

the Septuagint

times indicates that Aquila

leth

fix

the creator in a sense of the Rabbinical Billc.

made

and the Hebrew

before Aqiba had revised the text.

right in holding that

by a right

text of later

the Septuagint version of QoJie-

critical

McNeile

use of (S

is,

therefore,

we can obtain

pre-Aqiban recension of Qoheleth.

Some
text

of

the

readings which Aqiba adopted

underwent alterations by

{Ecdesiastes, 153-156).

may

later hands, as

in the

Hebrew

McNeile has shown

In the history of the text of our book,

then discern three recensions.

we

Leaving out of account the

ECCLESIASTES

eddies and side currents of corruption

and transmission which

in-

MSS. and versions, these repre-Aquilan recension, the Aquihm recension and

evitably manifest themselves in

censions are the

the Massoretic recension.

careful study of the text on those

sane principles which Tischendorf and Westcott and Hort have

established for the
of Qoheleth has

These recensions
expect,

and

The

New

Testament, reveals the

differ

from one another

fidelity.

far less than one

would

comparatively few passages.

affect

best text-critical

McNeile

fact that the text

been transmitted, on the whole, with great

work

hitherto

done on Ecclesiastes is that of

which reference has sev-

in his Introduction to Ecclesiastes, to

eral times

been made.

The more

drastic

work

of Bickell, based

on

his

theory of dislocations, as well as that of Zapletal and Haupt, based on

a metrical theory of the book, are in most cases conjectures which rest
on unproven premises.
A criticism of their metrical theories will be
found in 9. Winckler's emendations {Altorientalische Forschungen,

IV) (1896), 351-355, are also usually too conjectural.

With the exception

down

of a

few interpolations and a very

material (see below, 7), the

torial

work

by design or error

to us modified

little

of Qoheleth has

far less than

with most of the Old Testament books.

This

is

is

edi-

come

the case

due,

un-

had undergone no long history of

transmission and frequent copying before Aqiba set those forces
to work which made further serious alterations in the text welldoubtedly, to the fact that

it

nigh impossible.

5.

It is

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION.

possible in the space at our disposal to treat the history of

the interpretation of Ecclesiastes only in outline.

Ginsburg has done

of all the

in his CoJieleth,

We

caimot, as

go into the merits and demerits

commentaries of Qoheleth, that have ever been written,

whether Jewish or Christian.

Those who are

interested in such

curious details are referred to the "Introduction" of Oinsburg's

work, pp. 30-245.

It will

be possible here to treat in detail only

a few of the more important works of recent years, the theories

set forth in

which are

living issues of present-day exegesis.

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION

The

earliest

19

commentaries on Ecclesiastes are probably

rep-

resented in the Jewish Midrashim, the beginnings of which go

back to the period when the canonicity of the book was

recognized,

first fully

These works were com-

not to a date even earlier.

if

posed for the edification of congregations, and while the

sense of a passage
or would not give

literal

was not ignored, if that sense was at all edifying,

offense by its unorthodox character, nevertheless

when

the greatest liberties were taken with the text

it

seemed

necessary to find edification or orthodoxy in a passage which ob-

The

viously contained none.

was

that

life,

to ''expose the emptiness

general view of these MidrashUn

in his old age, when weary of

and vanity of all worldly pursuits
and carnal gratifications, and to show that the happiness of man
consists in fearing God and obeying his commands."

Solomon wrote Qoheleth

As was pointed out above

midrashic interpretation.
follows:

(p. 15/".),

In

it

the

Targum

unspiritual

of Qoheleth

is

such a

passages are treated as

Ch. 2^^ "There is nothing better for a man than that he should eat
and drink and enjoy himself," etc. runs in the Targum: "There is
nothing that is more beautiful in man than that he should eat and drink
and show his soul good before the children of men, to perform the commandments and to walk in the ways which are right before Him, in order
that he may gain good from his labors."
Again 5'* "A good that is beautiful is it to eat and drink and see

good,"

etc.

men and

the Targum converts

beautiful for

them

to

into:

work

"Good

in this

is it

for the children of

world that they

may

eat

and

drink from their labor so as not to stretch out a hand in violence or

plunder, but to keep the words of the law and to be merciful to the poor
in order to see

Similarly 9'

good

in their labor in this

world under

'Go eat thy bread with joy and drinkthethysun."

wine with a

glad heart, for already

God

"Said Solomon by the

spirit of

the world shall say to

all

has accepted thy works"

is changed into
prophecy from before Jah, 'The Lord of
the righteous one by one, Go taste with joy

thy bread which has been given to thee on account of the bread which

thou hast given to the poor and the unfortunate

drink with good heart thy wine which

is

who were

hidden for thee

hungry, and

in the

Garden

Eden, for the wine which thou hast mingled for the poor and needy
who were thirsty, for already thy good work has been pleasing before

of

Jah.'"

To men who

could read thus into an obnoxious text whatever they

ECCLESTASTES

20

every difficulty disappeared.

Under the alchemy of allegory
and spiritualizing all became easy. Nevertheless sometimes these Midrashim found a way of anticipating the theses of modern criticism that
parts of the book refer to the exile or later.
Thus the Targum says of
i2
"Vanity of vanities," etc. "When Solomon, the king of Israel,
saw by the spirit of prophecy, that the kingdom of Rehoboam, his son,
would be divided with Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, and Jerusalem
and the sanctuary would be destroyed and that the people of Israel
would go into captivity, he spoke saying, 'Vanity of vanities is this
liked,

world, vanity of vanities

labored

all

is

is all

for

which

and David

my

father have

vanity."

Meantime, among Christians, the book

being interpreted by similar methods.

of

The

Ecclesiastes
earliest

was

Christian

commentator on Qoheleth was Gregory Thaumaturgus, who died

in 270 A.D., whose Metaphrasis in Ecdesianten Solomonis gives
an

The

interpretative paraphrase of the book.

genuineness of

work has been questioned, some assigning it to Gregory

Nazianzen, but Harnack still assigns it to Thaumaturgus. {Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatiir, I, 430, and Chronologic
II, 99.)
Gregory regards Solomon as a prophet, holding that his
purpose was "to show that all the affairs and pursuits of man
which are undertaken in human things are vain and useless, in
this

order to lead us to the contemplation of heavenly things." Gregory

Nyssa and Jerome followed in good time with commentaries

on the book, and each pursued a similar strain. The allegorical
of

method was employed

Jerome,
lady, to
of the

who wrote

his

in its

embrace the monastic

book

is

most developed form, especially by

commentary
life.

"to show the utter vanity of every sublunary enjoy-

ment, and hence the necessity of betaking one's

life,

Roman

to induce Basilica, a

According to him, the purpose

self to

an

ascetic

devoted entirely to the service of God!"

Started both

among Jews and

Christians in such paths as these,

meandered with various windings

The Jewish commentators, Tobia

the interpretation of Ecclesiastes

through the Middle Ages.

ben Eleazar, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, and others often followed
more sober and sane methods than many, on account of the rise
of a

and

grammatical school of exegesis among the Jews

twelfth centuries, yet even from

them

in the eleventh

allegory

and

fanciful

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION

interpretations did not disappear.

a Christian, grasped

fairly well the

of those

who

Targum

or of Jerome.

wrote upon

Sometimes a Jew, sometimes

purpose of Qoheleth, but most

followed either in the footsteps of the

it,

Martin Luther was the

21

to perceive that

first

He

have been the author of Ecclesiastes.

Solomon cannot

says in his ''Table

Talk": "Solomon himself did not write the book

of Ecclesiastes,

was produced by Sirach at the time of the Maccabees. ... It

is a sort of Talmud, compiled from many books, probably from
the library of King Ptolemy Euergetes of Eg}'pt."

but

it

This opinion of Luther waited, however, more than a century

before

it

his

Hugo de

found corroboration.

international law, better

commentary on

the

known

Groot, the

father of

as Grotius, published, in 1644,

Old Testament.

He

regarded Ecclesiastes

as a collection of opinions of different sages, originally spoken to

different peoples.

He

says:

"I believe that the book

as being led by repentance to do

which cannot be found except

it.

For

in Ezra,

it

is

not the

name

of this king,

contains

many words

production of Solomon, but was written in the

Daniel and the Chaldee

paraphrasts."

In the next century the work of Grotius began to produce results

J.

both

in

Germany and England.

Buchs Solomons),

in 1751,

after the exile wrote

and

maintained that a prophet

Ecclesiastes in the

order that he might be

of

Thus, in the former country,

D. Michaelis {Poetischer Entwnrf der Gedanken des Prediger-

al)lc, in

wise, to philosophize all the

human

name

more touchingly about

in

happy

the vanity

that in Ecclesiastes "the vanity of the world

in the character of a })crs()n investigating

thus

lived

happiness, while in the latter country, in 1753, Bishop

Lowth declared

(cf.

who

Solomon,

the person of a king so

exemplified by the exj)erience of Solomon,

tion"

of

who

a very

is

was

introduced

difficult

ques-

Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, xxiv)

practically

admitting the

non-Solomonic authorship of

the book.

After this the belief that

increasingly

Solomon did not write the book found

abundant expression.

Eichhorn,

1784; Spohn, 1785; Dathc, 1789; Jahn, 1793,

1779;

Doderlein,

and during

the nine-

ECCLESIASTES

22

number

teenth century an increasing

the

same view.

have maintained

of scholars

Doderlein and Dathe dated the book about the

time of the Babylonian

dawn

Since the

exile.

of the nineteenth

century scholarly opinion has gradually brought the date of the\

book downj_fi rst

to the Persian, a nd j:hen to the Greek, period.

The following list is not exhaustive, but it indicates in a general

way how scholars have grouped themselves with regard to date.
Those who ho ld to the Persian period are Ewald, Knobel, Hengstenberg, Heiligstedt,

Moses

De

Wette, Vaihing er,

Gin sburg^ Zockler,

{Commentary on Ecdesiastes), Delitzsch, NoOn the other han d, the

follo wing have assigned it to the Greek p^^o^7^arying from 330
Stuart

wack, Wright, Cox, Vlock and Driver.

B.C. (Noyes, Job, Eccl. and Cant.) tQ__ioo

Bucher des A.

T.), Strack {Einleitting)

B .C.

(Renan),

Renan, Kuenen

Noyes, Hitzig, Tyler, Plumtre,

Zirkel,

Bickell,

viz.:

{Poet.

Cheyne, Dillon,

Wildeboer, Siegfried, Davidson {Eccl. in EB.), Peake {Eccl. in

DB.),

{Einleitung)

Cornill

Bennett

{Altorientalische Forschungen,

(Ecdesiastes
(Eccl.

Of

in

or

JE.),

the

2d

Preacher,

143-159), A.

London,

whom

W.

Sterne

Margouliouth

1900),

Genung, Haupt and McFadyen

the nineteenth century commentators

Wangemann

Winckler

{httrodnction),

ser.,

{Introduction).
I

have studied,

(1856) alone holds to the Solomonic date, although

Dale (1873) ^s non-committal with reference to it. Two recent

writers, Marshall and McNeile (both 1904), are unable to decide

between the Persian and Greek periods.

(187 1 ), holds that
against
in

the

it

belongs to the

Roman

One

scholar,

Graetz

period and was directed

Herod the Great. Briggs says that it is the latest writing

Old Testament, as shown by its language, style and the''

ology" (SHS. 321).

It is

clear

from the above sketch that an increasing consensus

of opinion places

argument

for the

to appreciate,

our book in the Greek period.

The

linguistic

non-Solomonic authorship, which Grotius began

has been worked out to a complete demonstration

by the masterly hand of the

late

Franz Delitzsch.

The disconnected character of the book of Ecdesiastes impressed

Martin Luther, as we have seen, and led him to regard the work
as a compilation.

This

fact

was taken

u])

and advanced by others

^V^

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION

finally, in the

and,

hands

Yeard (A Paraphrase upon

of

23
Ecclesi-

London), (1701), Herder (1778) and Eichhorn (1779), led

the view that Qoheleth is a dialogue between a refined sensual-

astes,

to

ist and a sensual worldling, who interrupts him, or between a teacher

and pupil. A similar view was entertained by Kuenen. Doder-

lein

of

explained these inconcinnities as the record of the discussions

an ''Academy," or group of learned men.

Bickell explains

them by the supposition that the leaves of an early MS. became

disarranged, while Siegfried, McNeile and Haupt explain them
on the supposition of
will

Some

later interpolations.

of these views

be examined more in detail below.

On

the other hand, the unity of the

book has been strenuously

maintained by such scholars as Ginsburg, Zockler, Delitzsch,

Plumtre, Wright, Briggs, Wildeboer, Cornill and Genung.

Briggs

Job as a type of moral heroism wrestling

the soul, and winning moral victories over doubt

classes Koheleth with

with foes to

Cornill declares that ''Old

and error (SHS., pp. 425-426).
Testament piety nowhere enjoys a greater triumph than in the
book of Qoheleth" {Introduction to Can. Bks. of OT., 1907,

Plumtre, Briggs, Cornill

p. 451).

et al.

before them, regard the

moods of the
mass of doubt

contradictory expressions of the book as the varying

writer, as his childhood's faith struggles with the

and pessimism which

"

Zirkel, in 1792,

his

fills

mind.

Untersuchungen uber den Prediger, propounded

the theory that Qoheleth evinces the formative influence of

thought and the Greek language

that

its

Greek

idiom betrays the

presence of Greek forms of speech, and that the influence of Stoic

philosophy

is

no

less evident.

was revived and maintained by Hitzig (Comm.,

Kleinert (Der Prediger Solomo, 1864), and by Thomas

Zirkel's view

1847),

Tyler

in

his

Ecclesiastes

London, 1874, who

to

its

Interpretation,

finds in the book evidences of Greek linguistic

influence, as well as the

thought.

Contribution

traces

both of Stoic and Epicurean

Tyler maintained that the Sadducees represented Epi-

curean influence, and the Pharisees Stoic influence, that the Tal-

mud

gives proof of the existence of Jewish schools, or academies,

and

that the

mingling

of

contradictory ideas in the book

is

ECCLESIASTES

24

accounted for by supposing that the work

is

a record of the discus-

sions of one of these academies.

Plumtre

Cambridge

maintains (Ecclesiastes in

Bible,

1881),

as does Tyler, that there are two streams of Greek Philosophical

influence, one

and one Epicurean,

Stoic

but, as

previously re-

marked, attributes the contradictions to the varying moods of

the author, whose mind gives house-room now to one set of
opinions and

now

to another.

Pfleiderer (Die

Philosophie des

Heraklit von Eph., nebst Koheleth und besonders i^n Buck der
Weisheit, 1886) maintained the existence of traces of
fluence in Qoheleth, but traced

and

1898)

Ilaupt

in-

in

Nowack's Handkom-

(Koheleth, oder Weltschmerz in der

Book of

Bible, Leipzig, 1905, the

Greek

to Heraclitus.

und Hoheslied,

(Prediger

Siegfried

mentar,

them

Ecclesiastes, Baltimore, 1905)

Greek influence (though Haupt confines it to the

thought, denying any linguistic influence from Greek), but both
both hold to

this

account for the different philosophic strains by supposing that

different parts of the

work are from

different writers.

These

From
Ecclesiastes we

theories will be set forth in greater detail below.

general view of the course of the criticism of

to

examine

ing

it,

in detail

some

of the

more important

which have been produced within the

this

pass

theories concern-

last forty years.

Graetz, in his Koheleth (187 1), notes that Qoheleth directs his

remarks

in several instances against a tyrannical king,

also calls a slave (so Graetz understood

that

"^/J).

whom

he

Graetz remarks

none of the Asmonaeans were

characteristics suit

(Baba Bathra, 3b,

To

Asmon.Tans."
book, with
pointed.

its

tyrants, and argues that these

Herod the Great alone, whom the Talmud
and Ketuboth, 24) called the ''slave of the
this period

mingling of

The book on

late

this

he thought the language of the

Hebrew and Aramaic

view

is

forms, also

a kind of political

satire.-

Graetz denies that the author was a Sadducee, and regards him
as a

young Jew

of the mild, strenuosity-abjuring school of Hillel.

Graetz did regard the author, however, as an out and out sensualist,

and fmds as he

gratifications of desire.

by many

later

interprets Qoheleth

many

allusions to the

These interpretations have been shown

commentators

to be in

most cases unwarranted.

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION

Qoheleth was no advocate of debauchery, as

is

proven by an

As

telligent interpretation of his utterances in detail.

Herodian date

for

The

as

book should be so

it

J.

too late.

makes it impossible

late.

Such a theory had

been suggested

first

G. van der Palm, in his Ecclesiastes philologice

illnstratus,

come

Graetz placed ch. 7"-

Leyden, 1784.

removing ch.
to

(13),

contradictions of the book Graetz sought to soften by a

theory of dislocations.

by

shown below

is

in-

to Graetz's

Koheleth recent commentators find

The external evidence,

that the

25

5^ to

after 8',

take their place after ch.

and

7'

'^

io<

7''';

et critice

after ch.

5%
he removed

he placed after 9'^ Later commentators,

however, have not found these changes sufficient to harmonize the

contents of the lx)ok.

Graetz denied that the

last six verses of the

be divided between two hands.

ophon

to the

was received

How much
will

book

(i29-^),

formed

Moreover, he held that these were to

a part of the original work.

Vv.'2->^

were, Graetz held, a col-

whole Hagiography, written at the time Qoheleth

into the canon, as

of this position

is

Krochmal had previously suggested.

and what part of it is untenable,

right,

appear as we proceed.

more

radical theory of dislocations

was put

Professor Bickell of Vienna in 1884 in his

den Wert des Daseins, also

i'lber

1886

in his Koheleth'' s

little

set forth in

forth

by the

late

book, Der Prediger

more popular form

in

Untersuchung uber den Wert des Daseins.

book

is unintelligible as it stands, and

was produced in the following way.
book form on fascicles consisting of four

Bickell declared that the

that this lack of clearness

Qoheleth was written in

leaves once ^olded, or four double leaves.

Each

single leaf con-

Qoheleth was a part of a book which

tained about 525 letters.

contained other works written on an

unknown number

of such

fascicles.

Qoheleth began on the sixth leaf of one fascicle and ended on the third
leaf of the fourth

of the

succeeding

first fascicle)

fascicle.

On

the

first

three leaves (the end

stood ch. i^-a", on the fourth and

on the sixth and seventh

leaves, 3-4*;

fifth leaves, 5'-6';

on the eighth and ninth

leaves,

2*^3"; on the tenth and eleventh leaves (the end of the second fascicle),
8*-9

and

8>*;

on the twelfth

leaf,

9"-io'; on the thirteenth and fourteenth

ECCLESIASTES

26
leaves,

6^-7" and

20;

fifteenth and sixteenth, 4-5*; on the sevenon the eighteenth, 723-8*"; on the nineteenth (end
lo^'-^ and 14*'; on the twentieth, 9'-'"; on the twenty-

on the

teenth, iQi'-ii' and';

of the third fascicle),

and probably the twenty-second, 11^-12*.

string which held these fascicles together broke and the middle
The leaves were found by some one not qualified to put
fascicle fell out.
them together, who took the inner half of the second fascicle, folded it
inside out, and then laid it in the new order immediately after the first
Next came the inner sheet of the third fascicle, followed by
fascicle.
the outside half of the second, into the middle of which the two double
leaves, 13, 18, 14, 17 had already been -inserted.
Although the fourth
fascicle kept its place, it did not escape confusion, for between its leaves
the first two leaves of the remaining sheet of the third fascicle found a
Finally, leaf 17, becoming separated from its new environment,
place.
found a resting place between 19 and 21. This dislocation removed
from the work all traces of its plan.
In the new form it frequently happened that some of the edges did
not join properly a fact which led in time to the insertion of glosses.
first

The

From

archetype

this dislocated

have de-

texts of Qoheleth

extant

all

scended.

now

and the glosses retwo distinct halves, a speculative and a practical, each distinguished from the other by its own appropriate characterAccording to Bickell this first half consisted of the following:
istics.
If

the original order of the leaves be restored

moved, the work

Ch.

l'-2''

pii-18

iQi

=5^-6^

68-

falls into

2'2b.

S^"~4^

empty round, and

18-26.

12a.

that

^1-8 8^-'^-

13-17

In this part

'"-2.

is

it

wisdom only

'S*-

^^^-

1^-

demonstrated that

serves to

make

its

q1

^''^

life

"^

is

8'*

an

possessor modest,

so that he does not get on as well as the vainly boasting fool.

11.

Part two consisted of the following: Ch.

12.
21.
22.
20.
^9-17 [-1 -8 jol-20 xi'"'- * *

jQl4a.

15.

14b g3-10 jj7-10a j 2'* II'"'' I 2^^"''

In this part the advice of Qoheleth

no
live

positive good, to

make

7i

lo'

723-29

7b-6

81"''

'-"

6'

f-^'^-

I02-13

jjlS

((^\

life

offers

*.

is,

in

view of the fact that

the best of such advantages as

we

have, to

modestly before the ruler and before God, and to expect everything

to be vanity.

The

epilogue Bickell thought was from a later hand.

This

elaborate theory, rejected by most scholars, as too ingenious

improbable, has been accepted in

full

by Dillon, who sought

Skeptics of the Old Testament^ 1895, to

readers.

The

theory

is

it

to English

and elaborate to a dewere true, a modern scholar

not only intricate

gree which creates doubts that,

would ever have divined

commend

and

in his

it,

but

if it
it

breaks

down

archaeologically in

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION

27

fundamental assumption that the book form had succeeded

its

the roll form in literary Hbraries at a date sufficiently early for

have played the part

to

in the history of

it

Qoheleth supposed by

Bickell.

an accident, such as Bickell supposed, had happened

If

exemplar of Ecclesiastes,

must have been

it

the

if

Bickell sup-

Hebrew text. Even

as we have supposed

present in the Greek as well as in the

is

Greek
to

made

translation were

above, that was at a date in

work

to the

than the Greek

same confusion which

translation of the book, for the

poses

earlier

have been written

all

in

as late

probability too early for a literary

An

book form.

examination of the

published papyri, found in such large numbers in Egypt by Grenfell

and Hunt

in recent years, tends to

were written in
that the

roll

form

prove that literary works

book form did not supersede the

other hundred years.

and
more than an-

until after the first century A.D.,

roll for

For evidence, see

the ArchcBological

e.g.,

Report of the Egypt Exploration Fund, 1905-1906, p. 10^., where

literary rolls written in the

ment, 1907, p. 317

come

in

second and third centuries A.D. are

See also Gregory,

described.

until

Bickell's theory

is

ff.,

who

300 A.D.

Canon and Text

of the

New

Testa-

holds that the book form did not

The fundamental assumption

of

accordingly improbable.

In presenting this theory to English readers, Dillon has added

a

new element

to the study of the book.

he declares {op.

cit.,

Being an Aryan scholar,

122^.) that Buddhism

is

the only one of the

world-religions in which such practical fruits as

in Qoheleth are

to explain

these,

manifested.

we

see exhibited

Instead of going to Epicureanism

he accordingly declares that they are due to

Buddhistic influence.

King Agoka

tells

us (see V. A. Smith's

Acoka, the Buddhist Emperor of India, Oxford, 1901) in one of

his inscriptions, that in the early part of the third century

B.C.

he had sent Buddhistic missionaries to the court of the Seleucida:

at

Antioch and the court of the Ptolemies at Alexandria.

lived in

thinks

it

Dillon,

by 205 B.C. Qoheleth, even if he

Jerusalem, might have known Buddhism, though Dillon
more prol)able that he lived in Alexandria.

accordingly,

declares

that

In 1894 Professor Paul Haunt, in a paper entitled ''The

Book

ECCLESIASTES

28

of Ecclesiastes," published in the Oriental Studies of the Oriental

Club of Philadelphia, declared, "There is no author to the book of

Ecclesiastes, at any rate not of the book in the form in which it
has come
explorer,

down to us.
who has met
.

me

reminds

It

remains of a daring

of the

with some terrible accident, leaving his

shattered form exposed to the encroachments of

all sorts of

foul

vermin. ... In some cases there are half a dozen parallel strata
of glosses."

This hint
elaborated

Haupt's was taken up by D. C. Siegfried, who in

und Hoheslied, 1898, in Nowack's Handkommentar

of

his Prediger

different editors in addition

into

hands contributed

into the theory that five different

it

and two

to the contents of Qoheleth,

and two
work

different epilogists

have taken part

in bringing the

present form.

its

According to Siegfried the original work was composed by a man who

was imbued with an un-Hebraic spirit of pessimism, but who cannot
be shown to have been influenced by Stoic philosophy. To this writer
^1-4. 6-8.

To

I05-7.

fluence
gi. 7-10.

13-16

101-3.

7.

i2-i5_

ylb--!.

13.

12

H.

yla.

gg.

26-2S

15.

2'3-

another writer
17

4-6.

(-1-2.

i'

2^*^-^*

10.

14.

3'-'-

16.

7b-8 51O-I2

7I3.

17

17.

7-10.

6a.

the
'2.

first

20-22

18.

gll

jq4.

epilogist (E'),

first

a second editor (R^) added

23-25.

".

29

work
them

8-11.

added

16-18.

3.

5.

the ing'^

714

glossa-

9"-"

8'

82-8.

Thus

i'

11-13

qI

jjS.

of glossators

iil-4.
'",

9b

whose
4-'2

the following:
20

ch. 128

editor (Ri) prefixed

ch. 12''

19

'2-

is.

's.

''

q2.

Chasid glossator, added:

the

Siegfried classifies

7"-

^^

6'*-

4^

(Q<), the

individualized, assigning to

6.

compound work
ogist (E^), 12"-

following:

the

Still

Under Q^

7b,

9.

-7

this

work cannot be
|-.

5I

work a Sadducee (Q-), who had come under

of Epicureanism added the following: Ch. 3" 5I8-20
12 10'" ii^- '' 9" i2b-7a.
Another hand (Q^), a Hokma

224b-26a tU.

I2t.

13-17

[-10-12.

contributed

tor,

Eccl. 13-2'^

belong the following sections:

(Q')
18-21

'J'q

this

a second epil-

and added

12",

while

Siegfried thinks he can

discern nine different hands in the composition of the book, and one of
these stands for an indefinite

number more.

This theory of Siegfried greatly overworks an undoubted

viz.:

that

different

of Ecclesiastes.

hands have had a part

It is built

upon

in

composing a book.

the

fact,

book

the supposition that absolutely

but one type of thought can be harbored by a

it is

making

human mind

while

In periods of transition, on the contrary,

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATIOX

one can give house-room
this fact

to widely divergent thoughts.

should not lead us to think that a writer

a sentence

29

likely flatly to contradict himself in the next,

is

While

who has penned

it

should

prevent us from carrying analysis to the extent which Siegfried

has done.
Zapletal, in

1904, in his

book, Die Metrik des Bitches

little

Kohelet, maintained the thesis that Qoheleth

throughout, and that this fact enables the

of later glosses,

is

(or was) metrical

critic to reject

number

which mar the metrical form.

In 1905 Haupt, in two publications, Koheleth, published in

Leipzig,

and The Book 0/

developed

still

Ecdesiastes, published in Baltimore,

further the view that he had set forth in 1894.

Independently of Zapletal, he also

book was written

set forth the

and

in metrical form,

in

thorough-going than Zapletal has revised the

theory that the

way much more

text to make it cona

form to metre.

Haupt has

in these

works carried out the idea expressed eleven

years before that the original work of Qoheleth has been piled with
glosses.

ine

Of

barely

glosses

the 222 verses of the book, he retains but 124 as genu-

and

more than

have

Haupt's work

been
is,

half

subtracted.

many

radical

small

feature

of

however, his rearrangement of the material which

The

he regards as genuine.
in

even from these

The most

material

is

transposed and rejoined

an even more radical way than Bickell had done, and without

Bickell's pala?ographical

the connection in which

reason

we

find

for

Few

it.

them

in

verses are

left

in

our Bibles, so that an

index becomes necessary to find a passage in the book.

On

any

theory (except Haupt's), no ancient editor took such liberties with

the text as

Haupt himself has

taken.

He

has practically rewritten

the book, basing his changes partly on his metrical theory, but in
larger

measure on

his

own

inner sense of what the connections

ought to be.

As to the date, Haupt believes that the original Ecdesiastes

was written by a prominent Sadducx*an physician in Jerusalem,
who was born at the beginning of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes
(175-164) and died in the first decade of the reign of Alexander
Jannaeus (104-79 B.C.).

The author may have been

a king in

ECCLESIASTES

30
Jerusalem,

mean

if

king be taken as in Gittin, 62a, and Berakoth, 64a, to

The genuine

the head of a school.

are Epicurean, while

The

trines are found.

portions of Ecclesiastes

the Pharisaic interpolations Stoic doc-

in

may have completed

original writer

book about 100 B.C., when he was 75 years old.

This view of the date ignores the important testimony
book
Its

which

of Ecclesiasticus,

which Haupt

4'='-i,

and on which he mainly

date, impossible, tempting as that interpretation

Qoheleth was a physician,

rests

of the

be presented in detail below.

will

testimony makes the interpretation of ch.

applies to Alexander Balas,

the

upon no more

relies for his

The

is.

idea that

substantial basis

than the anatomical interpretation of ch. 12=% and to freeze the

poetic

metaphors of that passage into anatomy,

is

no more

justified

than to freeze the poetic metaphors of the Psalms into theology.

Ingenious and brilliant as Haupt's work

is,

understanding of Qoheleth, as

to the real

in

it

contributes Httle

almost every feature

seems to me, on assumptions which are incapable of

do not commend themselves. Meantime, in 1904,
the Cambridge University Press had issued McNeile's Introdiiction to Ecclesiastes, to which reference has already been made.
it

rests, as

it

proof and

This work

important from the higher

is

and

Siegfried that the

book has been

interpolated, but in his view

the interpolated portions are far smaller than they suppose,

process of interpolation

much

McNeile recognizes two

To

glossator.

417 51-8 718b. 26L.

Ai.

9-12 57.

yla.

g2b.

4-8a.

3a.

7-12.

6.

glossators, a

19

6a.

gl

and the

simpler.

Chasid glossator and a

the former he assigns ch.

29

from

critical as well as

McNeile recognizes with Haupt

the text-critical point of view.

11-13

q17.

j 1

18

9b

2^8

2'

jo'-S-

(exc.
'^

8-Ka.

'<.
15.

clause),

last

To
18.

19

Hokma
T)^"^'

"

the latter, ch.

I2'-

I*.

To

2- (last clause), 7**^ 128-10.

While reasons
an editor he assigns: i'will be given below for dissenting from this analysis in a few points, the
present writer has again and again found himself in agreement with
McNeile. The reasons for this agreement will be set forth below.
''

McNeile

also differs radically from

Haupf nn d^'egfried ps regard s

Greek philosophical thought on Qoheleth, mainthere is no clear trace of it.

McNeile adduces strong

the influence of
taining that

reasons for supposing that the point of view expressed in the book of

HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION

Ecclesiastes

more

the natural product of Semitic, or,

is

Jewish thought,

of

in the conditions

which prevailed

thought resembles Stoicism

exilic time, that this

in

3
specifically,

in late post- /

way

a general

because Stoicism was a similar product of Semitic thought, Zeno,

the founder of the Stoics, being a Phoenician born at Kition in

Cyprus.
In the same year, 1904, Professor
his

Words of Koheleth,

in

Genung

Amherst published

of

which he essays an interpretation more

from the point of view of a student of

literature

a text-critic or an ordinary exegete.

and

for the unity of Ecclesiastes

than from that of

Genung argues

exhibits

little

earnestly

patience with any

He regards Qoheleth as the first in Hebrew thought

divisive theory.

method, and explains many of the seeming

book by the supposition that the grafting of

to follow the inductive

contradictions of the
the inductive

method onto the ordinary forms

attempt betray the "prentice" hand and leave

of literary

harmony

em-

of expression

ployed by the ''Wisdom" writers would necessarily in

much

its

first

in the

way

Qoheleth, says Genung, "fre-

to be desired.

Genung

quently reverts to a mashal to clinch his argument."

overlooks the fact that the larger part of the proverbs in the book

do not clinch, but interrupt the argument.

In Genung's view the purpose of Qoheleth was to recall the
ligious spirit of the time back to reality, and that the result of
reasoning

There

is

worked

On

is

to

make

an element

life issue,

not in religiosity, but in character.

of truth in this, but

Genung has

He

declares that

Qoheleth

is

little, if

any, of that lyric intensity

passioned eloquence."

Hebrew poetry

is

He

which

riots in

also justly observes that the

of poetry,

form

of

superficial reader of the

abandoned the

which would compel returns

thought to former utterances.

right.

"It contains

imagery or im-

largely absent from the book, declaring that for

the sake of continuity of thought the writer has

hampering form

literary

essentially a prose book,

having the prose temper and the prose work to do.

is

greatly over-

it.

one point Genung speaks with the authority of a

expert.

re-

his

book

In this
that, with

it

of the

must appear even

to

some exceptions, Genung

ECCLESIASTES

32

THE RELATION OE

6.

There are two regions

in

*'

QOHELETH

which traces

TO GREEK THOUGHT.

"
of

conceivably be detected in Qolielelh, viz.:

Greek inlluence mighy

language and its~^

its

thought.

The

1.

contention of Zirkel, Tyler, Plumtre, Siegfried and

Wildeboer that Gra^cisms are

found

to be

in

Qoheleth, has been ably answered by Delitzsch,

and

Not more than one such

others.

the language of

Nowack, McNeile
can

linguistic characteristic

be detected in the book, and that belongs to the language of com-

mon

and might be employed by anyone

Macedonian conquest.

life,

after the

In ch.

i3

the phrase u'crn nnn occurs.

It is

living in Palestine

found also 28 times

else-

Plumtre and Wildeboer (the latter hesitatingly)

Kleinert and McNeile rightly hold that this
regard it as= v(p ifKLu).
It alternates with D'::rn .--n.i, i'^ 2^ 3' and -psn ^;', 8'^ '^
is unnecessary.

where

book.

in the

The phrase also occurs in two Phoenician inscriptions dating

ii.
from about 300 B.C. those of Tabnith and Eshmunazer {cf. CIS., I, 3
and G. A. Cooke, North Semitic Inscriptions, pp. 26, 30). It may
easily have been a phrase characteristic of the period without any refer-

ence to the Greeks.

I '3)

Zirkel's claim that Nin in the phrase ;n y:; .sn

corresponds to the Homeric use of the

article as

(cli.

a demonstrative

pronoun, has been deemed by none of his successors worthy of serious

Di->o in ch. 2^

consideration.

although the same as

Tra/jdScitros, is

not

Both are derived from the Persian pairi-dieza, whic'i

furnished the word to Semitic-Babylonian, Aramaic, Arabic and Armenian as well. (See BDB.) It is also found in Cant. 4'* and Ne.
derived from

2".

but

n-^|"s,
it

it.

ch.

2'< 3^3 9^-

^ was by van der

occurs in a kindred sense in

can be suspected.
rightly taken

n."i^

tn,

ch.

Palm connected with

Sam.

6',

aviKpop-fi^

where no Greek iaOuence

2'^ Zirkel renders ti fiiWov, but as

by Ginsburg, Wildeboer and McNeile Tx="t!ien," "under

those circumstances," as in Jer.

22'5.

2VJ nvJ7, ch.

3'-, is

regarded by

and Siegfried as a literal translation of cD irpdrreiv. It

is true that the context excludes an ethical meaning, and shows that it
means "be prosperous," or "fare well," but since ny-y nr; occurs in the
opposite meaning of "vex one's self" or "be in a bad way" in 2 S.
Kleinert, Tyler

i2'8,

Greek influence

is

not necessary to account for the usage, 'jrn

''^'-',

was explained by Zirkel from the Greek phrase devrepot toO

BatrtX^ws, and by Delitzsch and Wright from frepos tCjv yiad-qrCiv
Bickc^U and Siegfried, however, regard 'ju'i as a gloss.
<'Mt. 8-').

rh. 4'%

RELATION OF QOHELETH TO GREEK THOUGHT

If

genuine,

it is

who became

used

in

a straightforward way to refer to a second youth

was regarded by Zirkel as

^DDiinN, 5,

king.

33

<f>iXdpyvpoi,

but as McNcile has said one could as well take nn^n jhn (Pr. 29^) as a

= 0t\6<ro0os.

nc^ "icn 2)12, ch. 5'', is taken by Graetz, Plumtre,

and Wildeboer as a translation of Ka\6v Kdya66v.
That, however, would be ni3">i 31a. Del., who is followed by Wr., McN.,
Kd. (4i4n, 393a), pointed to a parallel in Non nu'x ]yy^, Ho. 12=. There

Graecism

Pfleiderer, Siegfried

can be no suspicion of Greek influence

Hosea.

in

njjjc, ch.
s'*, has,

The

according to Zirkel, the sense of remunerari.

use of njy in this

sense he explained through the Gr. dfieipec dai, which can

munerari and respondere.

occupy" (BDB.,

McN.

ny;

mean both reword="to

however, an Aramaic loan

is,

see note); but even

points to a parallel usage in

fluence could not be responsible.

if

were from

it

K.

18**,

VDi ^Sn, ch.

69,

njy,

"answer,"

which Greek

for

in-

Zirkel compares with

Marc. Aurelius 3'*. If there were influence here, it

must have been from the Hebrew to the Greek, McN. has called attention to the fact that Ez. 11" and Job 3' use ^S^ in the same sense as

dp/x^ TTJs rpvxv^ in

Qoh.

ov)}''},

ing

by the Greek

it

ch.

6'-, is

this explanation,

who

but on the whole

contrast to

ny-i

or

"What
?

seems most probable.

it

quit

from"
is,

oSd ns

nx'',

Zirkel claims,

in i 315 6', in all of

means simply "that which

r\y,

as doubtful.

McN.

equal to the Greek pJarjy

is

of, " as in Mishna, Berakoih, 2', Sabbath,

Greek idiom, but NH. n>ntt' hd Kleinert explains

t6 tL ^<rTti'="the essence of the thing," but, as

it is

it

other expression could possibly be chosen as a

or "guiltless

then, not a

found

See notes.

was connected with evrj/jjepla, but others,

but as Del. and others point out nx> has here the sense of "be

This

is

right, explain-

alter the text to avoid

hold to Grsecisms in Qoh., regard

pertinently asks:

Padli^eiv,

McN. would

xp^^ov.

n3iO ov, ch. 7IS Kleinert declared

even those

was

the one instance wherein Zirkel

iroieiv

owing

is

impossible.

It

din, ch. 7", Graetz takes as equal to

to the influence of the

not correspond to Greek usage at

and others

as

McN. notes, the expression

which such a meaning

is."

Greek

AvSpuiros, but as

simply opposed to nrx as in Gen. 2"-

for the Gr. <pd4yna

i.

all.

"

dj.-id,

for ivrlTayna,

38. n. n. 20.

ch. 8",

is,

McN.
21^

notes

^nd does

which Zirkel takes

as Delitzsch pointed out,

Son, ch. 1 2", Tyler, who is followed by Sieg.,

compares with the formula of the Mishna, SSon nT=" this is the general rule," and thinks there is "a pretty clear trace of the influence of
Greek philosophical terminology."
He compares t6 Kad6\ov or t6
6\op, which in Plato is used in the sense of "the Universal."
Such a

a Persian word; see notes.

view imports into the phrase a meaning foreign

word simply means "all," and means that either
that the editor wished to say, has been heard.
fully discussed

by McNeile, op.

cit.,

pp. 30-43.

to the context.

The

the whole book, or

all

These points are more

ECCLESIASTES

34

As

2.

to the possibility that

philosophical thought,

it

Qoheleth was influenced by Greek

can be shown that there

is

even

less trace

Qoheleth of Greek philosophical, than of Greek linguistic,

in

Renan and McNeile

fluence.

in-

are right in thinking that everything

Qoheleth can be accounted for as a development of Semitic

in

thought,

and

prove that

that the expressions which have been seized

came under

writer

its

of philosophy only prove at

him

in

the

making

of a

the influence of

upon to
Greek schools

most that Qoheleth was a Jew who had

(Cf. McNeile, op.

Greek philosopher.

p. 44.)

cit.,

Many

attempts have been

made

to prove the contrary.

Pflei-

derer (Cf. Jahrh'ucher fur protestantische Theologie, 1887, 177-180,

and

his

Die Philosophie des HeraklU von Eph.,nebst einemAnhang

im alttestamentlichen Koheleth, und

im Buch der Weisheit, 1886) tries to show that ch. 3'-
dependent upon Heraclitus, not only for its thought, but for

uber heraklitische Einfliisse

hesonders
is

many
by

of

expressions; but this view has been justly discarded

its

others.

Friedlander (Griechische Philosophie im alten Testa-

was written in the

Greek period, assuming that in that case Greek philosophy influenced it.
He makes no specific argument fi>r such influence
beyond the contention that ch. 719 (= Pr. 21" 24^) is an echo

ment, 1904) seeks to prove that Qoheleth

Euripides.

of

Sellin

{Spnren griechischer Philosophie im alten

Testament, 1905) has answered him.

The attempt
and Haupt,

11^.) finds

which

prove that

more

deserves

Stoics,
p.

of Tyler,

to

in the

is

followed by Plumtre, Siegfried,

Qoheleth

was influenced by

serious attention.

Tyler

the

(Ecclesiastes,

catalogue of times and seasons in ch.

3-

setting forth of the great principle of Stoic ethics, thatiin_should

live

according to nature.

He

compendious statement that

thinks that in vv. 2-8

for every event of

ure" has an appointed season.

ch. 3'^

him

it

may

to refer to nature.

be observed that ch.

we have a
life

"Nat-

finds confirmation of this in

where the word "there" according

ing seems to

point

He

human

to the Massoretic point-

With reference

3'^ in all

probability

is

to this last

one of the

Chasid glossator's interpolations to Qoheleth's work, and that the

word "there"

is

a Massoretic mistake (see

Commentary, ad

loc.^

RELATION OF QOHELETH TO GREEK THOUGHT

The

for reasons).

is

which Tyler sees

in ch. 3--*,

close examination, to be there.

Q^)heleth

Stoic ethics, too,

do not appear, on a

breathingji_sigh (see vv.

with

in

an

jioj_inj_[]Pse verses e x pressing

ethical standard, but

in

ai \\i^^^

with the Stoics,

it

m eshes

thp

This ^onsciousness of the iron grip

common

is

rather

11) ove r the fact that j)]| h""^-^"

9,

itsjv aried activities is

fate.

35

^''^^'

an inexorab le

of

Qoheleth possesse s

of fate

must be confessed, but, as

Epicureans and Sceptics, London, 1892,

Zeller

332 ff.) perreiyed, the Stoics did not invent this conception, hut shared it
{Stoics,

wit h nearly

all

the thinkers of the period.

and

the Persian, then the Macedonian,

querer quenched

all

man

like egg-shells,

things should have impressed the thoughtful

in

Qo heleth

is,

tion of his

The

writer

th erefore

The ^ct
a mark of

|:hat this

no wonder

minds of the time

conc eption ^pp^nrc

dat e, rather than evidence of

Ch. 3"'*, upon which Tyler

argument,
is

it is

powerless before the onward sweep of

is

regardless of nationality.

St oic influence.

w h^XLJirst
Roman con-

In an age

finally the

over the civilized world the torch of freedom,

and powerful nations were crushed

that the fact that

p.

relies for

confirma-

obviously open to the same explanation.

is

simply saying:

Man

is

powerless in the presence of

God.
Tyler then argues {op.
heleth draws in ch.

i^ff.) that the picture

cit., p.

which Qo-

of the endless repetitions of nature clearly be-

trays the influence of the Stoic theory of cycles.

Tyler overlooks,

however, the fact that the differences between the Stoics and Qoheleth are really greater than their agreements.

Qoheleth

(ch. i<-")

alludes only to the fact that the generations of men, the sun, the

winds, the rivers, and

same

course.

He

all

human
end

larger world-cycles, at the

stroyed by flood or

affairs,

fire

of

which everything would be de-

only to be recreated and to start upon a

world-course, in which every detail of

repeated.

run again and again the

betrays no consciousness of the Stoic theory of

(See Zeller, op.

Qoheleth did not hold

cannot find out what

cit.,

ch.

its

viii.)

Indeed,

it

clear that

is

this view, for his constant plaint is that

will

done from the beginning

be after him," or ''know what

to the

heleth's confession of ignorance

end"
is

new

former history would be

{cf.

3"

6'

7'

*'

God

ii).

in striking contrast to the

man
hath

Qodog-

ECCLESIASTES

36

When

matic certainty of the Stoics.

is

one notes these contrasts,

hardly possible longer to maintain that Qoheleth betrays in ch.

any Stoic

He

influence.

it

appears rather as an acute observer of

bitter experiences have led him to look beneath the surand who has thus become conscious of the seemingly futile
repetitions of life, and whose thirst for knowledge of life's mystery
refuses, though baffled, to be satisfied by dogmatism.

whose

life,

face,

Tyler further urges {op.

dictum "all

vanity"

is

Marcus Aurelius

is

it

as

by Stoic influence, because

On

any theory

of the date of Ecclesiastes,

might with greater plausibility be urged that the stream

of influence,

The

i^ff-) that Qoheleth's oft repeated

declares that ''worldly things are but as smoke,

as very nothingness."

however,

cit.,

best explained

influence there was,

if

was

in the other direction.

coincidence that both Qoheleth and the Stoics regarded folly

madness

is

also to Tyler

ever, his other

an argument

arguments are

for his theory.

invalid, this fact

If,

how-

can be regarded as

no more than a coincidence.

Not only do

these alleged evidences of Stoic influence appear to

be unreal, but on

many

other points the positions of Qoheleth and

the Stoics are in such striking contrast as to render the theory of

The Stoics were materialists,

Stoic influence most improbable.
and most dogmatic in their materialism (Zeller, op. cit., ch. vi),
but there is no trace in Ecclesiastes either of their materialism or
The Stoics regarded God as pure reason, and
their dogmatism.
were as positive and dogmatic about the divine nature as about
the universe; Qoheleth,
his

on the other hand, regarded both God and

works as unknowable.

God

is infinitely

and even what he does man cannot hope

to

above

man

understand

{cf.

{cf.

5*),

ii).

The

Stoics thought they understood

how

the

unborn child

pp. 212-213); Qoheleth, on

(Zeller, op.

cit.,

the other hand, declared that the

of the

8'^ 11*).

There

is

To

Qoheleth there

relative thing;

it

is

in

secret of

which

is

undis-

a great contrast, too, between

the idea of good as presented by Qoheleth

tively.

was formed

formation even of the bones

unborn infant was a mystery the

coverable (ch.

the soul

and the

no absolute good.

Stoics respec-

good

is

consists of the satisfaction of the animal appetites

during the period of

life

when such

satisfaction gives enjoyment.

RELATION OF QOHELETH TO GREEK THOUGHT

It

has no absolute value, but there

ch. 2"

3'-

'

5" "

9^-' ii"

is

To

').

37

nothing better

in life

{cf.

the Stoics, on the contrary,

nothing could be considered a good which did not have an absolute value.

and

op.

(Zeller,

cit.,

foolish

men and

pp. 231-233.)

between Qoheleth's idea

exists

similar contrast

of the relative position

that entertained

by the

has an innate liking for^ wisdom; he admires

follows

I" 7"

(ch.

it

" 9'), but,

is

man

mood he declares
know nothing

die than to

verdict

The

is

wise

toils in

man

that

it

(ch. 6^^-^).
is

(ch. 9^);

that his

(9'),

It

in rc-

true that in

is

know

better to

is

that one will

but on the whole Qoheleth's

that wisdom, like all other things

man

vain

endeavor, and that a foetus born dead

fruitless

ahty happie?^ than the wise

another

at times

on the other hand, he cannot rid

himself of the feejing that the wise

labor

and

it,

wise

of

Qoheleth

Stoics.

mundane,

is

vanity.

has no real advantage, except that he suffers what

he suffers with his eyes open; in the end he dies

goes to the same place

regarded the wise

man

The

(cf. 9'").

Stoics,

as the only perfect

man,

and want and absolutely happy,

falling short in

happiness of Zeus.

cit.,

Again, the Stoics

(Zeller, op.

made

distinctions

like the fool,

and

on the other hand,

free

from passion

no respect of the

pp. 270-271.)

between degrees

of goodness.

was an absolute good; other goods were secondary, and

certain things were indifferent.
(Zeller, op. cit., ch. XI.)
Of
such distinctions we find no trace in Ecclcsiastes. The one kind
of good which he knows is to eat and drink and enjoy the full
Virtue

round

of physical life while

it

Qoheleth knows none but

reach of man.

The

lasts.
it is

to

This is not an absolute good

him the only good within the

Stoics also developed theories of applied

morals, in which political theories

were

set forth.

and the duties of the individual

These culminated in the Roman period in the

conception of a citizenship of the world.

None

XII.)
it

(Zeller, op.

of these ideas finds expression in Qoheleth,

cit.,

ch.

though

would, of course, be unfair to look for some of them, as they were

later

tion

The

developments of Stoicism.

gorizers
(cf.

{cf.

Zeller, op.

Zeller, op.

appear anywhere

cit.,

cit.,

p.

p.

Stoics, too,

355#.)) ^rid

370

Jf.),

in Ecclesiastes.

were great

made much

traces of

alle-

of divina-

neither of which

ECCLESIASTES

38

Upon

a candid comparison of the thought of Ecclesiastes, then,

with the philosophy of the Stoics, the supposed dependence of the

one on the other turns out to be unreal.

The resemblances

are

not really likenesses but surface coincidences, and the differences

are fundamental.

Tyler (op.

cit.,

mainly upon

iS

ff.)

endeavors to show that Qohelcth also ex-

Epicurean thought.

hibits traces of

In this argument he relics

3'"-"

two passages:

The former

5i-2.

and

of

these teaches, he holds, the Epicurean doctrine of the mortality

of

the

and the

soul,

the

latter

T^picurean doctrine of pleas-

ure, or tranquillity, as the essential principle of

ence to the

of these points

first

it

life.

With

denial of immortality differs from the Epicurean denial.

but a passing doubt:

(12^) his

it is

refer-

should be noted that Qoheleth*^

His

is

not dogmatically expressed, and at the end

doubt has vanished and he reasserts the older Jewish

2^).
This older view was not an assertion of im-|

view (Gn.

mortality, but the primitive conception that the breath comesi

from

God and

The

goes back to him.

Epicureans, on the otherj

hand, dogmatically argued for the non-immortality of the soul,

and possessed well-assured

As

pp. 453-456.)

shown

that this

is

theories about

(C/. Zeller, op.

it.

to Tyler's second point,

will

it

cit.,

be presently

a Semitic point of view older than Epicurus

by many centuries.
Siegfried confesses that

neither thorough-going Stoicism noi

Epicureanism can be found

distinguishes

two authors

thinks, kinship to the Stoics,

the book, but he, nevertheless,

in

in the

book, the one of

and the other

whom

shows, he

to the Epicureans.

liaupt, on the other hand, believes that the original Qoheleth

was strongly imbued with the Epicurean philosophy. He says

{The Book of Ecclesiastes 1905, p. 6), ''Like Epicurus (341-270
y

ness

(9"), l)ut

pleasures to

commends companionship

(4"), and cheerfuland moderation in sensual

avoid painful consequences (11'). He warns against

B.C.), Ecclesiastes

also contentment (6),

wrong-doing, since

it

deny the existence of

entails

God

punishment

(5-),

of the universe: divine inlUicnce

much

(7'",

5").

He

does not

but he disbelieves a moral order

on

this

imperfection and evil seems to

world where there

him

impossible.

is

so

In the

RELATION OF QOHELETH TO GREEK THOUGHT

same way he doubts
all

consciousness

39

the immortahty of the soul (3^')! death ends

He by no means commends

(9').

nothing but

and drinking and pleasure (8'^ 2^* 5'', c}. 3'^); he also
preaches the gospel of work (3" 9'"')."
The part of this argument which relates to immortality has

eating

already been considered.

an old Babylonian
the heart of this

covered.

It

Unfortunately for the Epicurean theory,

parallel to Eccl. 9^-'

parallel

supposed Epicurean philosophy

occurs in

on a tablet written

which contains

has been

dis-

a fragment of the Gilgamesh epic found

in the script of the

Hammurabi dynasty

(about

2000 B.C.), and was published by Meissner in the Mitkilungen

der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft
iii,

1.

3,

we

1902, Heft

i.

On

p. 8, col.

read:

CIXCE

the gods created man,

Death they ordained for man,
Life in their hands they hold,
Thou, O Gilgamesh, fill indeed thy
Day and night be thou joyful,

belly,

Daily ordain gladness.

Day and

night rage and make merry,

Let thy garments be bright,
Thy head purify, wash with water.
Desire thy children which thy hand possesses,
A wife enjoy in thy bosom,

Peaceably thy work (?)..,

As Hubert Grimme pointed out {Orientalische Literaturzeitung,

Vni, col. 432^.), this is a most striking parallel to Eccl. 9-.

Vol.

Also their (the dead's) love as well as their hate and their jealousy

have already perished, and they have again no portion

done under the sun.

Come

eat thy bread with joy

with a glad heart, for already

times

let

God

thy garments be white, and

in all that is

and drink thy wine

hath accepted thy works.

let

not

oil

At

all

be lacking on thy head.

Enjoy life with a woman whom thou lovest all the days of thy vain life
which he gives thee under the sun, for it is thy lot in life and thy toil which
thou

toilest

under the sun.

These passages are not only

Hebrew seems

strikingly similar, but in parts the

to be a translation of the

Babylonian (see Com-

ECCLESIASTES

40

The

mentary).

existence of the influential Jewish colony called

and its great influence on the Jews

There can be little doubt that it was
channel that this Babylonian philosophy of life be-

the '^Gouliouth^^ in Babylonia

of Palestine

through

is

this

came known

well

to

known.

Qoheleth and influenced him.

This old Babylonian philosophy,

tains the heart

The

Qoheleth.

of

all

eating

too,

it

should be noted, con-

that has been considered

Epicurean in

and drinking, the enjoyment

of one's labor,

the cheerfulness, the delight in pleasure, the feeling that death

ends

all

all

these are contained in

The

it.

script in

which

it is

written attests the existence of these sentiments as early as 2000

B.C., at a time

when

there

is

no reason

a product of purely Semitic thought.

ability,

his

acquainted with the Babylonian poem.

doubt that they are

It is

in all

prob-

not likely that

whole point of view came from Babylonia, but he adopted the

sentiment of the poem, because

expressed a point of view which

it

own thought was made

he had himself reached, while his

by some phases
he

to

Qoheleth was,

lived.

possible

Jewish thought in the particular period when

of

Semitic thought in Babylonia had, almost two millennia

before Qoheleth, traversed the cycle which Jewish thought

in his

The

was

person treading.
point of immediate interest

that the discovery of this

is

parallelism effectually disposes of the theory that Qoheleth

was

Epicurean influence was

indebted to the thought of Epicurus.

exceedingly problematical even before this discovery, for Epicu-

reanism was in

its

Qoheleth betrays

way

and austere as

as dogmatic

knowledge comes from sensation, no trace

of

or natural science, or theology, or morals.

may

all

Epicurean canonic,

Such likenesses as

be discovered are cast in a thoroughly Semitic mould of

thought, and are mere coincidences.

that

Stoicism.

no trace of the Epicurean dogma that

it

Greek

would not be necessary

for

It

may,

systems; but

it

urged

Epicureanism

in order

by some of the fundamental conceptions

of these

characteristics of either Stoicism or

to be influenced

of course, be

Qoheleth to adopt the peculiarly

may be

said in reply that

no Hebrew could probably

be influenced by them without adopting on some points their

peculiar

methods or dogmatism.

St.

Paul, Philo, and

Justin

RELATION OF QOHELETH TO GREEK THOUGHT

41

Martyr, for example, adopted the allegorizing method, and probably Qoheleth would betray some ^non-Semitic trait were such
influence real.

McNeile

(Ecdesiastes,

pp. 44

has pointed out that Zeno,

ff.)

was of Phoenician stock, and that, though

Ecdesiastes contains some of the seed-thoughts of Stoicism, it
only means that another Semite under the influences of the same
the founder of Stoicism,

period in the world's history developed under a somewhat different

environment some of the same

makes

it

ideas.

Our

present knowledge

possible to contend concerning the resemblances between

Qoheleth and Epicurus, not that the former borrowed from the
but that Epicurus was indebted for his seed-thought to

latter,

Qoheleth's great forerunner, the Babylonian poet, and that this

thought he worked up metaphysically and dogmatically, thus giving

it

a setting in accordance with the prevailing genius of the Greek

philosophy of the period.

In favor of such a thesis a strong argu-

ment could be made without harboring any

of the extravagant

fancies of the contemporary pan-Babylonian school of

Germany,

but the problem belongs rather to the history of Greek philosophy

than to a commentary on Ecdesiastes.

For

full

and influence of Epicurus,

and Skeptics, London, 1892; Wallace,
1880; and Guyan, La Morale d'Epicure,

descriptions of

the teachings

see Zeller, Stoics, Epicureans,

London,

Epicureanism,

The name Epicurus appears

Paris, 1878.
It is

equivalent to "free-thinker" and

the writers of the

Cf.

Talmud had

Jewish Encyc.

The

fact

that

mystic

number

in the

Talmud

as Apikoros.

used in a way which shows that

only the vaguest notions of his philosophy.

665 ff.
the Babylonian

I,

of Plato's

influence

made evident by
Republic, Book viii, is

philosophical thinkers has been

This was

is

reached

some Greek

the discovery that the

of

Babylonian

origin.

shown by Aur^s, Recueil de Travaux, XV, 69-80, who,

after examining the interpretations which Le Clerc in 1819, Vincent
in 1839, Martin in 1857, and Tannery in 1870, had put upon Plato's
language, finally adopted the explanation of Dupuis (1881) that the
number was 21,600 and claimed that in the mathematical tablet of
Senkereh this number represented 6 shars=2,o US. = i kasbu. James
Adam, in his Republic of Plato, Cambridge, 1902, Vol. II, p. 206^.,
argued with great acuteness that the number contemplated by Plato
was 12,960,000. The factors of this number Hilprecht {Babylonian
first

ECCLESIASTES

42

Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, Scries A, Vol. XX, Pt. i)

found on Babylonian exercise tablets in such a way as to show that it

was regarded by

He

the Babylonians as a mystic numl:>er.

holds this

Adam's calculation and also of the Babylonian

numbers. Even Georg Albert admits {Die Platonische

to be a confirmation of

origin of the

Zahl

and Wien, 1907), that the Babylonian

from Dupuis and Adam in the

als Prazessionszahl, Leipzig

origin

he

possible, although

is

differs

interpretation of the Greek, reiterating a view which he set forth in

1896 (Die Platonische Zahl) that the number intended is 2592, one of

the factors of 12,960,000,

and referred

to the procession of the equinoxes.

P^picurus lived through the period of the conquests of Alexander

He began

the Great.

teaching in Athens in the year 306 B.C., seventeen

years after the death of Alexander, at a time

which Babylonian
It

is

in-fluences

when

the channels through

might pour into Greece were

all

open.

scarcely necessary to refute Dillon's statement that Qoheleth

was influenced by Buddhism (see above, p. 27). Dillon supports his

statement by no extended argument, and it seems clear that such parallels between Ecclesiastes and Buddhistic teaching as might be cited
arc in all probability due to independent, though parallel, developments of thought.

The
ligion',

fact

is,

as

Vol.

I,

ch.

positive
itive

and

Edward Caird
vii, X, xiii,

{Lectures on the EvoUition of Re-

xiv) observed, that in various centres

theoretical religions

have been developed out of prim-

nature religions, and that wherever this has been the case, a

similar course of evolution, independent though parallel,

observed.

'~^nd

The

Stoicism.

instances noted by Caird are

That

the primitive, and, to

may be

Buddhism, Judaism,

some

extent, the pro-'^

phetic conceptions of religion were to Israel's thinking

minds prov-

Book of Job attests,

44#.) has already made good use of CairdV

ing inadequate, even before Qoheleth, the

'--iVIcNeile {op.

principle in

cit., p.

showing that Qoheleth represents a stage

velopment of Jewish religious thought parallel

Stoicism, though independent of

The

principle

may

in

in the de-

some respects

to

it.

be applied with

justice,

though

in

a less ex-

tended way, to the likenesses between Ecclesiastes and Epicurus.

Where primitive types of religious conception were beginning to

be regarded as inadequate,

it

was natural

of satisfaction for a time in the effort to

present

life

and

its

for

men

to find a kind

make the most out of the

temporary pleasures.

We

have already seen

THE INTEGRITY OF ECCLESIASTES

how Babylonian thought passed through
tells

us (Bk.

43

and Herodotus

this phase,

that Egyptian thought parsed through a similar

2^*)

phase, which gave birth to the custprrTof carrying a

most

of his

at a feast

This point of view

be unable to participate in such joys.

exhibited

mummy

and exhorting each guest to make the

opportunity, for one day he would, like the mummy,

around the table

native

in

Egyptian poetry.

also

is

W. Max MuUer's

See

Liehespoesie der alten Agypter, 30-35.

Qoheleth represents such a stage

not invent the conception of

place of dismal half-consciousness.

tion, set forth in

Hebrew

in

thought.

Sheol, which appears

in his

It is the old

He

did

book, as a

Semitic concep-

the Babylonian poem of I shtafs Descent (KB., VI),

and in the OT. in Is. 14^*^ Ez. 32"'=", and is even reiterated by
some late Psalmists {cf. Ps. SS'" iiS'O- Qoheleth's point of
view is a natural evolution,. therefore, from Israel's earlier thought
as natural as that which took place in Babylonia or in Egypt.

The evolution of thought

Epicurus.

If

in

Greece

may as naturally have produced

either Qoheleth or Epicurus was

debted to the Babylonian poet,

it

was because

thought in their respective countries

welcome

to

made

many Hebrew and Greek

McNeile has pointed out

in-

his conceptions of

life

minds.

The book of Ecclesiastes represents, then, an

ment of Hebrew thought, thoroughly Semitic in
and quite independent of Greek influences.

real affinity of

any way

in

the development of

original developits

{Ecclesiastes, pp. 45 ff.,

point of view,

50

ff.)

that

more

thought exists between Qoheleth and Xenophanes of

Colophon, or Qoheleth and Pyrrho and the Sceptics, than between

Qoheleth and the

Stoics.

McNeile, however, rightly declares that no

contact on the part of Qoheleth with either of these philosophies can

be maintained.

Greek as the
Qoheleth

is

clear

Sceptics were in their

{cf.

way

as dogmatic and as

Zeller, op. a/., 514-563), while

thoroughly Semitic.

7.
It is

The

Stoics or Epicureans

TTIK INTEGRITY OF ECCLESIASTES.

from what has been said

opinions upon this point exist

among

in 5 that the

scholars.

most diverse

Cornill

and Ge-

nung, on the one hand, maintaining vigorously the entire unity

ECCLESIASTES

44
work as

of the

it

stands (Cornill counting the work one of the

Hebrew

greatest triumphs of

faith), while

at the other extreme, regard the

hands that
will

Siegfried

be found to

lie

may

Jerusalem,"

work

the

of

an

books makes

owe
21.

^12.

The analogy

editor.

To

this probable.

16

41.

4.

of David, king

same editor we probably

and 128. The writer

i^ 727

of himself in the first person (see

^18 61

715.

glO.

26

25.

16

gl

11.

in i^

7" they actually interrupt a discourse in the

13

jo*).

and

first

10,

which speaks

of

number

his

work,

is,

the

work

of the editor also.

Israel's wise

as a

men

Qoheleth

in the third person

12",

while

we

Further,

and

praises

of recent interpreters have seen, doubtless

in general,

Ch.

i2'i-

and

utters a

'^,

which praises the work of

warning against reading

other books

{i.e., probably books outside

the OT. canon),
from the hand of an editor or glossator. McNeile assigns

also

to the

Hokma

glossator, but

are really one.

it

"End

To

to

me

these

is
it

probable that the two

in the aid of

we must add

the words,

of discourse all has been heard," at the beginning of 12'%

which marked the conclusion

it.

If

seems

can see no reason for calling

another writer at this point.

left

i'^

The

person;

conclude, therefore, that they are probably editorial.

ch. 12'

truth

of the titles to the prophetic

this

words "says Qoheleth" interrupt the rhythm

in

many

readily be granted without controversy to be

book usually speaks

18

13.

The

somewhere between these two extremes, and

the words "says Qoheleth" in

of the

of so

original features are entirely obscured.

its

somewhat nearer the former than the latter.

The title, ch. i', "The words of Qoheleth, son
in

and Haupt,

book as the product

(For reasons, see

now we remove

crit.

of the

note on

book as the

Hokma

editor

i2>').

words and sentences, is the

Are there any utterances so contradictory that they could not have been uttered by the same mind ?
In
answer we must examine the book. Through the first two chaprest of the

ters the

these editorial

book a unity ?

thought flows on connectedly, as most interpreters have

recognized, until

sentiment which

we come
is

to

2^^,

when we suddenly come upon

in direct contradiction to

most of the statements

which have preceded it in the chapter, and which contains the orthodox Jewish doctrine of rewards and punishments. It is incon-

THE INTK(iRlTV

KCCi^ESIASTHS

()!

45

same chapter, that the wise

"^) and that there is no
man and the fool have the same
good but eating and drinking and enjoying one's self (2"), and
also say that God punishes the sinner and rewards the good (2").
We accordingly are compelled to conclude that 22* comes from the
hand of a Chasid or Jewish orthodox glossator, whose philosophy

ceivable that a writer should say in the

fate (2'^

was

of life

Did
find

we must conclude

"God

gloss,

and

add any other passages to the book? If we

sentiments which interrupt and contradict their

any similar

context,
3^'',

that of the Pharisees.

this glossator

men may
he seems to me mistaken.

hath done

but in this

men

fear before him,"

that

it

inexplicable being

should wish

JSIcNeile holds that ch.

that he did.

whom

That

Qoheleth considered

to fear before him,

is

is

God

ments similar
^6b.

and

2-j

8^'-

3a.

6.

All

'*.

to those of ch.
8a.

11-13

j J

1*1,

i2i'-

breathe

these

Senti-

however, found in 3"

are,

7''>-

(from thc words ''fear God")

'^

same

the

interrupt or contradict the chief

to be

as consonant to the thought

of Qoheleth, as in a different sense to that of the Chasid.

2''

such a

the mysterious

sentiments

and

either

teachings of the book, and in

most cases do both. As the last of these glosses forms the conclusion of the book, coming after the concluding words of the editor,
we conclude that the Chasid glossator's was the last hand to annotate Ecclesiastes as

it

stands in our canon.

To

the Chasid glosses

thus enumerated, McNeile would add s'-\ the passage on rash

vows. I see no reason, however, why the whole of this passage,
except the two allusions to dreams,

may

His views did not exclude the worship of

not belong to Qoheleth.

God

altogether,

and they

him to denounce sham and insincerity in reThe only real argument against the genuineness of this

would naturally lead

ligion.

section

is

that

it

interrupts Qoheleth's reflections on political affairs,

No
to which the preceding and following sections are devoted.
ancient Jew, however (except possibly the Priestly Writers in the
Pentateuch), least of

all

Qoheleth,

arrangement of his sections, so that

is

sufficiently systematic in the

this

argument can

really

be of

weight where, as here, not a single verse but a whole section intervenes, and that section is not on the whole out of harmony with
Qoheleth's position.

Vv. 3 and 7% however, interrupt Qoheleth's

ECCLESIASTES

46

thought, and are cast more in the form of the mashal proverbs.

We

conclude, therefore, that they were introduced by some writer

who

was

wisdom sayings

especially interested in

cast in a poetic form.

We must next inquire whether there may

not be other proverbial

sayings in Ecclesiastes which so interrupt the argument of the

book as

to

make

it

impossible that they should have been inserted

A careful study of the work convinces us

and that the following passages are such wisdom or

by Qoheleth himself.
that there are,

Hokma
15.

18.

glosses:

Xo

19,

'j^^-

these passages

and Haupt

fried

"^

4* 53-

=>

n.

-.

5.

12.

gi gn.

19

McNeile would add

myself that Qoheleth did not quote them.

and

it is

book was much interested

There

is

no

siastes since

left

it

though

cannot persuade

As we have seen above,

in the work of the wise,

it

Literature,

edited the book because

first

addition to the

Wisdom

was deeply imbued with

after him,

The

made

the hands of Qoheleth.

deeply interested in the

thought

necessity, therefore, of sup-

posing that more than two hands have

sees.

which Sieg-

quite possible that the proverbial glosses just enumerated

were introduced by him.

came

4'-'=,

jqi-3. s-u..

also regard as glosses; but the verses,

proverbs, are so appropriate to the context that

the editor of the

is

Wisdom

Literature,

a work of Solomon (see

additions to Eccle-

One

w^as an editor
and the other who

the spirit of the Phari-

formed an important
and possibly, too, because he
on 12^). The second,' finding
it

such a work attributed, as he supposed, to Solomon, added his

glosses,

because he thought

it

wrong

that the great

mon should not support the orthodox

The material, added by these glossators
however, but a small part of the material

8.

Life

generation

Men
is

time.

as catalogued above,
in the

is,

book.

with an introduction or preface (ch. i'-") in

sets forth his conviction that everything is vain.

and the processes

repetition.

of Solo-

qoheleth's thought in outline.

The book opens

which Qoheleth

name

doctrines of the

of nature are

an endless and meaningless

are unconscious of the repetition, because each

ignorant of the experiences of the generations which

have gone before

it.

QOHELETH'S THOUCxIIT IN OUTLINE

As though

to give a

47

demonstration of the thesis of the preface

Qoheleth, in the next section of the book

(i '2-226),

narrates his ex-

periments, under the assumed character of King Solomon, in seeking satisfaction

first in

wisdom

(i'-"), then, in material

sual things (2'-"), next, in the virtues of folly

states (2*-") the

have

There

is

any kind

fleeting,

and

toil

one can while

but

it is

he

is

satis-

alike vain.

transient

life lasts.

This

is,

is

it

true, vain,

the only ray of satisfaction in a world of vain

phenomena.

the grip of those laws

ties

no permanent

is

All labor

of earthly activity.

Qoheleth then proceeds

(3'-*0 to exhibit

man's helplessness

which God has established.

are limited to certain times

little

sen-

nothing better than to eat and drink and gain such animal

satisfaction as
i.e.,

and

lastly,

conclusions to which his various experiments

These conclusions are that there

led.

faction in

and

(2^--^''),

and seasons

in

Human

which

man

in

activi-

goes his

round doing only what other men have done before.

His

nature cries out for complete knowledge of the works of God, but

God

has doomed him to ignorance, so that the best he can do is to

and drink and ignorantly get what little enjoyment he can
within these limitations. The philosophy which is for the second
eat

time repeated here, bears a striking resemblance to that of the

Gilgamesh fragment quoted above.

section then follows (3'*-")

which

is

but loosely connected

with the preceding, in which Qoheleth argues that the oppressions

of

human government and the

men are like beasts, and the

that

death,

and return

to the

same

injustices of
fact that

human

courts prove

both experience the same

dust, confirms this.

such a questionable thing, that another argument

Immortality
is

found

is

for the

Semitic theory which the Babylonian poet had formulated long

before Qoheleth, that the best one can do

is

to

make

the most of

the present.

From
tice,

the general reflections suggested

Qoheleth passes

tion of

by oppression and

in the next section (4''^) to a closer

injus-

examina-

to man, speaking first of the pathos of

weak by the powerful, then, of the envy

man's inhumanity

the oppression of the

created by rivalry, and, lastly, of the lonely miser's inhumanity to

himself.

He

contents himself here with a statement of facts; the

ECCLESIASTES

48
conclusion to be

Ch.

ch. 3.

4i3-'

drawn from them had been

larity as exhibited in the history of

The

In ch.

51-^

Qoheleth

The two

ligion.

human

human

glory

is

even more

activity.

most extended remarks upon

offers us his

glosses (5'

of

nature of popu-

two young unnamed kings.

statement suggests that the acme of

vain than other forms of

end

stated at the

sets forth the vanity or transient

and

7)

re-

on dreams do not seriously

He had in ch. 3 revealed his

God as a powerful being, who keeps man in ignorance
(3" emended text), and who has circumscribed man in the inexorable meshes of fate, so that man may fear him.
Now Qoheleth

interrupt the flow of his thought.

conception of

goes on to counsel obedience, reverence, and a faithful perform-

ance of one's covenants with God.

but such religion as he has
for

is

His conception of

sincere.

who

shams, nor sympathy with the glib worshipper

ment

God

of fright will covenant with

for anything,

escape the impending danger, and then go his

when

the danger

ligion was,

is

past.

he does not

tell

What
us,

in his

God

is

dark,

Qoheleth has no tolerance

if

in

a mo-

only he

way and

may

forget

view the real function of

but he does

insist that

practices as one engages in should be reverent

and

it

re-

such religious

sincere.

In ch. 5*-63 Qoheleth returns again to the subject of oppression,

which
ful

in every Oriental ^country, as in

an element

in

life.

He

first

a hierarchy of officers oppression

is

every despotism,

is

to be expected,

on the whole an advantage, and then passes

of the various kinds of oppression

money.

is

so pain-

observes that in a country ruled by

though a king

to the consideration

which grow out of the love

In the course of this discussion he more than once

(5'*

of
1*

3) reiterates his theory, that the one ray of light on life is to eat
and drink and gain what enjoyment one can, without wearing one's
This is transient (vain, 6^), but there is
self out in useless labor.

62

nothing better.

These thoughts lead Qoheleth in ch. 6^-^^ to revert to the theme

between puny man and fate. In ch. y^'* Qoheleth introduced a few proverbs which enforced his point of view.
of ch. 3, the contrast

These the Iloknia glossator has considerably amplified with proverbs whicii have no bearing on the question in hand.
Then, as though the indictment against the order of the world

QOHELETH'S THOUGHT IN OUTLINE

were not
enters

sufficiently strong,

Qoheleth

upon a second arraignment

of

49

in the next section (7"-io)

He

life.

sets forth,

excluding

interpolations, in y'*-^ the uselessness of going to extremes, in y^'-"

judgment

his

ism, in

S'"-**

of

he

women,

in S'-'

he

reflects

once more upon despot-

reiterates his conviction that the results of right-

eousness and godlessness are the same, in

S^^-g^

he describes an-

other fruitless experiment to fathom the world by wisdom,

92

the hopelessness of humanity's end; while in

this

argument, restates again more

which he holds

common

9"-

he, in

and

in-i

view of/

fully that Semitic philosophy]

with the Babylonian poet, and!

of

life,

at

one point, as we have seen, almost quotes that poet's words.

in

Ch. 9'^-io3 are glosses added by the

In the next section

(lo^-^")

Hokma editor Qoheleth

Hokma

editor.

a section greatly interpolated by the

offers

conduct to be observed toward

still

further advice as to the proper

rulers.

Lastly, in the final section, ch. ii'-i2, Qoheleth utters his final

He

counsels.

has probed

life

and the world

relentlessly.

He

has

stated his conclusions frankly, undeterred by any sentimental reasons.

He

has been compelled to find the older religious concep-

and the newer conceptions, which

some about him were adopting, unproven. His outlook has forced
him to pessimism, but, nevertheless, his concluding advice, in accordance with the Semitic philosophy, which more than once during his writing has come to the surface, is manly and healthy, if
tions of his people inadequate,

Enter into life heartily, be kindly, venture to sow

not inspiring.
and reap and fill the whole round of life's duties while you can.
Let the young man, therefore, make the most of his youth, for the
inevitable decay of bodily

powers

will

come with advancing

and the cheerlessness of Sheol will terminate all.

Such are Qoheleth's thoughts and such is his advice.
losophy of

life,

though

in a sense hopeless, is not

age,

His phi-

He

immoral.

nowhere counsels debauchery or sensuality; he rather shows that

in these there is

no permanent enjoyment.

had not abandoned

his belief in

God.

Though a

It is

true that

sceptic,

God

is

he
for

him no longer a warm personality or a being intimately interested

in

human

welfare.

The

Yahweh has
God is an in-

ancestral faith of Israel in

been outgrown; Qoheleth never uses the name.

ECCLESIASTES

50
scrutable being.

we can know
theless

is

vain to seek to understand his works.

men

life's

round

of duties

and

op})ortunities.

these while he bravely faces the real facts of

fulfil

All

Never-

in the iron vice of fate.

Qoheleth preaches a gospel of healthy work and the

enjoyment of

sum

It is

that he holds

life

Let a

full

man

this is the

of Qoheleth's teaching.

It is

a teaching which

is

to a Christian chilling

and disappoint-

but Qoheleth's negative work had, no doubt, a function to

perform in clearing away outworn conceptions before a new,
ing,

and more

larger, truer,

inspiring faith could have

His book probably owes

its

its

birth.

presence in the canon to the fact that

he had impersonated Solomon in the early part of

taken
as

literally

we have

book

it.
This was
Orthodoxy afterward added,

by the unimaginative.

some

seen,

sentences, to soften the teaching of the

for Pharisaical ears.

WAS QOHELETH WRITTEN IN METRICAL FORM?

9.

Two different
Freiburg,

scholars, Zapletal {Die Metrik des

Schweiz,

views were

set forth in

Buches Kohelet,

and Haupt {Koheleth, Leipzig:

1904)

1iis

1905 in English in his Ecclesiastes, Balti-

more), propounded quite independently of each other the theory

work of Qoheleth was composed

Both scholars have naturally proceeded to

that the whole of the original

in

metrical form.

make

a guide in the textual criticism of the book,

this theory

though the metrical criterion

less radical results

hands

of Zapletal leads to far

candid study of the book leads, however, to the conclusion

that, as applied to the

however true

it

may

characteristics of

metre
it

in the

than in the hands of Haupt.

is still

whole book,

this metrical theory is a mistake,

be for parts of

Hebrew

it.

Clear, too, as

some

poetry are, our knowledge of

in too uncertain

a state to enable any scholar

of the

Hebrew
to make

a basis for textual criticism with any hope of convincing any

considerable

number

of his colleagues of the validity of his results.

(See Cobb's Criticism of Systems of Hebrew Metre, 1905)

To
bring any Hebrew text into conformity to the metrical rules of

one of our modern schools requires the excision of

many words and

WAS QOHELETH WRITTEN

Such excision may,

phrases.

brew poet varied the length

students of metre.
are in prose
of

But

and turn

it

cases

it

seems probable that a He-

of his lines to the despair of

form hy cutting out much

into metrical

Such methods are calculated

doubts as to the validity of metrical

to create

modern

go through a book large parts of which

to

material seems unwarranted.

its

a work clearly poetical, be often

in

many

obviously right, though in

METRICAL FORM

IN

generally,

criteria

upon them even for real poetry.

The real form of Ecclesiastes was recognized as long ago as the
middle of the eighteenth century. Bishop Lowth, in his Lectures
and

to cast unjust suspicion

on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, Lect. xxiv, says:

of

book (Ecclesiastes)

this

even

character,

He adds

'*

many

and

to

possesses very

book was written

am

inclined

also J. D. Michaelis, Poetischer

recognized by Ewald,
lated parts of the

who

it

itself to

ii,

refers

des Pre-

Bundes

was

trans-

Driver

the material metrically which will at

book as poetic

Literature.

fiction

Ewald's method

is

belonging with Job to

followed in the transla-

all

To

to give in

suppose that the whole book was of necessity poetiof

it

are,

is

to forget the analogy of the

prophetical books, in which the degree of liberty which

Hebrew

writers might allow themselves in alternating between jjrose

amply

has well said,

He-

the parts which can justly be regarded as

form because parts

is

to

(C/.

i.

metrical arrangement, but treats large i)ortions of

where an attempt has been made

poetry

it

(in Kittel's Biblia

brew parallelism
metrical.

He
cap.

rest as prose.

Qoheleth

tion given below,

cal in

but that

Briggs holds the same opinion, although he regards

as prose.

Wisdom

all

lib.

his Dichter des alten

in

book as poetry and the

the conception of the

the

style

poetical

correctness of this view

in his edition of the text of

Hebraica, 1905) arranged

lend

"The
of

Entwnrf der Gedanken

The

diger-Bi{chs Solomon, 1751).

all

in prose,

assent."

to

Desvoeux, Tent. Phil, and Crit. in Eccles.,

has recently

little

scraps of poetry, introduced as occasion served,

opinion

this

the opinion of a very ingenious writer

It is

that the greater part of this

contains

composition and structure of the periods."

in the

in a footnote:

is

illustrated.

prosaic.

The thought

It is

of Qoheleth, as

and

Genung

a prose book; the writer, in spite of

occasional parallelism, "has the prose temper and the prose v.'ork

ECCLESIASTES

52

This

to do."

on the whole,

true,

is

in spite of the fine poetical

passage in ch. 12 with which the book originally closed.

THE LINGUISTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF QOHELETH.

10.

The Hebrew

which the book

in

of Ecclesiastes

some
the Old Testament.

The decadent

written exhibits

is

of the latest developments of that language

which appear

in

character of the tongue, as

here employed, appears in the use of Aramaic and Persian words,

the

employment

of late

in the use of late

words used elsewhere only

Mishna;

in the

developments and mixtures of Hebrew forms, the

absence or infrequent use of characteristic constructions, such as

the

waw

and the frequent employment

consecutive,

constructions rare in the older books.

of linguistic peculiarities

njnp,
610;

3I5

2i

28 5^;

_,jf

42 619 g6.

n?^,

p-,p-,_i,g^

Vto:),

Forms and words

^,

ij^

gi

p,

12^,

2^;

5";

ii
"''?,

y"

i';

i2;

66; n'!?-\

.-^nSrc, 8;

iqi?; ;n?:, 102"; rn'^^,

n'-

i";

Erub.

8'i.

DJns,

13^,

Fow.

46,

3^;

jn, etc.,

"inT,

Mishna.

and the references

cf Ma'aseroth,

Mishnic abbreviated

etc.,

4*,

-Nin
r/.

nr,

and

where

A'e/.

art., 3>9 6* 7".

ix6j

nr is

Ja. 5b; nr

sn

s'o, etc.,

is

= "what"or

^x

43b;

in Ja.

= " woe,"
ns =
r\)

= rNr,

2*

24.

a copula as in the

also Dr. 201 (3);

Da. 106, rem. 2; the use of n with nouns without the

8^ 9', like the Mishnic nr r-^N, and nr
nt=:"this"
without the

as cstr. in

pp,

po'^r, 8^-

identical with those of the

Mish. Yebamoth,

"caper-berry,"

5>8 6*; nj;;c,

-,.^i-^

Dine,

Persian words.

C.

4"'- ioi, cf.

d^d^-)3,

pio;

27

^3^

52. IJ;

310 48

12".

B.

^18 y23 gi3^

'725-

constructions.
223.

lo^; pD, lo^; D^->in

fpu,

12'; nij2-\n,

lis

7j j,j;;^

jN2rn,

(This

offered as follows.

by no means exhaustive)

4*; -^. nDV-Sj;, 5>5;

yuj

9; 3^,7, 98;

"I3jf

is

Aramaic words, forms and

A.
"(3?, Iio

made may be

Proof of the statement just

list

article,
.

as

-r ^2,

"that," also

"what then,"

ii

and Ko. 70, 414m; n" ;="be guiltless" or "quit from,"

7,c/. Berakoth, 2'; nNnt:="the power of seeing" or "enjoying," 6 ii,
cf Yoma, 74b, BDB. 909b and Ja. 834b; ':, 59 and "^sr ^r, 9*=" who-

cf Peah,

ever,"

cf.

78,

Sheh. 98

9;

-'C

used instead of iu'n as a relative 89 times.

It

occurs a few times in the older literature from the song of Deborah down
(see, on i^); in Cant, and Eccl. it <x:curs side by side with "^U'.v, marking

a transition period;

D.

in the

Mishna it displaces ->r.s entirely.

Hebrew forms. Here may be noted

Late developments of

of syntactical

the

RELATION OF ECCLESIASTES TO BEN SIRA

53

omission of syncope in writing the article after prepositions, as Dsnn^,

8'; the fondness for abstracts in P as |np>, pau^n, jva'jr, etc.; fondness
also for abstracts in pi, as my-\,

mSoir, i", n^sD,

etc.;

i>,

2,

niScr, ID", nn'?^ ii; the confusion of stems "nS and "nS,
8' 9-

and

',

io<); the

2", }*Nr

sxj, 12=,

it

where

it

26'*- ",

Ne.

i2*,

Late syntactical developments.

E.

struction
etc.

subject, as

Mish., iVaz.,

Nin n^M.

2<.

"'js;

12", found

ngos,

plural differently.

its

Waw consecutive with the impjerf

i'.

n>3r en.

These

"r??^

Nin, 2", npn

often used pleonasticaUy with the

'*,

"JN \-i"'Ni, 2"-

24

and Ges.K- 135b.

NH.,
Mishnic vh^

as in

F.

nxi-.

^js

i".

>}H 7^)\ 8'S cf.

f\

participial sentences are frequently

r, as D^pi^ orN, 4", naf u.^n, 92, y.i.^> ^rN, iiS r/.
A similar construction often occurs with verbal ad-

jectives, cf. Snr^ ^jN, 2'8,

also

517; f^.

Ko. 3896.

'^7,

Berakoth,

Hebrew used

i>

nS

3*; cf.

2"-

"days,"

'=

2'

6*,

nSd

"

"

and

'

"

-rN3

"

"'JS

4'-

3'''

i2

8'*, etc.,

8*,

7'

like

the

of this, Ow'>'

where the idiom of

is

vi-^DN,

= " because,"

Ko. 3870.
The one instance
6'*,

<ijs

-1:?;^, i^.

n;'=" while not,"

-ic's

in Greek idiom.
i.e.,

^jrN,

person of the verb, as

first

-ra=" because,"

cf.

"he passes them,"

always

is

forms

On

4'

Nedarim, \i\

negatived with

is

c*in;

is

the Mishna,

2'

as

the other hand, the participial conmost frequent 1<-8 2'*- ' .l*"- " 4* 5^ 6'* S'*- ' 9* 10",
The part, is frequently accompanied by a personal pronoun as

occurs but three times, i"

its

">,

written with n like SNp from op (in Hos.

pron. OJN never appears,

Chr.

from

2",

i<p^n,

y** io, K?r;', 8',

7500; the confusion of forms 77 with forms

cf. Ges.J^-

from rrn,
only

forms of nv,

see also Q.'s treatment of the

niSS^n, ioi,

e.g.,

iroifiv

xP^vov

rcprcKJuced, has already been noted above, 6 (i).

THE RELATION OF ECCLESIASTES TO BEN

II.

SIRA.

{The Wisdom of Ben

and C. Taylor, Cambridge, 1899), and
McNeile (Ecclesiastes, pp. 34-37) have proved that the book of
Ecclesiastes was known to Ben Sira and influenced him to such a
Wright

(Ecclesiastes, pp. 41-46), Schechter

Sira, by S. Schechter

degree that the book of Ecclesiasticus clearly betrays

ence upon

Qoheleth's work.

The

evidence

is

its

depend-

so strong

that

Noldeke {ZAW. XX, 90/.) declares that contrary to his expectaNoldeke and McNeile
tion he has been led to the same conclusion.
agree that Ben Sira used Qoheleth in its completed form, and
this is clearly

proved by the evidence.

deke, op.

93, that

cit.,

''Original Hebrew'^ of

quite agree with Nol-

DS. Margouliouth in his Origin of the

Ecclesiasticus, London, 1899, has failed to

ECCLESIASTES

54

show

the

that

Hebrew

BS.

of

not original but dependent on

is

the Greek.

The proof of the priority of Qoheleth is of three kinds ( i ) Passages

Hebrew text of Ecclcsiasticus, which show dependence upon the Hebrew of Qoheleth; (2) Passages not yet recovered
:

extant in the

in the

Hebrew, but the Greek

Hebrew

of

which

is

clearly a translation of

and

practically identical with that of Qoheleth,

sages in which

Ben

though clearly dependent upon

BS.
BS.

39' aiKi

'',

S'-

BS. 40":

it.

Sn

"'ry::

O'D-in: rp3;:

'>> ^3

3^oi-: 3*^3

2''r'>

ins Sn

i^no

"^N

]-\n::

an-:::

Sd

eis

Qoh. 3":
Qoh. 3.5;
Qoh. 3"-

iry3 HD'

<

dd\aajrav)='\z'i<

I'^i'n

N'.-i

n>,-i

San

nn pv

Q-ixn ^j3

:in-IN:^ nj3 cS NV1

D^Ssm

Ss 3r Ssni

:-\cyn

n^V::^

nij^n

Sdh pn

nir;?

PS rp3^

p|"'"<j

nrsi

((5 rcaf 1 this last clause, dirb

VSCLTUV

(3) Pas-

Sira has paraphrased the thought of Qoheleth,

pmvT

^c

n::n3n nn^

D> "'x C'c::.

BS. 32* (35 <)

BS. 6^:

7=:

3"^

Qoh.

8':

:;-|'^DN1 3VJ'^CS

Qoh.

I2'<

Qoh.

8^:

Qoh.

9'0:

i'I'^n::

BS.

no

Qoh.
Qoh.

D^nrr^

inN

-i-iid

BS. 37":
BS. 14"-

-\pv C33npp Ski

7>:

\-iNX?:

"':

VJC -^'NP 0-IN PC3n

:p

yp P3P

>'p>

MNr3

no

0S1

310

ON

nS nixn pdv^

NXDP PC-N S3

Pirj'S 1P>
pf;'?:

:ncn:2.-i"'

i^NO nnw oik

^;*3i

rus

vis Njr^

13=^:

Sav

p>'

^3 Ptr?

pr:3Pi pyp)

nP23

p3rpi

:Pcr iSp ppn prs

n^^i

iS ijn nS SiNr'? pirn

BS. 37":

03n>

D3n

ic>-S

:3.-iMJ3

1-yi

TM
ne

Qoh.

Ssn Nin

I2'

-131 vpi

n^ri]:; ^^r^>^

pn pyp

p::S pij:

PK ycrj S3P

P3-' n^o

d;*p

Qoh.

BS. 43":

D3n pSpp

I2:

)\-i1XD

PK1

:OPNP

'^3

MP"-

DNP'^KP

PT ^3

Pier

we were to accept Schechter's conjectural emendation of 'n

pcp n; (BS. 4") to per jen r;' "'J3, we should then have a parallel
Qoh. 3': ]::uP';^j^. Noldeke and McN. regard the conjecture as

If

pcu'
to

probable, but Peters and Levi retain p'sn.

An unbiased examination
same impression

that

it

of these coincidences

makes upon me

does upon Noldeke and McN.,

viz.:

that

the

Ben

RELATION OF ECCLESIASTES TO BEN SIRA

55

work of Qohcleth and used his words as a modern

weave into his work the words of Browning or Tennyson
In at least one case (the HiV^ of
or any other well-known author.
Qoh. 8', employed by Ben Sira, 13") it is probable that Ben Sira, as
Noldeke suggests, misunderstood Qoheleth. BS. 43" is also clearly
As the parts of these two passages in Qoheleth,
built on Qoh. 12".
which are referred to, are from the Hokma glossator, and one of them
forms his conclusion of the book, it is clear that Qoheleth had been

knew

Sira

the

writer might

touched by the editor before Ben Sira used it.

2. The passages of the second class indicated above are as

fol-

lows:

Qoh.

yj"?

3'<:

(where

v':';'

refers to "all that

God

niNH Sdv nV

Qoh. 8":

?'N ^JDCi l^DinS i^N

vSy

said").

id D''n'?Nn

nti^D S3 pn \i'>Nni

t'crn pnn nfyj nrx nrvnn pn NixnS

Cf. BS. 18": oiiKfO-TtP i\aTTW<rai ov5i Trpoadeivai Kal ovk e<XTiv i^ix^idaai

tA

6avfxd(Tia toO KvpLov.

Qoh.

^^ -^nsfn
"^^^-'^
-^nNn

5:

Cf. BS. 18":

fi7]

ifjLTrodiad^i

^N D-'hSsS IIJ Tin

(-.VJijSD 1N-\>''

Cf. BS. l":

Qoh.

T<J5

<p0^Vlxiv(f

-\C^K3

tov dirodovvai. evxVf evKaipws.

irN)

TOV KVpiOV V ((TTaL ix icxO-TUP.

''^0'

108:

""^

V'=iJ "ion

i/jLTreafiTai.
Cf. BS. 27'*: 6 opOcrauv ^bdpov els avrhv
(This may have been suggested to Ben Sira, however, by Pr.26"*,
as BS. 27" was apparently suggested by Pr. 26"*^.)

These

One
it is

parallels are as striking in their

of the quotations (8'2)

is

way

as those given under class

from the hand of the

C/ja57(i glossator,

i.

but

probable that both the glossator and Ben Sira here quote an orthoof the day, for there is reason to think that BS. used

dox sentiment

Qoheleth before the Chasid expanded it. See below on 12'^

3. Instances in which Ben Sira has paraphrased the words of Qoheleth:

Qoh.

i:

"Generation comes and generation goes,

But the world forever stands."

Cf. BS. 14'" (Heb.):

"As leaves grow upon a green tree,

Of which one withers and another

springs up,

So the generations of flesh and blood,

One perishes and another ripens."

Qoh.

3^:

"A

time to keep silence,

And

a time to speak."

ECCLESIASTES

56

C/

BS.

2os-

(Heb.):

"There

And

"A

is

wise

who

one

there

one

is

man

is

silent for

who

is silent

is

silent

want of an answer,
because he sees the time."

until the time,

But a fool does not observe the time."

"For whom do I toil and deprive myself

Qoh.

4^:

of

good?"

Cf. BS. 14^ (Heb.):

"He who deprives

And in his goods
52b (Heb.>'):

Qoh.

Cf. BS.

Qoh.

y'^i'

his soul gathers for another,

a stranger shall revel."

"Therefore

"And

(Heb.):

thy words be few."

let

repeat not a word in prayer."

'The satiety of the rich does not permit him to

s'^b (Heb.>"'):

sleep."
Cf. BS. 34' (Heb.):

"The
The
Qoh.

wakefulness of the rich wastes his

"Better

78'>:

patience than pride."

is

Cf. BS. 5'ib (Heb.):

"In patience

of spirit return answer."

Qoh. 7": "In the day of prosperity be

versity, consider;

Cf- BS.

so

is

flesh.

care of living dissipates slumber."

33^'^'

''

joyful;

and

in the

day of ad-

God has made to correspond to that."

"Good is set against evil and life against death;

even

this

(<8):

the godly against the sinner.

Most High;
Also BS.

there are

So look upon all the works of the

two and two, one against another."

422^:

"All things arc double one against another,

And he has made nothing imperfect."

Qoh. 9": "Wisdom is better than might, but the wisdom of the poor
is despised and his words are not heard."

man

cd (Heb.):
"The poor man speaks and they say 'who is this?'
Though he be weighty also they give him no place."

Cf. BS. 13"

Qoh.

Ill":

"Put away vexation from thy

And remove

Cf

BS.

heart

misery from thy flesh."

3023 (Heb.):

"Rejoice thy soul and make glad thy heart

And put vexation far from thee."

These three
Ecclesiastes

classes of parallels

was known

teachings with favor.

after his time.

to

Ben

make
Sira,

The Chasid

(See below on

it

and

clear that the

book of

that he regarded

glosses were probably

12''.)

its

added

ATTITUDE OF BOOK OF WISDOM TO ECCLESIASTES

57

THE ATTITUDE OF THE BOOK OF WISDOM TO ECCLESIASTES.

12.

As Wright and McNeile have clearly proved, the author of the

like Ben Sira, knew the work of Qoheleth, but,

Book of Wisdom,

unlike him, did not approve of

it.

several of the sayings of Qoheleth.

2'-'

In ch.

correct various sayings of the ungodly,

he

sets himself to

and palpably quotes as such

The

parallelism

is

as follows:

QOHELETH.

said within

themselves, rea-

soning not rightly: Short and sorrowful

and there is no
a man's end, and none

our

is

healing at

was

22s.

For they (the ungodly, see

2'.
i')

ever

and

all his

days are pains,

vexation, also at

is

night his heart does not

The

nT).

51

life,

known who

For

his task

(small)

the days of his

rest.

number

of

life.

returned

from Hades.
For by mere chance are we

2^.

born, and hereafter

we

shall be as

For the

3".

men and

though we had never been; be-

one fate

cause a smoke

of one, so

nostrils,

is

the breath in our

and reason

is

a spark

in

the beating of our hearts.

Which being quenched,

the

shall be turned to ashes,

and

2'.

body

the spirit shall be dispersed as thin

air.
2.

And our name

shall be for-

gotten in time, and no one shall re-

member our works; and our life

away like the track of a

shall pass

and

cloud,

shall be scattered as

beams

mist chased by the

sun and by
25.

its

For our

of the

is

ing of our end, because

and none turneth

it

no

retreat-

it is

is

And

12^

As

is

the death

the death of the other,

and all have one

Qoh. 9".

spirit.

Cf. also

the dust shall

to the earth as

it

And the spirit

God who gave it.

return

was.
shall return to

There is no remembrance
men.
2'. For the wise like the fool
has no remembrance forever.
9^. Their memory is forgotten.
2". The whole was vanity and
1".

of former

the passing of

a shadow, and there

theirs.

is

a desire of wind.

heat overcome.

life is

fate of the sons of

the fate of the beasts

sealed

6'-.

The number

his vain
like

back.

life,

of the days of

for he

spends them

a shadow.

8^.

Nor

is

he ruler

in the

day of

death.
2.

Come

then

good things that

let

us enjoy the

exist,

and

let

us

use the created things eagerly as in

youth.

2-'.

Tliere

man

is

nothing better for

than that he should eat

and drink and enjoy himself.

ECCLESIASTES

58
WISDOM.
2\ Let us

QOHELETH.
ourselves

fill

with

Drink thy wine with a glad

9'.

costly

wine and ointments, and let

no flowers of spring pass us by.
28. Let us crown ourselves with

heart,

rosebuds before they be withered.

be white, and

Qs.

At

all

times
let

let

not

thy garments
oil

be lacking

for thy head.

Let none of us be without a

S^*.

his portion,

5'.

For that
For that

is

share in our wanton revelry, every-

is

his lot.

where

d^.

For

thy lot in

29.

let

us leave tokens of our

mirth, for this

this is

our

it

is

life,

our portion and

is

lot.

As Qoheleth

is

the only Jewish writer

known

to us

who cham-

pions such sentiments, there can be httle doubt that this polemic
is

directed against him.

author of

It is

Wisdom denounces

true that in the following verses the

oppressions which Qoheleth nowhere

countenances and couples them with these

false doctrines;

that

does not, however, prove that his shafts are not aimed at Qoheleth,
for

it

has in

all

ages been one of the methods of theological warfare

to hold the opinions of heretics responsible for the

most immoral

practices.

It

DATE AND AUTHORSHIP.

13.

has been shown above (5) that the Solomonic authorship of

by Luther in the sixteenth century, and by

Ecclesiastes, denied

Grotius in the seventeenth, was in the nineteenth century demon-

by scholarly interpreters to be impossible. The fact that

Solomon is not the author, but is introduced in a literary figure, has
become such an axiom of the present-day interpretation of the
strated

book, that no extended argument

is

necessary to prove

it.

No

one

at all familiar with the course of religious thought in Israel, as scientific

historical study

moment

ascribe the

has accurately portrayed

work

also strongly reinforces the

Solomon.

it,

could for a

The language

of the book
argument drawn from the thought. [lt~

to

belongs to the latest stage of linguistic development represented in

the

Old Testament.

Hebrew forms and

As shown above

(10) not only are older

constructions changed or confused, but late

developments kindred to those of the Mishna are present, Aramaic

DATE AND AUTHORSHIP

words and constructions are found,
employed, while
be traced.

If

in

59

two Persian words are

at least

one instance the influence of Greek usage can

we compare

the language of Qoheleth with that of

document of the Pentateuch (J.), we shall

find that they stand at the two extremes of Hebrew linguistic development, the former representing the latest, and the latter the

the earliest prophetic

Under such circumstances

earliest.

Ecclesiastes
It

is

the Solomonic authorship of

unthinkable.

has also been shown above (5) that receiiL_inter2reter5_are

divided as tow^heth er Qoheleth wrote in the Persian or the Greek

period; thnn^h nrif^st of th( >SP ^vri'ti'ng in flip In^f fpw ypar*^ linM^tn
the latter era.

our recognition of a Greek idiom in Ecclesiastes

If

p^intg to p flnto p o sterior to the conquest of Alexander

th e Great, for we must agree with the almost unani mous opinion
is y\\\]^, it

of recent interpreters that the author liv ed

sen.ceJrom his

6)

work

is sufficient,

tinian reside nce

It

to

as

is

well

wh ich

known,

Al exander^ then, n^

We

Qo h.

(see above,

5^ therejs ajeference to

the Per s ians invented

is

<!

this

Ppri;ian

he true,
ppriod,

same system was continued

practically the

iertnini(^

If.

not la fer thf\n th^

by Alexander and his successors.

book.

n Palestin e;^__Thejai}-

on his part out of the qu estion.

has lon g been th oug ht that in

does not_prnYe thnt thpwor k

for,

any important Greek influence

mention no other feature, to make a noikPales-

the Satrapial system

it

of

Wp

rr^Ty tal-p thp

a gun for

conquest of

lJifi:^:u>mpQsition jof

should note, however, that some

little

_Dur

period of contact

with the Greeks should be allowed for before the writing of Ecclesiastes, in

order to account for the use of a Greek idiom.

thu s brough t d own to the t hird rpntnry

terminus ad quern for Ecclesiastes

for us

by the book of Ecclesiasticus.

(11)

Qoheleth,

lacking

used by Ben Sira

the

Chasid

We are

R C

is,

on the other hand, fixed

As has been shown above

glosses, was known and

a fact which has been recognized by Tyler,

Kuenen, Margouliouth, Noldeke, A. B. Davidson, Wright, Peake,

Cornill,
r ately

and McNeile.

Hrtermine d.

grandson,

who

in his

Tlie

d ate

of

Ben

Sira can be pretty accu -

His work was translated into Greek by

prologue states that he translated

he went to Egypt, and that he went thither

it

his

soon after

in the thirty-eighth

ECCLESIASTES

6o

As has long been recognized,

year of Euergetes.

reckoned from the time when he

assumed the

first

170 B.C., and not from his second assumption of

Philometor

his brother

it

statement

this

can only apply to Ptolemy Euergetes II (Physcon), and

probably

is

regal dignity in

on the death of

146 B.C., for his reign, terminating in 117

in

B.C., did not last thirty-eight years after that event.

could not

It

refer to Euergetes I (247-222 B.C.) as he reigned but twenty-five

We

years.
e.g.,

are thus brought to the year 132 (so most scholars,

Tyler, Ecclesiastes, 30; Wright, Ecclesiastes 35^.;

Sanday,

Inspiration, 98; Toy, Ecclesiastiats in EB.; Y^di\x\.zsc\\,Apokryphen,

migration

the

for

234-235)

I,

the

of

younger Ben Sira

to

Egypt, soon after which he translated the work of his grandfather.

If

we allow

years as the probable time which elapsed between

fifty

book by the grandfather and

the composition of the

its

translation

by the grandson, we reach about 180-176 B.C. as the date

composition of Ecclesiasticus.

It

the Maccabaean revolt broke out in 168 B.C., for there

IV and

sion to Antiochus

seems

to be

of the

must have been written before

confirmed by the reference to the high

no

is

allu-

This date

his oppression of the Jews.

Simon

priest,

son of Onias in BS., ch. 50, for while there were two high priests of
that

name

whom
Ben
ch.

Jos. Ant.

{cf.

reference

Sira,

if

is

xii,

probably

2*

and

made

4'"),

the second of them, to

here, lived late

enough so that

he witnessed the scene which he so vividly describes in

The

50"^., would have written about 180-175 B.C.

Ecclesiasticus

date of

thus in the opinion of most modern scholars pretty

is

definitely fixed.

As Ben
(see

Sira quotes Ecclesiastes after

above 7,

11),

We

years earlier.

it

had once been glossed

Qoheleth must have written at

B.C. as the terminus ad quern for our book.

the second, open for

Can we
sages,

to

4''-'

'.

and

Better

longer

is

will

more

years of

closely within these limits?

depend upon our interpretation

lo's-'".

The

first

to be

of

Our

two pas-

of these passages reads:

a youth poor and wise than a king old and

knows how

first

it.

define the date

tliis

twenty

These indications

leave the whole of the third century B.C., or the very

answer

least

are thus brought to about the year 200-195

admonished,

'*.

foolish,

who no

though from the house of the

re-

DATE AND AUTHORSHIP

came

bellious he

saw

'^ I

who

all

forth,

although even

the living

kingdom he was born

in his

who walk under

6l
poor.

the sun with the (second) youth

shall stand in his stead.

There was no end

'-.

who came

over those

to all tiic peo[)lc

all

wliose leader he was; more-

after could not delight in him; for this also

is

vanity and a desire after wind."

Many

are the interpretations which this passage has received

(see notes

on

put forth by

4^^).

Haupt

fooUsh king "

One

of the

most attractive has recently been

(Ecclesiastes), according to

which the

''old

and

Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164), and the "poor and

wise youth" Alexander Balas (150-145 B.C.). This view I for a
is

time adopted, but the external evidence just passed in review com-

me

pelled

to

abandon

contrast intended
trius I

it is

lived before
If,

is

it.

Like the theory of Winckler

that the

between Antiochus Epiphanes and Deme-

rendered impossible by the clear proof that Qoheleth

Ben

Sira.

with the date indicated by the external evidence in mind,

we

carry the book back to the verge of the third century, remembering

was under the control of Egypt, we

was on the right track in his interpretation of
The "old and foolish king" would be Ptolemy IV
the passage.
(Philopator), who died in 205 B.C.; and to whom from the Jewish

that in that century Palestine

shall find that Hitzig

point of view the description very well applies, for according to

3

Mac. he

Egypt.
anes),

He

is

greatly persecuted the Jews, both in Palestine

The "poor and

who was but five

wise youth " would be Ptolemy

years old

when he came

and

V (Epiph-

to the throne.

perhaps called "poor and wise" because of the Jewish sym-

pathy with him and hopes from him.

The "rebeUious house"

The " second

probably refers to his father's persecution of the Jews.

word "second" is genuine) would then be Antiochus

III of Syria, who had succeeded to the throne of that country at an
early age, and who, within seven years after the succession of
Ptolemy V, was warmly welcomed as sovereign of Judiea (Jos.
Ant. xii^ y). These are the only reigns in the history of the period
which at all correspond to Qoheleth 's words, and it seems probyouth"

(if

the

able that he refers to these kings.

This view receives confirmation

from the second passage cited above,

io'- '^

It is

as follows:

ECCLESIASTES

62

Woe

unto thee,

As Hitzig has
reign of Ptolemy

is a child,
morning.
land, whose king is well-born
feast at the proper time.

feast in

tlie

seen, v. i6 probably refers to the years after the

were the favorites

had begun, when Agathoclea and her brother

power (Justin, XXX, i), when revelry flour-

in

and when Antiochus

ished,

whose king

land,

And whose princes

Happy art thou, O
And whose princes

(the Great) at the height of his

III

power was prosecuting those wars which,

much

after inflicting

upon them, robbed Egypt of her Palestinian dominions.

Possibly, though it is by no means probable (see notes on 9'* "), the
reference to the city delivered by a wise man from the siege of a
powerful king (g^^-i") is a reference to some incident of the wars of
suffering

Antiochus with Egypt.

whose king
is

is

"Happy

Probably

art

thou,

land,

well-born and whose princes feast at the proper time,"

Qoheleth's welcome of the strong rule of Antiochus III.

phus

us (Ant.

tells

over to him,

xii, 3')

that the

and welcomed him

the sentiments of that welcome.

makes

it

B.C.

Its

impossible that

it

of their

Jose-

own accord went

him

to take

This passage apparently

reflects

to Jerusalem, assisting

the citadel from the Egyptians.

pleted before 198

Jews

Qoheleth was, then, not com-

use by

Ben

Sira,

on the other hand,

should have been written

much

later

than that year.

On
it

the whole, vague as these historical allusions are, they

make

probable that Qoheleth did not finish his book until after the

conquest of Antiochus III, about 198 B.C.

Slight as the data are,

they lead us with considerable confidence to place this

which above we held open

at the

end

name

the very year in which

of the period

it

for

work

it, if

just

not to

was composed. This agrees with

and Genung.

the judgment of Hitzig, Tyler, Cornill

"jThe

last of the third

B.C. forms a

The

fitting

and the beginning

background

for such a

of the

second century

work as

Ecclesiastes.

century which followed the death of Alexander was a trying

century for the whole East, but especially so for Palestine.

Pos-

sessed by the Ptolemies, but claimed by the Seleucidai, Palestine

found herself

The

in the precarious position of

gratitude which Seleucus I

felt

an apple

toward Ptolemy

of discord.
for the aid

DATE AND AUTHORSHIP

63

rendered him in obtaining his empire (see Bevan, House of Seleucus, 1), at first secured

As

peace between Egypt and Syria.

the

century advanced, however, the Seleucid claims were pressed and

had to pay taxes to lx)tli (Jos. Ant. xii, 4') and then,
became the unhappy bone of contention between
her two powerful neighbors, suffering severely. Then, too, her
internal organization must have been such as to bear heavily upon
Palestine

toward

first

its

the poor.

close,

Ptolemy III had deputed Joseph, son of Tobias,

collect the taxes of the

country (Jos. Ant.

xii, 42),

to

and Joseph had,

grown rich by farming out the taxes to

and founded a powerful house. (The ruins of the

in true Oriental fashion,

subordinates,

palace of Joseph's son, Hyrcanus,

east of the Jordan.)

may still

be seen at Arakal-Emir,

Oppressed by the tax

collectors, a

prey to

and powerful neighbors, suffering increasingly as time

went on from the ravages of war, oppressed during the later years
of the century by the drunken favorites of a king who was a helpless child, what more fitting theatre than the Palestine of this time
could be sought for a book like Ecclesiastes ?
To our scanty knowledge of the history of this period, Qoheleth
adds some valuable items. He tells us that both in the court and
in the temple wickedness reigned (3"*)I^ both politics and religion men were striving for selfish and sordid ends, to which the
claims of justice and righteousness were made to bend. The
populace generally groaned and wept under the oppressions of the
powerful (4') and had no redress. This oppression was aggravated by the hierarchy of officials who, rising one above another,
culminated in a far-off king (5* ni). The land is controlled by an
arbitrary despot, who often puts fools and slaves in office, degrading the rich and noble to subordinate places, but it is useless to
oppose him (10*-^). Should one be entrusted with an official
position and incur the displeasure of his despotic master, it is better to be conciliatory and submissive than to abandon one's post
and opportunity. The espionage of the despot is so complete that
their rich

it is

shall

unsafe even to whisper one's discontent to one's

be borne to the ears of one

who

will

regard

it

self,

lest

it

as treason (10").

Moreover, the king is a child, and his nobles, who exercised the power
in his

name, devoted even the mornings

to

drunken feasting (iC).

ECCLESIASTES
While the bock

makes us

of Ecclesiastes

Qoheleth's thoughts and character,

circumstances and

life.

little

Some gleams

of light

even here are, how-

and

We

learn from

this fact is

home was

it

Jerusalem.

and the

Some

infer

is

81", in

from

who

which

makes

**city"

it

taking

11',

Even

the

if

doubtful (see notes ad loc),

would not prove an Alexandrine residence.

wealth

his

that Qoheleth

5'

to refer to corn-trade, that he lived in Alexandria.

passage referred to trade, which

it

light

confirmed by

the connection between ''the holy place"

clear that his

upon

throws

ever, not altogether wanting.

lived near the temple,

well acquainted with

it

He was

could gratify every appetite for pleasure

man

of

At the

(2^-*).

time of writing Qoheleth was an old man, for he had begun keenly

up

to appreciate that breaking

of

enjoyment

(11 3-12').

that his
in

wisdom, and even

ently, too,

of

to find the

this

is

found

summiim honum

in the

Appar-

in folly, implies the lapse of years.

His

(4*).

life

had

fact

in pleasure,

he had lived long enough to find himself alone

out son or brother

loss

youth which age inevitably brings

Further confirmation

many experiments

powers and that

of the physical

in the pleasures of

with-

also been embittered

by an

unhappy domestic alliance, for his declaration that he had found

woman who is snares and nets her heart

man in a thousand might
he had not found one woman (7 2*), has the

more

bitter

(726),

as well as his declaration that one

than death

be true, but in

all

''a

these

ring of an expression of bitter experience.

Only

can we clearly make out as to the private

this little

Qoheleth.
altogether

Plumtre
fanciful

life

of

35-52) draws an elaborate but

Qoheleth's life, while Winckler

{Ecclesiastes,

picture

of

{AUorientalische Forschungen, 2 Ser., 143-159) thinks that he

He

either a king or a high priest.

was

argues that had he not been, so

unorthodox a writing as his would not have been preserved.

Haupt
to

{Ecclesiastes, iff.)

mean

64a),

would

interpret the

the ''head of a school," as in the

and holds

that Qoheleth

presided over such a school.

wordiSc (=*'king")

Talmud

{Gitt.

62a, Ber.

was a Sudducajan physician, who

It is

unthinkable that Qoheleth could

and write as he does about

when
he wrote, schools such as Haupt contemplates had arisen. It is
have been a king

in the literal sense

government, and proof

is

altogether wanting that, at the time

DATE AND AUTHORSHIP

65

more probable that the word "king" is a part of his literary artifice.
It must be said also, that there is no proof that Qoheleth was
a physician.
As already remarked (5) the supposition rests upon
metaphors which are exceedingly indehnite, and which are open
to quite other

than anatomical interpretations.

In reality Qoheleth

more knowledge of either medicine or anatomy than any

other intelligent man.
To call him a Sadducee is also to anticipate
betrays no

history.

He

belonged undoubtedly to that wealthy

sceptical

aristocracy out of which the Sadducees were developed, but

cannot trace the Sadducees

McNeile

{Ecclesiastes, 10)

high-priestly family,

we

Maccaba^an time. As
suggests, Qoheleth may have been of the
before

and himself a

the

religious official, as this

would

account for the care with which his unorthodox book was adapted

and preserved.
nates the

name

Qoheleth, a pseudonym which probably desigof an office, points in the

than this we cannot say.

same

direction.

More

COMMENTARY.
Title,

THE WORDS OF QOHELETH, SON OF DAVID,

I^.

KING IN JERUSALEM.
(This

title

was prefixed by the

The term
David.

king in Jerusalem]

Qoheleth

Cf. Introduclion, $7,

editor.

is

an appositive

and note on

of Qoheleth, not of

KcoXed)

((g, 'EAr/cXeo-mo-TT;?; 'A,

I2.)

is

a crux.

has been variously interpreted, but probably means ''an

It

official

an assembly."
See critical note below. Son of
These words were intended to designate Solomon.
They were added by the editor who, on account of a hasty
inference from V^ff., regarded Solomon as the author.
As Solo-

speaker

in

David.]

mon had

the greatest reputation for wisdom, wealth, splendor,

and voluptuousness, the author chose him as a character through
which to set forth in literary fashion his observations on life and
his convictions concerning

mistook for authorship.

This the prosaically minded editor

it.

For reasons why Solomon could not be

he author, see Introduction, 13.

nSnpj.

Tobiah ben Eleazar,

"One who
D^-^a

uhm

collects,

in the eleventh century, explained

assembles, and expounds,

ni'^np S^npc), cf.

among

rabbis"

(rt^riZ'

it

as

p^npt

Feinberg's Tohia ben Elieser's Commentar zu

Koheleth, Berlin, 1904.

In Midrash Rabba nSnp

is

explained as "Preacher, " because

it is

said

Solomon delivered these discourses before the congregation

This meaning was defended by Luther and, among present-day
C^np).
scholars, by VVildeboer.
Many take it to mean "Assembler" or "Collector," but opinions differ greatly as to what was collected.
Ra. thought
of Qoheleth as "Gatherer of wisdom," Grot, as a 'Collector of experiences," Wang, as "Collector of the court," Dale as "Collector of
aphorisms " which formed an address, and so "deliverer of an address";
Heng. and Gins., "An assembler of people into the presence of God."
that

Jer. rendered

it

by "Concionator,"
67

"One who

addresses an assembly,"

ECCLESIASTES

68
a meaning which
Strack,

followed by Dat.,

is

McN. and Ha.

De

W., Kn., Heil., Del., Wr., K6.,

This meaning comes

synonymous with "Preacher."

To

pass by

in the

many

end

to be practically

fanciful explanations,

Dod. took it to mean "Assembly "or

"Academy," and compared German and French royal academies.

see Ginsburg's Coheleth, p. 4jf.,

Hit. interprets

"Narrator,"

it

(1893) thought

PI.

renders

"Debater," while Che.

Margouliouth,

it

might mean "The ideal teacher."

it

Jewish Encyc, V, 32, takes it to mean "member of an assembly."

The ($, 'E/c/cXeo-tao-TiJs from 'EKK\r]<xia, "assembly," is an imitation of
throws

It

r^'::-}P.

little

nificance attached to
r^'^.rtp

found

is

light

in the

book as follows:
In 7"

the article (riSnpn^ in 12*.

as

is

probable,

we

on the meaning, as we do not know the

sig-

it.

it is

ch.

i'-

7"

128-

It

'".

has

construed with a fem. verb, unless,

are to read there nSnpn nnsN.

Probably, therefore,

it

only in Ni.,

The verb Snp, from which it comes, occurs in Hebrew

"to be summoned" or "assembled" {cf. Ex. 32' Je. 26*

Ez. 38^ Est.

8'i 92-

is

an appellative.

35' Lev. 83

The

Nu.

i-

18),

or Hi., "to collect" or

208 Dt. 410 Ez. 38'3

Job

"assemble"

(cf.

Ex.

iii", etc.).

Aram, is used in Ni. and Hi. in the same meanings

Syr.= 9''/ia/=" congregate," "collect"; Sab. Vnp
nSnp=" assembly," "congregation" (D. H. Muller, ZDMG., XXX, 685,
and Hommel, Chrest., 127). The root also survives in Saho, a south
Hamitic language, in which kahal='' come together," "assemble"
In Ar. qahala=''be dry," "shrivelled,"
(Reinsch, Saho Sprache, 210).
"shrunk," the meaning of the root has developed in a different direction.
root Snp in

as in Heb.

In form

{cf.

Ja. 1322),

ry^^t^ is

a fem. segholate part, of the Kal.

has received different explanations.

here

1.

The

Ra.,

use of the fem.

AE., Ew.,

Hang, and Kue. have explained the fem. on the ground that
with or stands for wisdom
that

it

denotes "one

who

the assemblies of men.

masc.

verb,

is

Hit.,

agrees

Ty. (Ecdesiastes, 57) suggests

i.e., it is a personification of

2.

an assembly,"

The

renders both

Wright, Arab. Gram. 3d

('Tspn).

r^^rip

fact that

these

ed., 233,

nSnp

usually construed with a

is

explanations

rem.

c,

improbable.

explains

it

3.

Wm.

on the analogy of

Ar. formations as an intensive fem. formation, an opinion with which

Wr.

(Ecdesiastes, 279) agrees. 4. Del., Che., No., Strack,

explain n^np as the designation of an

ending

is

soused

in

gazelles," Ezr. 2".

This

last

(4) is

"scribe," Ezr. 2", and

BD5. and

McN. and others

on the ground that the fem.

DO^n nnDc "binder of the

Driver are undecided between 3 and

probably the right understanding of the form;

4.

r^^^;^

would mean, then, "an official speaker in an assembly." Another

Ecdesiastes, 13, suggests
word should be noted. Re.,
that it is a cryptogram, as Rambam is for Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon,
This is not so probable.
or Rashi for Rabbi Solomon Isaac.

solution of the

'

r^-yrsp

office,

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION, OR PREFACE

[Ch. 1*-"

69

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION, OR PREFACE.

Ch. I"". The thesis of this preface is that everything is vanity.
and the processes of nature are an endless and meaningless
Men do not perceive the repetition because each generarepetition.
tion is ignorant of the experiences of those which have gone before it.
Life

2.

yAXITY of

vanities, {sajs Qoheleth)

Vanity of vanities,
All
*.

is

vanity.

What

gain has a

Which under

man

of his

whole

the sun he toils

toil,

*.

Generation comes and generation goes,

The sun

rises

Panting

to his place

But the world forever stands.

Going

and the sun

to the south

he

and

sets,

rises there.

circling to the north,

Circling, circling goes the wind.

And on
">.

wind returns.

circuits the

its

All the streams flow to the sea,

But the sea

is

not

full

Unto the place whence

There they flow again.
>.

the streams flow,

All things are wearied,

No

one

is

able to utter

it,

The eye is not satisfied to see.

Nor the ear filled with hearing.
.
That which has been is what shall be, and that which has been
done is what shall be done, and there is nothing new under the sun.
'". There is a thing of which one may say: see this is new!
Already
was it in the ages which were before us. ". There is no remembrance

of former

men, and also the men who

membrance with

those

who

shall

shall be later

l>e

later shall

have no

re-

(still).

Vv. 2-8, as Ewald and Driver have recognized, are poetical in

form.

2.

Vanity

of

vanities].

''Vanity"

the

word

"breath," ''vapor," and then "nothingness," "vanity."

used of the past (Job

favorite
all

and the worthless (Lam.

7')

word with Qoheleth.

the rest of the

observe, this

is

OT.

the

it

is

theme

He employs

used but

;^^

of the book.

times.
It is

concluding words of the original writer.

words were inserted by the

editor.

it

4'^).

meant
It

is

It is

40 times, while in

As Vaih. and Re.

repeated in i2, the

Says Qoheleth]^ these

Qoheleth always speaks of

ECCLESIASTES

70
himself in the

person, see Introduction, 7.

first

All],

often been noted, does not refer to the universe, but to

activities of life

context

latter
(i

2"

'

twice,

which

''that

proves.

y 58

1*

7'2

"advantage," "profit."
culiar to

times.

OT.

used to denote

writers.

by the expressions under heaven

These

(ch. i''

8'^

writers, the

former occurring in Ex.

the latter in
4.

Gn. S",

man

this is the

himself

meaning.

is

found

2'

in Ec.

25

paralleled

is

y) and "upon

the

phrases are used by other

latter

stands].

Dt. 7"

17'*

9'^ 2

K. 14",

etc.,

The thought which

oppresses

man's workshop, should continue,

that the earth,

is

is

etc.

The world forever

Qoheleth
while

ii*).

It

sublunary things, and

all

earth" (ch.

'

the

all

This the

Gain\ found in this book nine times

and 10'") in the meaning of ''surplusage,"
Under the sun\. This phrase is pe^3.

Qoheleth among

It is

done under the sun."

is

as has

Jer. correctly perceived that

so short-lived.

A part of the thought of this vs. is paraphrased

BS. I4*'': " As leaves grow upon a green tree, of which one withers
and another springs up, so are the generations of flesh and blood,
one perishes and another ripens."
From man Qoheleth passes
5. The sun rises and the sun sets].
in

to nature, noting first that the

sun continually goes his wearisome

round without accomplishing anything.

gests,

Possibly as Gins, sug-

Qoheleth means to hint that the sun has a

advantage

little

man

over man, for though the sun goes, he comes again, while

away to return no more. Panting]. It is a question whether

the writer means to say that the sun continually pants from weariness (Gins, and Cox), or whether he pants from eagerness to start
upon his course again (Wr.). Wr. adduces in favor of the latter
view the fact that the Hebrew word (ink') is ordinarily used in
the sense of panting for something {cf. Am. 2^ 8% Job 5*, Ps. 56^
passes

57*, etc.).

It

meaning

of

perhaps,

2^^).

should be noted, however, that qsr also has the

"panting" from exhaustion

As the

latter

meaning

{cf. Is.

better

doubtless the one intended by Qoheleth.

universe, as the

and Ra.

resting on an abyss through

by which the sun finds

its

note,

is

42'* Jer. 14"

and

the thought,

it is

His conception of the

that of a stationary

which there

way

fits

at night

is

flat

earth

a subterranean passage

from the west

to the east.

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION, OR PREFACE

The word

is

Metam. XV, AiSff. and

is

Virgil, Gcorg.

even before the exile the

comparison of Ps.

was thinking

I,

Israelites

K. 23 '> shows that

were familiar with

(Kn. and Heng.)

19'

Kn. and Wr. object

250.

un-Hebraic and consequently impos-

entirely

Ha. has, however, pointed out that

sible.

sun as drawn by panting steeds, as in Ovid,

of the chariot of the

that such an idea

!-'

used of the panting or snorting

Cleric long ago perceived that Qoheleth

of animals.

mood

Hcb.

for ''panting" in

[Ch.

is

The

it.

Qoheleth's

inapt.

very different from that of the psalmist.

is

The movements of

6. Circling, circling goes the wi7t(f\.

the wind,

as well as of the sun, present a similar series of endless, wearisome

North and south only are mentioned probably be-

repetitions.

cause east and west were mentioned in the preceding

vs.

(so

PL's suggestion that they are alone mentioned because

Gins.).

north and south winds are the prevailing currents of air in Palestine is erroneous.

west,

The

and are quite as

Palestinian winds are mostly from the

likely to

be from the east as from the north

or south.

As a

7. All the streams].

third

takes the fact that the streams

out

filling

of

lines
(i)

With

useless

its

the

example from nature, Qoheleth

continually/^it' into the sea with-

Their ceaseless work accomplishes nothing.

it.

The whole

8. All things are wearied].

because of

all

verse

Gr., PI., No.

may

activity.

The

last

man
two

be interpreted in two different ways.

and Ha.

the eye nor the ear of

universe groans with

and monotonous

man

it

is

may

mean

be taken to

able to take in

This interpretation ignores, however, the

that neither

all this

literal

weariness.

meaning

words, and gives them a sense derived from the context.

of the

Wr.
them to
mean that the meaningless rounds of nature communicate themselves to the spirit of man, so that eye and ear enter upon endless
courses of seeing and hearing that never satisfy. This last seems
the more probable interpretation.
(2)

takes the words in their natural sense, understanding

What has

9.

ment
fact

been is that which shall

of the fact that all things

has been illustrated

amples.

10.

in

Already was

be].

move

This

is

a general state-

in constant cycles.

The

preceding verses by a few striking ex-

it].

This anticipates and answers an ob-

ECCLESIASTES

72
jection

which may be urged against the sweeping statement

11. There

is

no remembrance]. This

As

transitoriness of fame.
it

ignorance of history, but

is

and Wr. have

Hit., Gins., Del.

not a restatement of vs. 10

is

seen,

that things seem new because

summing up

of v. 9.

a strong statement of the

is

of the

of

whole prologue.

''What advantage has a man of all his

Here he returns to say in substance that even the
most famous is soon forgotten. PI. and Wr. note the parallelism
Q. asks

at the beginning:

labor?"

Marcus Aurelius {Lib. ii, 17; iv,

posthumous fame is oblivion.

of the thought to utterances of

burden of which

34, 35), the

The

vs. is

is

quoted and opposed

that

in

Wisd.

The

2<

phrase, Jliere is

no remembrance, as Hit. observes, corresponds to ^'what gain?^^

The thought has completed a

San

2. o>';'3T

8".

Cf.

phrase

is
is

expressive of

gen.

D'-^r^

M. 8ia and H.

emphatic
thing

the

is

Ex. 29",

c^^-i|-j ]^-^p

cycle.

-irjr

Gn.

9, 4a.

Da. 29, rem.

{cf.

8,

an ace. of exclamation

instead of Van

is

The

I'.r

Ct.

and Ko. 309m).

{cf.

i,

Ko. 355q

r).

The

Cf.

D^crn ^cr

repetition of the phrase

Hit., followed

peculiar.

superlative idea.

the

-an^rn

unavailing.

ineffectual,

fruitless,

9^^,

K.

makes

it

Wr. notes that the

Q. means that every-

use of

as constr.

':'3n

by Zo., compares Sas

in Ps.

and a the chief vocal is

35'S observing that owing to the kinship of
pressed forward.
As Wr. notes, however, ^3 n is not a segholate. Ew.,
'i'

Del.,

Wr. and Wild,

rightly regard

it

as an Aramaizing form.

Kleinert renders "nothing" or "not," comparing Ar. ma.

correct.

As Wr.

This

nr]
is

in-

observes, the negative idea grows out of the interroga-

tion.

from a root which appears as

and Eth.,
means "to be
abundant," "remain over." 'i^D"], in the earlier language, means " sorrow," "suffering," "trouble" {cf. Gn. 41" Nu. 23" (both E.) and Job
3"' 4, etc.).
In the later lit. it means "toil," "labor" {cf. Ps. I07> Ec.
2" " 4* ). As Sieg. notes, Q. employs it of toilsome labor.
In Aram.
also has the latter meaning {cf. Ja., sub voce).
In Samaritan the
stem means "make," "do," as it does also in Ar. Perhaps Scy has
3.

?''^-7']

but as

":^'

in

Aram., Syr. and Heb.

"iri in

As., Ar., Sab.

In north Sem.

it

'^':ilf

that force here.

?*].

This

relative

is

kindred to the As.

strative root quite distinct

though

~^' is

but

however, occur
oldest bit of

in

Heb.

little

from nrs.

used

in

the

OT.,

u'n.

It is

e.g.,

Ju.

5^, in

a demon-

existed side by side,

the earlier literary language.

various periods,
in

m and Ph.
The two

what

is,

in Ju. 7'* (J.) Ju. 6'' (JE.)

It

does,

perhaps, the

and Ju.

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION, OR PREFACE

In Ct. and Ec.

(a late annotator).

73

occurs frequently side by side with

it

and Wr. note that

Herzfcld, Del.

>.:'N.

1-

[Ch.

in Ec.

occurs 68 times, and

~\^'

89 times. In the Mishna it has quite displaced ^Vi<. -r here does

U'Ctt'n nnp]. PI.
not denote ace. of manner, but the object (Del., Wr.).
confidently, and Wild, hesitatingly, explain this phrase as a Graecism=
^VH

Kleinert and

vip'rjXlu).

McN.

hold that this

simply a peculiarity of this writer.

It

is

is

unnecessary;

may

it

interesting to note

be

that

it

occurs in two Phoen. inscriptions, those of Taljnith and Eshmunazer

c.

(cf. G. A. Cooke, North Semitic Inscr., pp. 26, 30), in just

which Q. uses it.
N2].
These words are participles, denoting the continuity

250 B.C.

way

the

4,

in

"I'l^h

of the action,

cf.

Job

39'

Da. 100

Q. frequently puts these words

die" is found in ch. 5>6 Ps.

Ko. 412.
n^n

= "to

Nn = "to be born" occurs ch. 5' Ps.

unknown period of

1420,

lo^'

(f),

ch. 5'^ 6* 8'").

in contrast {cf.

denotes here, as often, simply a long,

yi'*.

time,

cV^yl

BDB.

The misunderstanding of this by certain media'val Jews occasioned the

comment of Maimonides quoted by Gins., Cohcleth, 526, 527. ^"^."^i"],
fem. part, of loy, the part, again denoting dutation.

and Zo. bring

common

into connection with the use of

-^c;'

with others of the ancients, some Hebrews believed that the

earth rested

upon

pillars {cf. Ps. 75^ 104*

language shows that he shared that

belief.

Job 9 38^), and hold that Q.'s

This is, however, a mistake.

often used simply to signify continuance

ncy

is

I3

Dn.

10").

throws no

thus that Q. uses

It is

light

upon

earth's support.

it

{cf.

ch. 2 Ps. 19* Lv.

His form of statement

here.

his belief or non-belief in the pillar-theory of the

In the Talmud, Shabbath, 30b,

is

it

said

that vs. 4

a discussion with an unnamed disciple,

Bloch believes to have been the apostle Paul. Cf. Wright,

was quoted by Gamaliel

whom

Umbreit, Vaih.

here the fact that, in

in

Ecclesiastes, 22 jf.

N3]

5.

= "set, "

" sun rising."

fore

or

(/.

the As. t>/6 saw?5/= " sun setting,"

Ha., for metrical reasons, regards

Z'r:'cn

sit

samsi=

and

Nin be-

Zap., for similar reasons, expunges the phrase Nin

as glosses.

n->

The metrical form of the book, as a whole, is, however, too unsubstan-

or.

a theory on which to base textual criticism (see

tial

r\yi

Ifttrod. 9).

are participles denoting continuity of action.

to the accentuation,

part of the verse.

is

and

first

interpreters endeavor to adhere to this punctu-

that this accentuation

t)H^z\

Many

must

)e

disregarded, and

Del. has clearly

ic'^pn

taken with

render the phrase "to his place where he rises," supposing

that "^VH has been omitted before or.

needlessly to obscure the thought.

rendering given above.

{cf.

nN''C*

separated from HN^'r and connected with the

Many

shown

MSS.

iDipn Sn], according

ation, but the results of the efforts are unsatisfactory.

of

and

after n3

Dr.).

The

The

The whole

(So Ko. 38od).

This seems

force of the participles justifies the

phrase

is

omitted

in

a small group

ancient translators, with the exception of 'A

ECCLESIASTES

74

(who renders eto-TT '?), ha^e missed the meaning. (S renders i\Kei, S
and O i7rava<TTp^<pL, Jer. "revilitur," j& ta'eb, "he returns," and the
"to crawl."

(5 t]>ny

Gr., despairing of finding in fiNir a .satisfactory

meaning, emends the

it

This

rises."
6.

The

Cf.

In the

23'.

combining 1^;n with 220.

clause with

pi3X]="The
Ges.Bu

and

X^ti-i,

Job 37'^
Sieg.

^>]

changes

K6. 36iq.

preceding

Cf. also Dt. 2" 14"

8.

same

effect

&

<S, 21,

16"

accomplished by

is

and H wrongly take

as applying to the sun.

verse,

hidden," and so "north," from icx "to hide,"

Ez.

cf.

Da. 29, rem,

last clause the

Cf.

the

from n-n="to flow," "give

an;],

204b and Ko., Vol.

to

place, again

its

repetition of 22>d] strengthens the idea of continuance ex-

28" and Ex.

first

rendering "returns to

3^',

however, unnecessary.

is,

pressed by the part.

the

^n

text to

light"

BD5.
BDB.

cf.

{cf.

II, i, 77), is regularly used for "south" in contrast

". 28 42i.
It is a poetical and late word.

4o24-

Cf.

to be taken with the following verb (Del., Zo.

is

to Sn because

it

clause of the vs. from

|';;^n

to

J"'cx

reads

Wr.).

Zap., p. 10, omits the

'ETrf.

for metrical reasons

first

a change which

the metrical theory seems too insecure to support.

As Kn., Del. and Wild, point out, 2V^ with S and an inf. means
See Ko.
cf. On. 30'' Ho. ii' Job f Ezr. 9'*.
399v.
The idea is not that the streams return from the abyss by subterranean channels ( and Gins, and Cox), nor to the return of water in
vapor to fall as rain, as in Job 36"- " (Heng.). As Zo. and PI. note, the
7.

"to do a thing again,"

thought, as in Aristophanes, Clouds, 1248,

(The sea though

all

the rivers flow to

it,

Increaseth not in volume,)

is

The

confined to the fact that the flowing rivers accomplish nothing.

participles,

action.

(Sieg.),

cpD

is

as in the preceding verses, denote the continuity of the

Snj]

is

a more general

but to be taken with

^*

term than "inj. ^r]

==" where," like V'^

in the const, state before the rel. sentence,

'<r

is

not

cpa being

Gn. 39" Lv. 4^ and Ko. 277v,

ncr

"^^n (Wr.).

equiva-

Wr.
is=" overflow," so, perhaps, here (Sieg.).
8. on3^] Kn., Heng., Heil., Ew. and Gins, take as equal to "words,"
and think the first clause means that speech is wearied in telling of the
Most commentators Wang., Vaih.,
ceaseless activities of nature.
Zo., Del., PI., Wr., No., Gr., Wild., Sieg., VI., Cox, McN., Gen. and
Ha. rightly take it in the sense of "things." The meaning then is that
the sun, the winds, the streams and all natural objects are
all things
lent to

nSd]

ijrN D-'pc,

cf.

so. Hit., Zo.,

in Jos. 3'*

weary with

their ceaseless

to be approved.

misses the point.

round of

Re.'s rendering:

>ir]

of this passage, Dt.

activities.

"Tout

est

This view
difficile

2 S. 17',

and

in

altogether

k expliquer,"

as an adj. occurs but twice in the

25"

is

OT.

outside

both of these passages

it

has

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION, OR PREFACE

means "weary"

to be supplied is Sa.

vrc*::] Hit.

This, as Wr. notes,

longer hear."

with

here.

of the thing satisfied,

121^], as

and Zo. render: " so that I will not

is unnecessary, for >ar is constructed
104'^

6^ Ps.

ch.

cj.

Job

notes that JD might have stood before niNn instead of

nc]

'q

9.

10", in

Aram,

way

0^

and

wrongly render

""t

GBA.

Kau.,

jc, cf.

in earlier Heb., cf.

3"-

{cf.

53".
as an in-

it

6'"-

10"

8^

12

from human action {cf.

negative in Heb., cf. Nu.

sult

6'"

"that which," or "whatever."

signifies

it

but

22^;

Ex. 32".

and

ii^),

i"- "

2"

nij7 of

4' 9'

*).

8^

It is

used in a

^d is

"itt'M

7"

as Del. and Wr. note,

n"",-!]

human

used of the phenomena of nature, which occur without

vention

Ko. 3991

19".

V, cf. Is.

used by Q. in the following passages: 3"

which

of

parallel to

is

late expression.

It is

all

similar

is

terrogative.

75

"wearisome" (Dale): it acWr. observes, the object

the passive sense, "weary," not the active,

cordingly

P"

[Cii.

inter-

occurrences which

'^vr\

Sd ps]

re-

a universal

is

and Ko. 352 s-w. The

iraj, Mt. 24" Lk. i'
21".
^nv
Zap. and Ha. omit on metrical grounds the phrase C'crn
Although it is a striking coincidence that the two advocates of the metriii Dt. 8

NT.

construction has passed into

Dn.

idiom,

i<

cf.

01)

cal theory agree at this point, the fact does not overbalance the un-

certainty of the metrical theory (see Introd. 9).

and

materially strengthens the statement,

the original writer did not pen
10.

r""],

it

The

discarded phrase
to believe that

is difficult

it.

philologically equivalent to As. tTu,

is

different

from n^n

in that

assumes existence as a fact. Its use is equivalent to saying: "There

3
really are things" {cf. Ko. 325i-m, 3381-n).
present
"j], if the
it

MT. stands=" thing,"

Tal.,

(S,

t, %, and

on

cf.

MT.

v. 8.

# support the reading

speaks and says."

McN.,

The

in 7"-

*,

in

MT. was

is

is

the

one who

older than

introduced in Aqiba's

testimony of the Versions would support this view.

See the collected testimony,

HNn

S and

31,

icn>i niT'C', "there

138, thinks this reading

p.

Aqiba, and that the present reading of

recension.

-1

supported by

is

Masorahtext, 35.

Euringer,

both of which cases

it is

n;] follows

connected with the following

word by a conjunctive accent. Here, on the other hand, there is a disjunctive Tiphkha.
Wr. observes that the accent gives the clause the
force of "See this, new it is."
McN. regards nt as=Mishnic v-ir {cf.
Kelim,

5'*),

not as the obj. of

pressions, cf 2" 4 6*

brew only
It is

and

in Ec. {cf. ch.

hn-i.

i'"

Kin

ni in s'^.

N'-n

2"

3'* 4* 6'" 9*

nr is

one of Q.'s favorite ex-

-lar]

occurs in Biblical He-

''),

though

common

in J.Ar.

connected with the Ar. kabara and Eth. kabra, "to be great."

meaning seems

to be "already,"

BDB.

Ja. assigns

it

also the

Its

meaning

"long ago," but none of the passages from the Mishna, which he quotes,
substantiates this meaning.
of our book.

as five

The word constitutes one of the Aramaisms

n^n nu'N D^nS;?S], the verb in the phrase, should strictly be vn,

MSS. actually read

{cf Ken.), but

Heb.

is

not always careful about

ECCLESIASTES

76
the agreement

Some

and

of subj.

regard coSy as a

regularly take a sing, vb.

ened form of

iJ''Jc!:',

before the prep.

^;

{cf.

Ju.

cf.

cj. ch. lo'* Je. 48'* Zc. ii Dn. p".

eminence (K6. 26ok), and such plurals

pred.,

pi. of

Da. 116, rem.

i'".

11.

inpj]

4).

is

^^rjo'^c] is

a strength-

usually regarded as

Kn., Heil., Zo., Ew. and Ko. 3362.

so,

cstr.

Del. ob-

serves that such refinements of syntax are not to be expected in our

writer,

and that

|n3T

is

compares jnn: and

Wr. repeats

abs.

common

is

2i,

it

is

cf.

also

an

|n:3T is

be regarded as a form more

adduces no example. Sieg. agrees with

no parallel, so far as I know, which subIn the OT., wherever ]npT occurs, except here and
still

the cstr. state

in

cstr.

tion finds parallels in the

5",

He

inrt-

in reality

here to regard the word as

ibid.,

may

adding that pip;

Del.,

stantiates this view.

in ch.

but adduces no example where

in later Heb., but

There

them.

to be taken as a variant spelling of

insf?,

Mishna

232^ Is. 57').

It

better

is

especially since such construc-

^^

P'-dS ^jV^n

{cf.

and Ko. 336z).

s''

Lv.

{cf.

before

D-iirN-i]

Aboth, 5", ^J^S -arv,

and D'jnnN] were

for-

merly incorrectly understood to refer to things, but modern writers, except

Gr. and Ha., take
refer to persons

things {cf

Is.

{cf.

it

rightly

Gn.

42 43-

;i^'

>8

to refer to

The masc. forms

persons.

Dt. 19" Job 18"), and the fem. forms to

46').

3>joip and nvjcip

the former of persons, the latter adverbially

{cf.

are similarly used,

S. 24 Is. 43").

qoheleth's experiments in the character of the

SON OF DAVID.

i-2

Qoheleth represents himself in the character of Solomon as seekwisdom more than anyone else, but finding in it no permanent
satisfaction (i'*''); then, as seeking joy in material and sensual
things, with the same result (2' "); next, as trying the virtues of
folly and finding them no better (i'^"'); and lastly, he states the conclusion to which his various experiments have led him (2'8 ^b).
ing

"

my

Qoheleth was king over Israel

heart to search

and

in

to explore with

Jerusalem.

"

And

wisdom concerning

all

gave

that

is

done under the heavens it is a bad business God has given the children
" I saw all the works which are done under
of men in which to toil.
the sun and behold the whole is vanity and desire of wind.
"

"

And

creased

The crooked cannot be straightened,

And the wanting cannot be numbered.

spake with

wisdom above

all

my

heart, saying:

who were

heart has abundantly beheld

my heart to know wisdom and

before

Behold

me

have greatly

in-

over Jerusalem, and

my

wisdom and knowledge.

knowledge, madness and

" And
folly, I

know

gave
that

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS

[Ch. 1'-2"

'*
For in much wisdom
is desire of wind.
and he who increases knowledge increases pain.

this also

ation,
2'

said in

my

heart:

"Come

now,

I will test

upon good," and behold also it was vanity.

mad, and of joy, what does this accomplish ?
heart

how

to stimulate

my

flesh

for the children of

their

life.

men

to practise

is

much

vex-

thee with joy, so look

Of

with wine, while

with wisdom, and to lay hold on folly until

is

77

laughter

I said

searched out in

my

should see

it is

my

was acting
what good there

heart

under the heavens the few days of

undertook great works;

built

me

houses,

planted

me

made me gardens and parks and planted in them every

kind of fruit tree. I made me pools of water in order to water a
^plantation springing up with trees.
I bought bondmen and bondmaids and had slaves born in my house; also I had many possessions
more than all who were before me in Jerusalem.
of cattle and sheep

vineyards.

collected for myself silver

provinces;

provided

and

me male and

gold, the treasures of kings

and

female musicians and the luxuries

men all sorts of concubines (?). And I became conmore wealthy above all who were before me in Jerusalem; also
my wisdom remained with me. *- And nothing which my eyes asked
did I withhold from them; I did not deny my heart any joy, for my heart
" And
rejoiced in all my toil, and this was my portion of all my toil.
I turned (to look) at all my works which my hands had wrought and at
the toil which I had toiled to accomplish and behold the whole was vanity
and desire of wind and there is no gain under the sun. '* And I turned
to observe wisdom and madness and folly, for what (can) the man (do)
"And
that comes after the king ? That which he (the king) hath done.
I saw that wisdom has an advantage over folly like the advantage of
" As for the wise man his eyes are in his head,
light over darkness.
but the fool walks in darkness. But I know also that the same event
'*
And I said in my heart according to
will happen to both of them.
the fate of the fool thus will it happen to me, so why have I then been
" For the
wise overmuch? So I said in my heart: this also is vanity.
wise, like the fool, has no remembrance forever, inasmuch as in days to
come both will have been already forgotten. And how does the wise die
" And I hated life, for evil unto me was the work which is
like the fool!
'*
And I hated
done under the sun, for all is vanity and desire of wind.

of the sons of
tinually

my toil which I toiled under the sun because I shall leave it to the
man who shall come after me. ' And who knows whether he will be
a wise man or a fool ? And he shall rule over all my toil on which I have
toiled and exercised wisdom under the sun.
This also is vanity. " And
I turned about to give my heart up to despair concerning all the toil
which I had toiled under the sun.
For there is a man whose toil is
with wisdom and intelligence and success, and to a man who has not

all

*'

toiled for

it

he will leave his portion.

This also

is

vanity and a great

ECCLESIASTES

78

For what shall be to a man for

which he toils under the sun.

"

evil.

his heart in

and

"

his task vexation, also at night his heart

"

vanity.

is

For there

For

all his

does not

nothing better for a

is

and the

all his toil

man

striving of

days are pains,

rest,

moreover

this

than that he should

and drink and enjoy himself in his toil. Also this I saw that it is
from the hand of God. ^- For who can eat and who can enjoy apart
from him? . For to a man who is good before him he gives
WISDOM AND knowledge AND JOY, BUT TO THE SINNER HE GIVES
AS A TASK TO GATHER AND AMASS TO GIVE TO ONE WHO IS GOOD
eat

BEFORE God.

Was

12.

Also this

is

and a

vanity

desire of wind.

king over Israel in Jerusalem].

The author

indicates

that he proposes to speak in the character of Solomon.

It is his

aim to offer proof of the general position taken in the prologue by

adducing the concrete experiences of Solomon. Solomon had
had wealth, wisdom and opportunities for sensual enjoyment.

He had drawn upon

To

every source of ''profit."

adduce these

concrete experiences would be the most powerful literary form in

which

to

couch his argument, so

He

mask.

in this verse

he assumes that

mentions the fact of kingship as a claim to especial

opportunities for experience in these matters, since "the

of a learned

man cometh by

opportunity " (BS. 38").

any king

*^over Israel in Jerusalem,^' exclude

kingdom and
This
jn

not an

is

y2i

uncommon idiom

Dn.

89. 10

1012

used mainly

It

is

Ps. 48'' 62'" 2

7'^

13.

of the northern

Gave

my

for turning the attention

22'8).

Heb.

in late Biblical

They do

synonyms.

Ch.

mind)" (Job

heart (or

Solomon.

sufficiently indicate

''

parallel

Ch.

wisdom

The words:
heart].
{cf.

ch.

to ''set one's

i2i<

3o9).

It is

Search^' SLud'^explore^' are

not refer to higher and lower forms of in-

"Search " means to inand "explore" to investigate a

vestigation (Zo.), but to different methods.

vestigate the roots of a matter,

subject on

employed

all

of

sides (Del., Wr.).

human

14. Works] refers also

i.e.,

an unsatisfying

much

discussion.

26

44.

5^,

straightened].

See

to

desire.

The

only in this book, where

17.

Is Done],

This

is,

as in

v. 9,

activities.

human actions. Desire

The word for desire has

of Wind],

occasioned

peculiar phrase occurs in Biblical Heb.

it

critical

(i'*

2"-

cannot

be

occurs seven times altogether

note.

Re., PL, Wr. and

15.

The

crooked

Gen. are probably

right in re-

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS

[Cn. l=-2

79

garding this as an aphorism quoted by Qoheleth because appH-

The wanting cannot be numbered], i.e., an

number of things are lacking.
16. All who were before me over Jerusalem], it is difficult for the
writer to maintain the mask which he has assumed, and as Del.,
Wr., Wild, and McN. have noted, he falls into an anachronism
here in this phrase, since Solomon had but one predecessor, David.
It is hardly possible with Heng., Zo., No. and PL, to think of Jebusite kings, or Melchisedek (Gn. 14'*), and Adonizedek (Jos. 10',
cj. also, 2 S 5.^), or Ethan, Heman, and Calcol (i K. 4*').
It is
more likely the phrase of one who was familiar with some set forcable to his theme.

untold

mula, like the Assyrian ''the kings

posed

it

once more in

2^

Madness and

folly'],

leth

he

finally

throws

After letting the

it

is

be ignorance!

aside altogether in 2 '2.

where

toil

with

joy].

Qoheleth now

tries

Having proved the

that joy

The

Gn.

3,

knowledge.

futility of wis-

In this

context shows

To

the beholder both often seem folly or

in general

by

Scholars differ as to whether

Gins.,

we should translate "of"

Ew. and Wild, advocate the latter view and ren-

der as though the sentence were a direct address.

and most recent

Del., Sieg.,

Of laughter],

represented by laughter and pleasure

delirium.

''joy."

2.

is

unrestrained merriment

"to."

blessed

used of the pleasure derived from the possession of

is

wealth and the excitements of sensual pleasure.

or,

is

material pleasures (2>-").

introductory verse he expresses his resolution.

17.

18. In

J. in

in child-bearing are attributed to

test thee

(i '*'*),

of the verse

reminds one of the point of view of

and pain

/ will

2'.

The burden

slip

Qohe-

^^Contrariis contraria intelliguntur.^'

muchvexation].
It

he sup-

mask

determined to know not only wisdom but the opposite.

much wisdom

dom

my predecessors," which

appropriate for kings to use.

Heil., Vaih.,

interpreters take the former view,

which the above rendering follows.

in Ps.

joicing,"

22"
cf.

41*.

Parallel examples are found

Kn. remarks that laughter means "lusty re-

Io'^3.

Nu. io, equivalent

Searched], as Del.

to "explore."

denotes discovery by mental

literally to

"draw"

{cf.

Dt. 2I*

notes, this

processes (so Wr.).

i

is,

as in

Combined with "heart"

K.

22=*^

Ch.

iS^"

it

Stimulate],

Job

24^'^),

but here used figuratively, either in the sense of "stimulate,"

ECCLESIASTES

8o

"give pleasure to," or ''refresh."

This

with\

as several interpreters

is,

of a parenthesis.

My

heart

noted, in the nature

h'-*,ve

From

/ built houses, I planted vineyards].

4.

excitements

the

Talmudic usage
was acting

resemVjles

It

and Wild, have observed.

as Del., No.

wine Qoheleth turns to the more healthy

of

As he is speakhad in mind SoloNear these buildings

pleasures of a country gentleman's enterprises.

ing in the character of Solomon, probably he

mon's buildings

10'

K.

there were vineyards

(r/.

Je. 52^ Ct. 6^ 8").

metonomy

(r/.

for the gains of

9'

^ff).

Works]

used by

is

work, wealth, riches, possessions

(rf. i

S. 25').
5.

To

Gardens and Parks].

tables

{cf.

Dt.

and the

II'"),

''garden" stood for both.

to the

"King's gardens"
constructed

enclosures,

and parks

the vineyards, gardens

The former were perhaps devoted

were added.

though

latter to trees,

Frequent allusion

(Je. 39^ 52^ 2

by the

to practical vege-

K.

25^

in older

made

is

and Ne.

Hebrew
OT.

in the

Such

3'').

wealthy, contained

refreshing

and all manner of fruit trees (cf. Jos. Antiq.

and Qur'an, 13" and 55^"*). Sometimes they also contained wild animals (Xen. Anab. i, 2-). How in the hot and thirsty
streams, cool shade

viii,

east such scenes attracted the imagination

may

aggerated description in Qur^an,

Q. Pools

where the

Palestine,

47'*.

rainfall of the winter

be seen in the exof water].

In

has to be stored for the

long drought of summer, rock-cut reservoirs or cisterns are of

such importance that their structure was a worthy boast for a king
{cf.

Mesha

Moab, Moabite

of

Stone,

11.

and 23-25).

as well as the Siloam inscription and Jos., BJ.,

Ne.

2'<

v. 4-, testify

3'%
to

the existence of an important reservoir near Jerusalem, while Ct.

7' alludes to

may be

one

seen

in

Heshbon and

to-day

2 S. 4'- to

near ancient

one

Etam

in

to

alluded to in

7.

Bondmen and

bondmaids].

Is.

i^

and 58".

Slaves formed a large percentage

of the population in all the civilized countries of antiquity.

frequently they were bought

any body

of

There

The importance

Solomon.

which are attributed by tradition

of such reservoirs to gardens

is

Hebron.

three such reservoirs,

and

sold

may be

How

seen by consulting

Babylonian contracts such as Keilinschriftliche Bib-

liothek, Vol. rV.

The purchase

of

new

slaves

was probably an

QOHFXETH'S EXPERIMENTS
experience in the

when
at

"Book

the

Covenant" was

30 shekels (Ex.
7

8l

About 750 B.C.,

was valued

man.

of every wealthy

life

of the

[Cn. 1--2-'

written, a slave

while after the exile they were valued at

21^-),

slaves, see 1 K. q-"and lo^

and herds as evidences of wealth
{</. Gn. 12'" 30^^).
All who were before me\ the author permits
his Solomonic mask to slip, for this implies that he had had many

50 shekels (Lv.

For Solomon's

3).

-'

Slaves are associated with flocks

predecessors in Jerusalem.

8.

monarch who controls the taxes

He

of sensual gratification.

and these
ii'-.

in

passed them in wealth.

ably a reference to

He means

and sensual

ward

look,

any

and

joy].

delights his

dor for his

prob-

wisdom remained with

wisdom has also a for-

refers in part to the next verse.

Still

is

that in spite of his folly in the

suggests that this clause about

heart

i" Qoheleth claims to

wisdom, so here he claims to have surIn the last clause of the vs. there

vs. 3.

pursuit of wealth
It

of a

and the luxuries

posing as the ''Son of David,"

i K. 4^ 9=8 10'* 7'* "

Continually ynore wealthy], in

have surpassed others

him.

of large provinces,

is still

the de-

added the treasures

were no doubt suggested by

details

9.

To

Treasures of kings].

rural possessions, Qoheleth

lights of

10.

Not deny my

drawing on the accounts of Solomon's splenQoheleth represents himself as able to

illustration,

He denied himself no material possession or

the man in the parable of Jesus (Lk. 16"), he

gratify every desire.

pleasure, and, like

obtained enjoyment

real

vantage, or gain from his

good

statements of Solomon's wealth in

The
cf. I

in

eyes are used by

K. 20' Ps.

145''

his ad-

K.

4- (Ileb. 5"),

and

io^.

Jn. 2" "lust" (literally, "desire") of the eyes, which, though

with

it.

{i.e.,

desire) of the flesh,"

Withhold], for the meaning

where the word

is

cf.

11.

And I

is

not iden-

Gn. 27" Nu.

rendered "take away," "take of."

here equivalent to gain or reward.

Del.

This was

passage was suggested by the

metonomy for desire which is not sensual,

Ec. I" 4* and Pr. 27-".
Similarly we have

closely associated with "lust

tical

for a time.

The

toil.

turned].

ii'-

Portion]

This

is

",
is

as

and others have noted a pregnant construction, meaning "1

turned to look,"

cf.

Job 6".

It

implies that Qoheleth turned from

and his sensual pleasand finds that, like the

the absorption of his active material labors

ures to consider the meaning of them

all,

ECCLESIASTES

82
delights of

wisdom, the delights of possession are but vanity.

From

to this point a cycle is

3b

V.

completed

an experiment has

been carried through and a result reached.

12. Qoheleth

and

is

now

led to

make a comparison between wisdom

whether wisdom had any real

folly, to discover, if possible,

The

advantage.

last clause of the verse is difficult of interpreta-

tion because the text

emended

critical note.

Hokma

corrupt.

is

rendered above from an

It is

For reasons and the opinions

text.

13.

annotator, on the ground that

it

all is

vanity,

to his Q, or

contradicts Q.'s thought,

As

but the objection does not seem well taken.

heleth might believe that

of interpreters, see

and 14a

Sieg. assigns this verse

and

PI. suggests

yet hold that

it is

Qo-

better

to face the reality intelligently than to be carried into the vortex of

oblivion while absorbed in senseless folly.

(17"^)

is

die."

apposite: ''And

if

comparison

of

wisdom

to light

51" Ps. 36" 43* 119'" Pr. 6".

14.

cf.

His

he can

light,

and

the attitude of a strong, though agnostic mind.

It is

"folly,"

from the Iliad

line

our fate be death, give

Job

37' .

Cf. also

is

For
Job 12".

eyes are in his head].

see.

The

The

wise

man

us

The

light in Is.

the sense of

''darkness" in

expression, as Gins, notes,

The

eyes are open."

kindred to the use of

let

has this advantage,

is

equivalent to "his

fool goes on in unconscious darkness.

Nevertheless the same death overtakes both.

The

wise ought to

have some advantage, but experience shows that he does not.

The

fact that

death relentlessly claims both wise and

pressed others.

Cf. Ps.

49>''

foolish, op-

Job 21" and Horace's

Sed onines una manet nox

Et calcanda

seniel via

leti.

15. According to the fate of the fool.]

Od.

I,

The

28'*".

fact that

death buries

and the foolish in the same oblivion, makes Qoheleth pronounce great wisdom vanity, in spite of the fact that he has just
seen in wisdom the advantage of reality. / said in my heart], see
the wise

on

On

i>.

16.

Vanity, see on

The wise

contradicts here Pr. lo^

posed

in

i.

die like the jool].

Wisdom

i*.

and

Has

Wild, has noted that Qoheleth

Ps. ii2.

This

vs. is

quoted and op-

no remembrance forever].

Cf. on i".

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS
The

[Ch.

83

l'-2

discovery that at death both are alike strikes Qohelcth as a

painful surprise.

not what one would expect.

It is

This expresses a strong revulsion

life].

cf. 2 S.

13"

Am. 5" Mai.

V*

Is.

The

i\

17.

Andl hated

from something,

of feeling

fact that the wise are

swallowed up by the same oblivion as the fool caused

As Plumtre remarks,

sion of feeling.

come

of such

mann

it

pessimism

is

this revul-

who

pessimist

vent his feelings in literary expression continues to enjoy

unto

me was

the work],

desire of wind], see

18. / hated all

not only loathed

on

my
life,

i.e.,

it

was

evil in

my

some one

to Hart-

able to

is

Evil

life.

Vanity and

eyes.

i'*.

toil

because I shall leave

but also his

toil.

This

produced by the thought that he must leave

labor to

out-

logical

from Qoheleth

suicide, but

has never produced suicide.

only

the

else.

as were described in vv.

Qoheleth

it].

latter revulsion
all

was

the results of his

Probably the reference

is

to such

works

As Plumtre points out others

same thought. Mazarin walked

4, 10, 11.

have been oppressed by the

through his palace and said to himself:

II faiit quitter tout cela,

while Frederic William IV of Prussia, looking at his garden

Potsdam, said to his friend Bunsen: Das auch,das

And

I hated]

is

such repetition.
or a fool?]

not

know

the repetition of a formula.

19.

One must
into

ich lassen.

Qoheleth

is

at

fond of

whether he shall be a wise

man

not only leave his possessions, but he does

whose hands they

whether his own wise

not.

Who knows

soli

will fall after

policies concerning

This added to Qoheleth's

them

bitterness.

he

will

The

is

gone, or

be pursued or

thought

is

simi-

and Lk. 122". The Targ. takes this and the

preceding vs. to refer to Rehoboam, but Qoheleth's statement is
As No. and Sieg. have noted, Rehoboam was
entirely general.
forty-one years old when Solomon died (i K. 14"), and Solomon
must have known whether he was a fool or not. 20. Give my
heart up to despair]. The facts stated in the preceding verses dried
up the springs of Qoheleth's impulse to active labor. 21. To a
man who has not toiled he will leave his portion]. Qoheleth broods
over a fact and views it from different aspects. This vs. is not a
repetition of vs. 19; the thought which tortures him here is not that
his heir may be a fool, but the mere idea that that upon which one

lar to that of Ps. 39

ECCLESIASTES

84

much

with so

toils

care should go into the possession of one

has never worked for

suggests,

it

at

all.

nearly comi)leted a great cycle,

I'.

23.

sum up

to

who

follow pursuits which cannot satisfy the heart.

even in the performance of their

obtain no real pleasure

One

chosen occupations.

nothing

above

The

a man].

better for

rests

phrase of

quoted and opposed

in substance

and

his reasons for pessimism.

This verse echoes the experi-

All his days are pains].

ence of those

They

who

shall be to a tnan], as Gins,

corresponds to ''what advantage to a man," of

this

The thought has

Qoheleth now comes back

ch.

22.

What

on an emended

in

"his days are pain"

Wisd. 2K 24, 25. There
it

is

is

rendering of these verses given

text, the

authority for which

is

given

Qoheleth here states the conclusions

in the critical notes below.

had led. The best thing for

most physical pleasure he can out of life. This
is not stated from the Epicurean standpoint, but from the point
Qoheleth, as a Hebrew, believes
of view of Hebrew monotheism.
to

which

man

is

his various investigations

to get the

God had

not so ordained

that this

would not be the order

of

life, if

The

sentiment of this verse

is

quoted and denied

it.

in

Wisd.

2.

To a man who is good He gives wisdom]. Recent interpreters have, with some differences in detail, regarded the verse as a
Sieg. and McN. divide it
gloss; so Wild., Sieg., McN., and Ha.
26*.

into

two

glosses, regarding: '^This also is vanity

That

wind,^^ as a touch of a late hand.

tion of the last clause

granted.

is

the

contradicts

It

doctrine that

all

work

of a

the good things of

finds expression in

many

life

come

parts of the OT.,

the good finally receive the fruits of the

not lacking

(r/.

Job

27'^ Pr.

13"

the moral order of the universe

Q.'s whole thought,

another hand.
seeing the

hand

followed vs. 25,

of
it

and

justifies

desire of

Chasid glossator, must be

fundamental

Q.'s

and a

the verse with the excep-

The

philosophy.

to the morally good,

and the thought

toil of

the wicked

is

that
also

Such a cheerful view

however, totally opposed

28).

of

is,

to

us in seeing here the work of

cannot agree with Sieg. and McN., though,

an annotator

in the last clause.

If

it

in

originally

expressed, as pointed out above, an intelligible

thought, and one thoroughly consonant with Q.'s point of view.

26^

Desire of wind] originally followed

vs. 25.

Q.'s declaration

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS
was, that there

and enjoy

nothing better for a

is

God had

Hfe, that

but that there

no

is

man

85

than to eat and drink

ordained that this

is

man's destiny,

even

this also

real satisfaction

This

vanity and a desire of wind.

[Ch. V^-2^

is

in this

being

a note of profound pessimism.

1'2. >.-ii\-i]. The tense has occasioned a curious amount of discussion

among commentators. It is in fact a perfect denoting a state, whether

mental or physical
42" Ps.

Dr. 11, Da. 40, Ko. 124 and Ex. 2" Gn.
{Gittin, 68b), Midrash Yalkui, AE., and Ra.,

(r/.

The Tahnud

I5).

Hebrew

thinking in accordance with later

that

it

could be used only of

Solomon was deposed

by Asmodaeus, king of the demons, and then wrote, "I was king."
Gr., who believes that
Gins, agrees that the writer was no longer king.
Herod the Great was referred to, falls back on the theory that nv-i means
Bullock quotes Louis XIV, who toward
here "became," not "was."
the end of his life used to say: ''Quand f'etois rot" and supposes that
Solomon, like Louis, had become weary of kingship. Of course Q. is
past events, adopted the legend that in his old age

using the character as a mask, but the indefiniteness of the tense in

Heb.
26"

(2 S.

'^N-^r-'

"?;?

K. 159 Ho.
19"

it would be right if Solomon were really

more usual expression is hn'\^'^ iSd {cf. i S.

purpose well, as

suits his

writing.

K.

i'?r],

the

.\m.

io'5

i>

ii

Ila.'s

4' II''').

7'", etc.),

but "^Nnr^ Sp iSc alsooccurs

statement that nSs

may mean "head

of

a school," while substantiated by Gittin, 62a, and Bcrahoth, 64a, does not
fit the mask which Q. was wearing throughout the passage.
13.

has been claimed as a Gr.Tcism

"i."i]

cal term, but

{cf.

McN.,

{cf.

^3"]

2" "

= " business,"

3'" 4*

5-

i'.

as a gloss, even though, according to his

metrical standard.

Bcrakoth,

rived from

2^,

14. ir;ju ].

Baha Balra,

>7"^=i"'i"'>

In
lo*.

interpretation derived

it

Nu.

13*-

"

"

OT.

an Aramaic loan word, occurHa. curiously regards this vs.

own rendering, it conforms to a

Mishna the usage of "ir;* is similar,

'V}], a very ancient rendering de-

tlie

"to break," makes

or "vexation of spirit."

in

"occupation," occurs in

It is

'')

ring in the Targ. on Ps. \(f 41* Ct.

cf.

= (rK^7rTe<r^ai, a Gr. philosophi-

good Heb., being used of the spies

40).

p.

only in Ec.

is

it

it

mean "breaking,"

"affliction,"

Thus, &, 01, V, Ra., and AV. Another old

from nj-n to feed. So *A, 9, 2, AE., Mich.,

and RV."". Others, as No. and Wild., take it from

"to be behind" {cf Gn. 32'9 ''). Most recent interpreters derive

Ros., PL, Re.

np-i
it

from n;n "to wish," "desire," "strive for," so d, Kn.,

Hit., Eur.,

Wang., Vaih., Gins., Ty., Z6., Gr., Del., Wr., VI., Sieg., McN., Ha.,
These scholars differ, however, as to whether
RV., BDB., Ges.**"
it is or is not an Aramaism, and some, as McN., who so render it, derive
Gcs."" calls it an Aramaism, and it is
it from the stem n;"> "to feed."
Heil.,

true that

it

occurs in the Aram, portion of

Ezr. (5" 7").

It

occurs

ECCLESIASTES

86

form n>n

twice, however, in the

in

Ph. inscriptions where there

is

no

reason to suspect Aram, influence, one coming from the Piraeus and the
(c/. G. A. Cooke, No. Sent. Ins., 97; 150).
Probwhich occurs in Ps. 37^ Pr. i5'< Hos. 12*
15. nij^rj,

other from N. Africa

ably the root

Pu. part, from

The

is n;;n,

used only in Pi. and Pu., "to be perverse, crooked."

ni;?

and Lam.

figurative uses in Ps. 119^*

general meaning

(cf.

Gins.'s inference

from

pressed"

Job

12^

3'- '^

8'

are no objection to this

^^n

3412

19*

8^

Ps. 146').

passage that the word means "de-

this latter

unfounded.

is

7"

ch.

Bick. (10, 47) erases the second S>v], but such

repetitions are characteristic of

Q.

(cf.

6'

4*

as a passive by several of the versions (CS

8'2).

jpp'^]

J. C. ador-

B^ lemestabatu, (5 NjpnN^, V corriguntur, Ar. yuzayyana).

nari,

we should have

Del. to observe that

trans.

Or. says JpnS must be a passive=

li'riS;

Dr. would

the intrans.

emend

to Ni.

Ji!!"^\iS-

is

This leads

instead of the

li^p"?

\\]T\r\\

passive sense

rendered

is

iiriKoa-firjdTJvai,

McN. and

Sieg.,

necessary to corre-

The

root occurs in BH. only in Qoh. {cf. i'* 7'*

Aram. {cf. Dn. 4'' and Targ. to Jer. 7' 18" and
frequently elsewhere and in Tal. (see references in Ja.), and must be
jn^n] is, as Wr. observes,
regarded as an Aramaism. Cf. As. takana.

spond with mjDH^.

It is

I2).

found

in

a.X. in

BH.
(c/.

jnon

Pr. 6").

"deficit" in

money

often

is

mana.
n^jon

matters, see J5DB.

who

Ew.,

and

in

Ja.,

Mish. and Tal. for

cd

BH.

loc.

Cf

from
manu, Ar.

iiJS'l'?]

As.

followed by No., Wild, and Dr., suggested that

is

corrupted from

is

word usually em-

root, is the

employed

"to count," "number," occurs often in

njc.

from the same

niono

"destitution."

ployed

occurs, however, in Dt. 28<- ", in the sense of " want,"

"^tin

^"^^0^^

from N^cn, " to be

up," or " supplied."

filled

as Gins, and Wr. have perceived, is not emphatic,

but pleonastic, see ch. 2' " >^ '* '^.".n ^jso K6. i8,andDa. 107, rem. i.
''jx ^ri-\ai],

16.

'iH,

aS oy ^m3"'] = " commune with myself."

is

employed as

3S3, ch.

Probably op

I".

is

2'-

" Ps.

employed

^nDDini\nS-!jn].

a dittograph from the preceding

when

in reality

have seen {cf

(cf Da. ^8s,
(3o8d) note,
49** Ps.

although

16*
-ii:;n

89'

also

taken distributively

plural

is

0^rn>

Gins.,

and

S;-].

It is

in

note,

is

S.

2\ that the

McN.

greatly multiplied"

"more than"

iroXXoi>j,

nai.

perfects are coor-

prep., as Sieg., VI.

Gal. i").

and Ko.
Gn. 48"

(cf

n\-i] is

sing.,

perhaps as Gins, suggests because the

Cf

Da. 116,

n3";:',as

Kn.,Heil.,

the writer's thought.

i4oMSS.reada'^U'no

Wr. and Wild,

2b, rem. g).

the

vv^p

refers to pi. subject,

rem.

i.

Vy],

equivalent to a comparative
137*

\7S-]J

The two

^}:,

cf. aps;? r]^n'>

one modifies the other, as Gins., Wr. and

157). "^3

Dr.

-"un.

The combination means "I

2', 8).

is

Gn. 24", or aS

Gr. thinks, from the form

5*.

dinated

*?.

to personify the heart,

Dt.
is

Generally another preposition

14* 15*; or aV

a Hiph.

inf.

(c/.

Dr.).

used adverbially (cf H. 28,

' "
(cf. 2^ $* "

a favorite word with our author

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS

[Ch. 1>-2"

87

" 9" I2).

HDon HNnJ, as Sieg. observes, is a phrase peculiar to
PI. observes that noj.-i and npi
cf. 2" 9" and nin> -(Jt hn-i, Je. 2".

7"

Qoh.,

correspond respectively to ethical and speculative knowledge.

from

the text

omitted in a number of

It is

(6.

seems a slender basis on which

may have been

accidental.

to discard

'^^^ps

is

MSS.

41", expresses the writer's purpose

omit

n^SDJPi

nym on

niSSn

McN.

but that

(ft,

he admits,

one of the three instances of

The

(cf.

Ko. 20ob).

metrical grounds.

waw

others are

Gn.

Del. notes that the ending n., as in

Dr. 133).

(cf.

of

Its omission, as

it.

consecutive with imper., which occur in this book.

ch. 4*-

17.

nj-Ni to be a corruption introduced into

(pp. 57, 156) suspects ny-iS

32*

Zap. and Ha.

Gins, omits

r\^'?2V^

niSSn.

believing that they crept in through a transcriber's carelessness, because

r>ni n::3n are

in the next vs. only

niStrn,

Gr. emends PIS'?:!

and Targ. so render it.

mentioned.

"proverbs," on the ground that

to
(It

<8 and IC also so translate.)

He then takes niS3t:*=
comparing Pr. i" Ps. 78* and BS. 3*' 39*. The omissions of Zap., Ha. and Gins, are not justified by the reasons urged, while
All the versions, as Eur. has pointed
Gr.'s emendation is unnecessary.
out, go back to MT.
Most recent interpreters have rightly taken ni^jir
to be a variant spelling of niS:!D=" folly," which occurs in 2' '* " 7'

might be added that

"intelligence,"

'

io-

(so Dat., Kn., Del., Wr., Wild., VI.,

variant which

McN. BDB. Ges.Bu)

parallelled by nnr:i:*o for the usual

is

nncDo

in ch.12".

This spelling antedated the versions and was misunderstood by them,

though many MSS. actually have nSoD (cf. Ken.). r^y^y]. Del. and VI.
regard

as an

p;'t

note,

it

inf. for Ppi':'.

inf.,

"Wisdom and knowledge"

Probably to be read

from VSn, Ar.

in

BH.

10",

is

/ta//a,

to

io',

2'* 7" 9' io") = " folly."

Probably as
and 7" (6 renders it in the sing., shows the
p\ an abstract, and not n\ a plural of intensity (VI.). Ty.
contend that it is a GTdccism= fiavia, but such an assumption

fact that in

and Sieg.
seems unwarranted.

QW2

"madness and folly." .I'^VSn].

also BDB. and Ko. 262d), is
"shout," "rage" (so Del. and BDB.), is peculiar
balance

niS'?n (cf. ch.

Q.'s vocabulary (cf

to

and the

ending

S being omitted because expressed with

and so the Massorets took it, but as Gins, and McN.

should with <8 and 21 be taken as a noun and pointed Dyy_-

the preceding

2'*

03^

wn

not

is

necessarily a late expression.

in J.,

Gn.

6.

In Mishna

it is

frequently abbreviated to

Da. 106, rem. 2).

the same meaning.
(6,

IC, iJ",

discussion

V^'^"^] is

Kin

is

in

(cf.

Dr.

a variant formation to

nijrn

in;

Cf.

Q. as a copula.
201

(3),

and

(cf v. 14), with

among

scholars, but probably all of the three latter versions

upon

(6,

and

its

reading as Eur. suggests was a lapsus

d;?3=" vexation," a word

onward.

used frequently

18. 0-;d].
Cf. l^ri and nici from the stem noi.
A, read n>n = 7>'u;(rts, instead. This fact has caused some

are dependent
calami.

nt],

It also

in

Heb. found from the D.

occurs frequently in the

Mishna

(cf.

Ja.).

literature
It

occurs

ECCLESIASTES

88
several times in Q.
tryo (see

take

it

5 6

Job

2"

(c/.

In the book of Job

7' ii*").

10"

17^. n'D>^] Hit., Wr., No.,

Some regard it as a pure Kal.,

as a part.

The

^jx \-i-(Cs].

2'.

claims that

is

it

"js

is

is

it

is

spelled

and K6. 3440

misspelled for

Del., however, regards

others as a Hiph., "returning to a Kal."

a regular imperf. The latter

similar to Prov. 12" 18".

VI.

the preferable view.

pleonastic, as

was the

The

*\p\
it

sentence

as
is

Heng.

':n of ii.

emphatic, but most scholars take the opposite view

'3^2] is a variant of the expression

and Da. 107, rem. i).
For parallel usage see the citations made there. The rest

(c/".

Gins., Zo.,

o"?

a;*,

i'.

shows that Q. was not saying in his heart, but talking to his
nrojs] has oc(See BDB.)
it an exhortation.
casioned much discussion. The Targ. and Mid., which Bick. follows,
evidently read "i^TJ^; =*T will test it;" V made it a Ni. of "iD), "to pour
of the vs.

heart, for he addresses to

AE. took

out."

it

plied as

an object.

from

= "to

nD:

and supposed that "wine" was to be supinterpreters follow (S and take it

regarding the ^^^ as a strengthened form of n,

from

test,"

'D:

Most modern

Wr. observes that the verb is used with 3 of instrumentality (cf. ch. 7"
Wr. also observes with justice that the longer nj is used (i)
I K. 10').
to make the suffix more distinct in words ending in 1 as n--;s (2 S. 2");
(2) to

lengthen in writing shorter words, as ^3x2 (Gn. lo'^); and (3)

marks
Hebrews used words which describe the action
ns-^ means in such uses " to
of the primary senses in a figurative way.
experience," and is applied to the whole gamut of experiences from
For some of these see ch. 2"
life (3'\-i, ch. 99) to death (iir, Ps. Sg*").
313 517 gi. p9 Ps. 1610 858 89^9 Job 9 Is. 44> La. 3'.
'Ueip and its
synonyms are similarly used in the NT. (cf. Lk. 2" Jn. 3 8*'). FreAn
quently, as here, 3 follows ns-\ {cf. Gn. 2i' 44" Je. 29" Job 3').
less

frequently in longer words, as here, where the usage perhaps

later date.

3 ns-\] the

examination of these passages

will

confirm the justice of the observa-

Kn. and Wr, that those who hold that '3 nsn denotes enjoyment, are
quite mistaken. It is used for any experience, pleasurable or otherwise.
2. ^'^1^"] is a Poal part. = " mad," cf. Ps. 1029.
The Hithpoal means
tion of

"to act

The

like

madman,"

cf.

S.

2V* Je. 25" 46* 50" 51" Na. 2.

"if is a fem.,a shorter
way

versions, except C, render incorrectly.

No. and Ko. 44, 45/3. It is

also found in 5'* j-^ 9".
As Del. noted, the use of nt in Q. resembles
that of the Mishna (cf. also Introduction, 10).
This form occurs,
however, in earlier Heb., cf. 2 K. 6' 9, and Ez. 40^*. The form of the
of writing rtiv, so Heil., Zo., Del., Wr.,

question

is

ing with

ir,

"ID

identical with that in

which represents

should be supplied after

Gn.

nnr:t:*.
it,

but

3".

nr;]

Hit.
it

is

fem. part. Kal agree-

supposed that some word

seems

to be used as in

Dn.

like
8**

meaning of "accomplish a purpose." Kn. compared it with

3. iro].
In
Ju. 13'* and Ez. 28*, where definite objects follow it.
in the

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS
mean

favor of taking this to

^V

D'CD D^N

KapSia

13"?

f^DD

A/cjJo-ei,

fjLov

Heb. read

N1J1N

"refresh,"

The

"''?>3.

McN.

may, as

"Iiu'd o'i'a 'JN \n->.-ii,

the

[Ch. 1>^2"

Del. recalls

reading of

89

Khagiga, 14a:

(S, KaTTKe\pi.iJ.ii)v

el

17

has noted, indicate that the original

becoming corrupted

"'JN

reading may, however, be a corruption of 'A, S and e's iv

to on.

(S's

rrj KopSi^t, etc.

The unanimity of reading in MSS. of (ft is in favor of the former view.

pn] (ft and read p''3. Ha., for metrical reasons, regards it as a gloss.
noona jnj

^aSt]

ordinarily

means

8*,

is,

for the

McN.

but here, as

same reason,

akin to the Mishna

'^\^r'.

S. 3020 Is.

1 1

gloss.

Aboda Zara,

ni*?DD]

It

3*).

is much more nearly

means (BDB.) "behaving

(Ja.), or "act."

rns'i'i]

like

an

iir::':' is

Gn.

(cf.

31^*

S.

13"

in-

2 S. 24'

The root, spelled with a z, occurs in

Hammurabi (cf. Zikilta, Code XXIII, 39). In

means "be confused"

Is.

this sense

44"), not absolute folly.

code of

jij]

describes a course which seems reasonable,

but which turns out to be unwise

in the

Ps. 80^ La. 3' Ct.

has pointed out, the meaning

{cf.

"be practised in"

itself," to

direct object of

him as a

rejected by

" lead " or "drive," as in

late

Heb.

Q. determined to explore the courses of life which men counted foolish, to see whether there
n? >] here means "what" (Ko. 70
might not be some good there.
and 414m). It introduces an indirect question. ^sDt] is an ace. of time
(Ko. 33 la). It denotes what one can number and so comes to mean
"few" {cf. Gn. 3430 Dt. 4" Is. io> Ps. los'^ Job 1622). nrs y;
the Hith.

{cf.

Ja. 991').

MS.

one

is

in

rb

<T^iJ.(f>opop.

pointed nrs

Baer, niSjr, p. 61.

n;*, cf.

of both Stoicism

and Epicureanism, and

But

dence of Greek influence upon Q.

D"crn](ft,

B and iJ read r:;r.-i. 4.

the pronunciation.

o^r\:^]

see Introduction,

hattim, noihotttm.

Cf. Ges.'^- 16, 2/.

stem in, "to protect" {cf. Is. 31=).

in BH., Ct. 4", where we have the
It is

forms me,
dieza,

in the

it

Avesta {Vendidad,
of

pairi=Gr.

D-t-c]

sing.

Persian and occurs,

composed

In Pers.

3it3],

renders

finds in this expression evi-

pointed with Metheg, as Baer and Dr. point

Di")o^.

Ty. notes that "good" was the great object of the search

my
3,

irepl,

5.

it

It is

(2).

frequently

in this passage, to insure

p'] is

derived from the ";v,

occurs but twice outside Qoh.

D"t->2

and Nc.

2*,

where we have

colleague. Professor Collitz, in-

and 5, 49 (145), as pairiand dieza=Gr. toixos, "wall."

18 (58),

means, according to Bartholoma;

{Altiranisches

Worter-

"Umwallung," or "circumvallation," according to

Darmsteter, "enclosure." It came into Gr. as vapddcLffos and into Heb.
It also found its way into Semitic Babylonian {rf. Strassas Di-\^2'In
maier's Cyrus, No. 212, 3), into Aramaic, Arabic and Armenian.
the Mishna {Arakin, 3-), the pi. is niD"nD instead of D"'DT>a as here.

buch,

6.

col.

.'^o";i3]

865),

is

constr. of

^^'>'!}},

which

in

BH.

is

frequently used for "pool"

or " reservoir." It also occurs in the Siloam inscr.,

in

form from

the facts that

PO"i3, the constr. of

'^}'\}.

1.

5.

"blessing."

r)373

is

different

Graetz, recalling

Solomon and Herod were the two great builders among

ECCLESIASTES

90

Israel's kings, and that Herod built reservoirs, uses this allusion as an
argument for the Herodian date of the book. D^c] is omitted by Ha.
on account of the metrical exigency.
nD"^3 is, it is true, usually not fol-

lowed by

D-'C

BH., but Nah.

in

2 presents a parallel in favor of the presused after nijna for po. There is considerable

ent reading.

dhl]

is

inaccuracy in

BH.

as to the agreement in gender in such cases.

See also below^ on

Ges.*^- 145U.

C/. Ges.^- ii7y.

npvj.

1D33 for "buying"

when used without i^^

47" Ex.

39'

are slaves born of slaves already in

The

15=).

a-'xy]

Cf

ace. after the intrans.

is

and then came

8 Is. 43^*),

Gn.

(c/.

"to gain p>ossession of ," was used with

nop],

7.

Am.

{e.g.,

2.

mean "buy"

to

21' 2 S. 12', etc.).

the master's possession

usual expression for this

is n-'a

See Gn.

>'tS'

.""O 'J3]

Gn.

{cf.

'

i4>< 17''

" and Je. 2". nin no ^J3] is a phrase with a pi. sub. and a sing. pred.
Ty. thought the expression a collective, but Ges.^- (i45u) and Ko.
"

(349g) explain
Dr.).

n^ipc]

see

editions, point

is

Gn.

26'*

and

explain

(3330)

nam.
still

const.

as

and np3

absol.

p. 61.

Sod] Bick.

6,

<8,

^i\-i^]

and

and

|nx

^3-1-1] is in

read

is

and Zap. omit

and

i>.

Dr.,

it.

On
in

{cf.

the

their

The analogy

No., Wr., VI. and Ko.

this view.

Cf. Ges.^- i27h.

See Baer, Mg.,

dependent gen. has

has corrected to vn

Buxtorf

61.

Ch. 32" favors

njif^p

sing,

and Wild, so regards

as a constr.,
2

by

n;i^p

Baer, Mg., p.

nearer definition.

D^rno

One MS.

number.

its

was read as a

pointing n^pc,

of

where the

better as a case

it

attracted the verb to

T\''r\v

as appositives of

one source pointed

by 87 MSS.

further, arbitrarily reducing the original verse to 7a.

Cf. Dr.

Ha. goes

for metrical rea.sons.

The

reference

and predecessors was in his view a gloss which reached its present
form by the addition of two glosses. 8. \~DJ3]. Kn.'s contention that Dj3
means "collect" only in late Heb. will hardly stand. Even its meaning in Is. 28" may be explained as a derivative of this meaning, as also
to cattle

the derived

noun

in

Lv.

The

i6<.

root

guages. In Heb., Aram., Syr. and Eth.

while the meanings in Ar. ("to

etc.,

("submit") probably go back to

McN.

Ka\ 7e xP^'^'-o^-

'"'^.'O]

Mai,

3*^).

jnr OJ.
19*

is

"treasures"

found

means

it

lie

down

this primitive

in

a lair") and As.

meaning.

suggests that the original text

(8^^ reads

may have been

denotes a "treasure," or "precious treasure"

In the Targ.
Ja.).

{cf.

Ex.

means "herds." Hit.

means that which
"valuable," "precious." It is doubtful, how-

In As.

its

sugullati

pi.

worked upon, and so

whether Chain is an equivalent

ever,

of

peculiar in view of the fact that Do^r?

some word had

{cf.

denotes "investments," "heirlooms,"

it

compares the Ar. shaghl, "work," holding that

is

in all the Semitic lan-

to " collect," " assemble,"

fallen out of the text

i.

is

n'^>D

.-virion],

undefined.

adducing nr"*?

the article here

is

Gr. thought that

^jcira

(Dn.

11**)

as a suggestive parallel, but as Ty. long ago noted, ch. 7" affords an

example of the introduction of an

article in

a somewhat similar way, and

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS
makes
'"ij>-i::

although

word, from pi.

is

nunc

probable that

it

itself,

Its

is

Dn.

II'

i'

nunon

8^

primary meaning

K.

20'*, is

an Aram,

"place of judgment," but it

BD5. Est. i'- ' ^^ ^12. u Lg,. i'-

(c/.

is

Bick. (p. 10) rejects the words nVjDi

etc.).

ii^*,

91

gen. after nSjD in spite of the article.

occurs once as early as

it

used in the sense of "province"

Ne.

[Ch. 1'-2"

as a gloss, because the exigencies of his metrical theory de-

nuij;T] occurs Mi. Pr. and BS.

the sense
" pleasures," "luxuries."
With
the Talmudic usage corresponds,
nnri mr] the
SDB.,
sub
of a word followed by
mand

2*

in

it.

191

41' in

this

voce.

]a..,

sing,

or masc. followed by fem.

As

is

of
cf.

its pi.

used to denote

totality, cf. Ges.*^

i22v and

meaning of these words the greatest diversity of

C5 and 6 read olvox^ov Kal olvox^as, "male
and female cupbearers" (i.e., nnri n-^f cf. sub. voce) a reading supported by ii, & and K.
'A. read kv\Ikiov Kal KvXlKia, "a cup and cups."
Similarly 13 rendered "scyphos et urceos in ministerio ad vina funK6. 91.

to the

opinion has prevailed.

denda."

According to

tiones."

21

Jer.,

rendered 'O^cn

"mensarum

read

jonm niro

n-'C p-\v-\

species et apposi-

jncn

n>d

p^T-ir, i.e.,

"tubes (siphons?) which pour forth cold water and tubes which pour

The

forth hot water."

terpreters Dat. supports this view.

interpreted the words to

and AV.

in:

word

ancients accordingly understood the

refer to the pleasures of the table in

mean

"ict

>^_p,

some way.

Among modern

to
in-

According to Gins., Ibn Melcch

in

which he was followed by Luther

"musical instruments and that of

all sorts."

Dale,

among

Ew. and Zo. derive the root from

a word meaning "mass," "heap," and render "a heap and heaps."
Heng. and Re. connect it with Ar. root shadda, robur, vehementia, and
render "plenty of all sorts." Ra., whom Gr. follows, makes it refer to
sedan-chairs.
Most modern scholars take the words to refer to a harem
and as completing the meaning nijij;\n, v^^hich is thought to refer to
sexual pleasures (so Dod., Mic, Kn,, Hit., Heil., Vaih., Wang.,
Ty., Gins., No., VI., Wr., PI. Eur., Wild., Sieg., McN., Gen., Marsh,
and Ha.), though they differ as to the root from which it should be
recent interpreters,

derived.

still

holds to

Some connect

it

this.

with sadda, "to hide," supposing

appropriate reference to oriental

women.

from sanada, "to lean upon"; so they suppose

hence "concubine."
"'^r,

"demon," As.

"demon"
Ar.

silti).

Others

{e.g.,

Talmud

to be

it

to

Olshausen) derive

Babli, Giltin, 78a,

it

it

5a>'y/</a/,
is

an
it

mean "bed," and

from

sld (Hcb.

"bull-deity"), which in Ar. not only

^sidu,

(Spanish Cid), but also "lord," and

(In

it

Others, as Hit., derive

means

"lady" (modern

said that in Palestine

word was understood to mean chests, or sedan-chairs, but in Babylon, demons, both male and female.)
Ros. and Marsh, connect it with
ir, "the breast," and so reached the meaning "female," while Wr. and
the

others derive

it

with more probability from it^. As. "sadddu, "to love."

Dr. (Kittel's Bib. Heb.,

p.

ii37n) supposes the original reading to have

ECCLESIASTES

Q2

been nn^i nnr, "a princess and princesses," a

Though

also shares.

the etymology

meaning "mistress" or "concubine."

the

who,

Solomon, tasted

like

harem would surely not be omitted.

without

grounds,

metrical

In picturing the

pleasures to the

all

BDB.

view which

obscure, the connection

is

demands

mr

Zap. and Ha. omit nnE'i

reason.

suflEicient

one

of

life

the luxuries of the

full,

\iDDim

9.

>nSnji],

on
see

comment on i>6 and cf. Ko. 370! and 371b, d, and Ges.^^ i2od.
Sieg. emends the text to '<^y^ '>DDD^n^ ^n'jui, supposing that ^ncon
must have an
nSn;

object, but as Del.

understood from

wealth,

Gn.

cf.

Ko. 37 id.

"TiSij.

had observed

Sn.>]

object

its

an implied

is

who

used of one

is

increases

in

K. 10" and Job i'. On 1N]="also," cf.

has the meaning "remain," see Is. 47'' Je. 481*
26"

24'*

iDj;]

Most modern

Ps. 102".

exegetes so render

it

Herz, Ew., Elst.

here.

and Gins, follow an explanation of Ra.'s which takes the word in the
10. i'^nt] S happily renders
sense of "assist." This is not so probable.
one] occurs instead of
iiriOvfii^ffav.
Cf. for similar meaning Dt. 14^8.
jnr.
As Del. noted this has resulted from the transfer of the inaccuracies
of the common spoken language to literature, cf. Gn. 26'* 31' 32'
Job i'< Ges.*^ 1350 and Ko. 14. Cases of faulty agreement not
pjc] frequently
strictly parallel to this also occur in Zc. 4'*' and Ct. 4^.
takes the ace. of the thing and the gen. ( ]r) of the person, but that conncr] is rarely used
struction is reversed here as in Gn. 30^ and Nu. 24".

with p;

when

p denotes the source of

it is,

the joy,

Gr. believed that the original reading was

because of the

"my

mirth" for

because

omits

'

253.

254

Sso nca' o*?

supposed exigencies of

his metrical

"look upward."

to supply

niN"^*^

after verbs

is

corruption, introduced

11. njc]

In

Is.

8"

after njc here.

Qoh.

'^Jn],

.-iS^dS

''fyv

""iryD

cf.

Gn.

2'

nn

nij7">i

is

njo

usually
is

used

would lead us

the pleonastic use of this pron.

Cf. Da. 107, rem.

On

i.

and ^nSnpr hnv, cf. Ko. 329d. On the

Ha. omits
Jo. 220 and Ko. 4020.

n-i

Ha.

account of the

Hit. urges that the analogy of vs. 12

peculiar to

on 3".

P'jn], cf.

last ^Sdj?

3.

fwv=:

iv<povvT}%

on
arrangement.

and S^ before the

>d

being omitted

">

^nd *" reads

The fJiov is probably a

many times in the passage.

followed by Sn, but here and in Job 6" by

for

nDtt'% the

n::'j'.

occurs so

it

""Sny

(^^ '"

"'3^.

of

Pr. 5'* 2 Ch. 20".

cf.

the phrases
inf.

^\^iffyh,

Sd3

'"'''

and

for his metrical arrangement.

McN. thinks this was

and to which Gr. would emend the text.
Most of the Vrss. favor nr?, which makes better sense. "I^^^]. /3oi;XiJ
in (& and 2 is a rendering of the Aram. l^.D for -\^r:_. cf. Dn. 4"^*.
The
12.

Oisn

n^].

(g

has

t/j a'^pw7ro5=o-tN ^r;

the reading before Aqiba,

clause has been variously understood

and rendered.

Ty. and

PI. re-

gard the expression as proverbial, which Ty. thinks would account for
the elliptical omission of ir;'> after

msn.

tion to refer to the king's successor,

and

Hit.
Hit.

and Heng. take the quesemends inif to the inf.

;^

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS

[Ch. 1'-2"

93

"What

In substance the question on this view becomes

1n^uy.

the king's successor

That which he

do ?

(the king) already

can

doing."

is

and Ha. render: "What shall the man do who comes after
they long ago made?" believing on the basis of i Ch.
29" that Israelites could believe that Solomon had been made king by
the people.
This rendering seems harsh and unnatural. Sieg. transposes the two halves of the vs., so as to connect the question: "What
Del., Wr.,

whom

the king

man

can the
"^3r] is

from the
ties

do,"

text.

B and "B

read

&", &,

(&,

The

inr;?.

hn iSdh

inirj? -liTN

O and V, and

text

adopted

Hahn

is

pointed

I'i'>n."'p

and

Megilloth, p. 61,

p]on p

above rendering

13.

by Baer and Dr.

For the reasons, see Baer,

for analogies, Je.

25'* Ps. 45''

and

}nn^D as a gloss

I'bJ'nn

it

Pr. 30'^.

See

a view which we cannot share.

That
regards 14a
Kn., Gins, and Zo. take
Sieg.

14.

this

dj].

an adversative sense, but as Del., Wr., and VI. note,

versative,

there-

is,

Ha. omits oisn and

I'mn^?] of Walton's Pol. and of

in comparisons, see Ges.*^- i33b.

if

were ad-

it

The

should come at the beginning of the sentence.

adv. particle here

vanity.

dinh hd.

as a gloss has been treated under vs. 13.

in

is

Zap. and Ha., in view of their conceptions of the

also Ges.'^- 246.

metre, reject

in the

>-\nx no-'U' nrj?^

-^Sdh for metrical reasons.

"invj-;:

11 that all

vs.

should probably be dropped

and Biresh. Rab. are the only ancient authoriMT. Dr. notes that for initr^, 68 MSS., (ft^,

UJ

which support

fore,

with the statement of

etc.,

omitted by

is

nns]

is

real

used, as several times in Qoh., in the

rt^^y^o] from nnp, "to hapcf. 3'- " 6 9^- 12".

Gn. 44"), means "chance" or "accident," as in
I S. 20" Ru. 2, and then passes to the meaning of "fate," 5DB. (i S.
6 Qoh. 2"- " 3" 9* ').
Vv. 15-17 show that it refers to death or

sense of "the same,"

pen," "befall"

Sieg. considers

oblivion.
I

S. 6

{cf.

proves that

it

it

a Graecism, but, as

Hebrew

has good

whole," but used of two things,

6 714 9I.

it is

McN.

precedent.

notes,

its

use in

^'2^\ literally,

equivalent to "both,"

"the

ch. 3>3

cf.

*"

io9.

15. ^.^PD^].

Baer points

that the authority of the

this as

BDB.,

ern editors, including

an emphatic expression.

though

Massora for

this

is

in

st.

abs.,

Dr., point as constr.

The emphasis

is

claiming

quite clear.
n-\j^D.

(p.

61)

But most mod>in dj], this is

obtained by the anticipation

Gn. 24" Ez. ;i;i^'' 2 Ch. 28><', and for a kindred

K. 21"; also Ges.^ 1356 and Ko. 19. nn") in],
the phrase has occasioned much difficulty both in ancient and modern
Tx is omitted by (6^^* (and several cursives).
times.
B, "B and IC,
^^
followed by Gr., omit it as without meaning,
supports MT.,
(ft*'*'*
and most modern scholars adhere to MT., although Kn. changed it to "IN.

of the suffix in
use,

They

differ,

refer to the
it

-jk, cf.

Nu. 14" and

may

however,

moment

in their interpretations of

of death; then

wisdom

it.

Zo. and No. take

will avail nothing.

be either a temporal or a logical "then."

Wild, takes

it

to

Del. says
it

in the

ECCLESIASTES

94

logical sense, while Gins, regards

3731 takes

it

as introducing the apodosis.

temporally, citing as parallels Ju. 5^

it

Our

Ps. 40* 56'" Ct. 8".

ducing a conclusion.

passage seems to differ from these, and

and Wild., and take

cline to agree with Gins,

Ko.
K. 9" Mi. 3*

BDB.,

has also been variously treated.

in"'>"|

I in-

as a logical " then," intro-

it

an adverb as in 7'* i2.

This
is probably right, though Dale would correct to "i^?/ and Winckler (AOF.
IV, 351), who is followed by Sieg. and Dr., would correct to \inir tn,
comparing vs. 3. no'^]. Del. and Wr. point out that hdV in a question asks

and most recent

interpreters, take

as

it

after the object or design, while JJ-np asks for the reason of the object.

Ha., for metrical reasons, omits ^JM Di and

on

for the form, see

McN.

IN, but as

"with,"

lit.

3>],

BDB.

~i5'3]is

unnecessary.
is

as glosses.

p^Jt]

16.

better sense

is

used in comparisons;

Compare

Wr., Gins., No., VI.

Heil., Gr., Del.,

pression.

it is

0S3

Winckler {AOF., IV, 351) corrects

TnJ.

has said,

as the text stands.

Ps. 885, also

i".

ch. 7"

to

obtained
so.

Job 9"

Hit.,
^-j^*

and Ko. 3751. "123^^3 is a compound exequivalent to nu'Na, "inasmuch" or "because," BDB.,
768a,

" and Ko. 3896.

compounded as in post-Bib.
means "already," see on i'".
As McN. remarks, Q. puts himself at the point of view of future days and
D''N3n D"'D>n] is ace. of time, cf. Ges.^- ii8i, and Je.
looks backward.
28'.
^3n] refers here to persons, as in Ps. 14'.
For the meaning
Gn.

cf.

Heb.

39'-

above Introd. io).

(cf.

"both," see on
Gins, takes
express

2'*.

etc.

nrc'j]

may

future perfect,

the

1,

as a part., but

it

interrogative as in
1

is

"^3:?]

La.

B'i

17.

cf.

S. 16*, is

Sjj

in

form be

either the perf. or a part.

better to regard

as a perf. used to
though sometimes
here exclamatory as in Is. 14^ Ez. 26"

it

is

Da. 41 (c).

pn], as Delitzsch

it

I^n],

pointed out,

is

late expression

and the similar expression in Ps. i6. It is

an idiom found in the Mishna, see Pirke Ahoth, 2^- '* and 4'2. Hit.
endeavors to explain the prep, in Sy pn as "unto," and Gins, as "upon,"
denoting the resting of a burden upon one. Hit. cites Job lo' and Ps.
425- in support of his view, and Gins., Is. i" Job 7"' Qoh. 6' 8* in
parallel to Sy aiw of Es. 3'

support of
it

as in
to

Possibly

his.

it

originated in the view Gins, advocates, but

has become simply a late usage.

i,

nn

it is

or to

n;n),

human

nc'i's]

activities as in i".

on the ground that the verse

unfitting to say that

ever, since Q.'s

it is

complaint

is

may

nn

wind.

18.

cosmic activity

emend

Gr. would

refers to the world-order,

desiring wind.

This

is

dooms

the wise

man

toward wisdom a den^^N] Kn. derived from nj\ but most recent inter-

it is from Tv\i.
Cf. t\''D^ from n-.o,
Ko. 410 b. 19. Donn], the -n is the interrogative parIt is used with
in double questions.
The more common par~fi.
-n. but the combination '^n
for such questions are on

preters have correctly observed that

Je. 38".
ticle.

ticles

and

unnecessary, how-

that the cosmic order, which

to oblivion like the fool, renders the efforts of

sire of

refer to
PiV"^)].

"inN], cf.

"*<

QOHELETH'S EXPERIMENTS

[Ch. l'^2"

95

which we have here, occurs several times, once in the J. document.

Ma. i* Job 16' 38" and Qoh. ii. For the more
usual form see Gn. 24*' 27*', etc. CJ. Ges.'^ i5og and Ko. 379b.

Cy. Ju. i8' 2 K. 6"

''DD

The

].

in the

root, spelled with

form Zakalu

occurs in

BH.

in the

a 2, occurs, as noted above, in this sense

code of Hammurabi, col. XXIII, 40.
d^v]

only in late compositions, Ne. Es. Ps. up'" and Qoh.

(Jbanv j-gad ei i^ov-

frequent in the Aram, portions of Daniel.

It is

(ridferat, which represents O^rn in Heb.

Perhaps as McN. thinks this
was a reading before the time of Aqiba. It is an unnatural reading,
and may have arisen through some mistake. ^3D in]. Ha. regards this as
a gloss, and both he and Zap. reject *?3n nr OJ as a stereotyped insertion.
These supposed glosses are in the interest of their metrical arrangement.
>PDDnK'i *nSnj,'r] is, as Zo. and Del. have noted, a hendiadys for "upon
which I toiled wisely." 20. \ii3D ]. Some scholars maintain that there
b a distinction between 33D and njo that the former means "turn to

do," the latter "turn to see."

Del. has pointed out, however, that in

Lv. 26* njD means "turn to do," while in Qoh.

Tn;],

see."

and the reading

The

333 signifies "turn to

accepted by Ges.^

is

Dr. so points

The form

646.

is

a Piel

2"

Job

i8>

has the Hithpael of the

tiSxBufiov

symmetry

= "Srjra.

in 4*

and always

OT. (i S.
The Mishna

vouching for

'^cpn Sa

its

use in the Piel, see

A number of MSS.

V>'].

of his metrical arrangement.

and

in the Niphal.

of (& read iv

VTZvn nnp]. Ha. rejects this as a gloss, which spoils the

rhetorical expression,

also in

6"),

root, thus

Ahoth, i\ and Kelim, 26*.

cf.

Ko. 34.

Its root \C'3

5'".

NH. Aram, and

Syr.

21.

din

din]

a balanced

is

inc'p] occurs only in

Qoh., here,

occurs in Es. 8* Qoh. ioo and

(SDB. 506b and

means "to go well," "prosper;" and

by No, as the second object of

Ja. 677b).

the noun, "success."

Ps.

^nj. cf.

ipSn]

predicate ace.

conform

"ip'^n

and

22. ninj, the part, of nvi, occurs elsewhere in

n'H,

it

"be," which

and

shall

r^^n,

it

has here.

Is.i 6*

Ges.^"

"to be," as different

roots,

6. The root. Job 37',

and Qoh. iithe sense

Ne.

Ne.

6*

(13th ed.) regards nin, "to

but

BDB.

is

probably right

connecting them, that "which occurs" or "falls out," being that which
In Aramaic nn and ^""^ occur
Dalman, Aram. Gram. 73, and
inscr. of

Panammu

Cooke, North Sem.

Hit.,

in

it

as a

to his metrical conception,

has the meaning "fall;" in Gn. 27"

fall,"

taken

is

Ha. excises so that the verse

."ijn ny-^

ii*,

root

(i3im) takes

Ges.^^

2,

The

as an appositive to the preceding suffix, Ko. (3400) regards

of

it,

inf.

root occurs outside of this passage but five times in the

27' Is. 571' Je.

and

72*

according to Baer, should be pointed vh\

of Zendjirli,

in

by side

which

Gn.

to regard

it

as an

in

the sense of

nvi

is

found

from the 8th

is

Inscr., pp. 172, 176),

No. and others

an old poem

side

Ja., p. 338).

Its

in
is

"be" (see
Aram,

in the

cent.

{cf.

G. A.

occurrence in Aram, led

Aramaism, but its occurrence

Heb. as in Aram, it was at

27 indicates that in

ECCLESIASTES

96

of nviThis usage occurs in NH. alsc cf.

and for the idiom Ja. sub voce. See also Ko. 326h.
For Q-\n^] (6 has iv ry avdpwiri^. Probably there was a pre-Aqiban readjvj?n] is not nv">. but probably comes from the same root.
ing D"iN3.
BDB. renders it "longing," "striving." In the Tal. it means "desire,"

every period a

Aboth,

I*

and

synonym

2^,

"ambition," "greed"
{cf.

Ges."^-

and

^2

ch. 3'8.

Ja. sub voce).

{cf.

and

36),

read xins* by Ki

and

VI.

Cf. 0^7,

sinr] Ha.'s metrical arrangement leads hira

'^rD'-'n

to reject as glosses.

NinuO was

so read by Baer, Del., No.

is

23.

vd"> '^3\ is

regarded by AE., Hit., Gr., Gins,

and McN. as ace. of time, oonod being taken like d;'3 as a pred. of pj;'.
This is a possible construction. Del., VVr., Sieg., Ha. and Ko. {cf.
3o6r) take it as the subj. of a nominal sentence, of which DON3C is the
Doso']. Gins, remarks that this is a plural used to express
predicate.
D;;;pj], see the comment on i'^ ^nd for ]"!';, on i".
an abstract idea.
Del.
and Wr. note that the pointing of waw with kamec before D;'o is done because d;7d is a segholate, having its accent on the first syllable, thus bringFor similar cases see
ing the vowel of into an open syl. before the tone.
Lv. i8 Is. 651^ and Pr. 25'. The sentence which begins here is nom-

inal

and

pred.

its

literally "lie

for

is

down,"

emphasis placed

first.

used for "sleep" (Gn.

is

Cf.

Ko. 338c.
and i

zS^' Ju. i6

The

^ac],

S. 3").

oj].
rendering "rest" is a little free, but gives the sense.
read
a "1 before the last CJ. but this is unsupported by the other versions.
^3n nr dj] Zap. erases as a stereotyped gloss, which disturbs the

metre, but Ha. finds

Q.

It

Jew

as Q.

is

it

necessary to the metre here.

no good reason, denies the

24. Sieg., with

Sieg.

right in

is

denote ethical good (as in

2>-

as in

with

thoroughly consistent

312.

22

13.

48.

63.

9.

the reading of

is

in 6'* and 8'^

S^N""-.:*],

3VJ

and

n^ita

rarely

but "convenience," "satisfaction,"

12

ys.

they seldom have ethical meaning in

D^s^, for that

last clause of the vs. to

point of view of such a

saying that in Q.

7*0 i2i<),

517

the

26

OT.

&

(&^^^',

before this word a

^n.

BT>B. show that

u?.

15

31N3]

a corruption from

is

and U, and the construction

has fallen out.

Gins., Gr., Del.,

Wr., Eur., Wild., McN., Kit. and Ko. (3i9h) have taken this view.
SjN^'j'O is
8.

supported by

."iN^ni

nsi>s>i nnc'-'yi,

suggests the relative

its

34b and Ko. 45.

Nn

':>

proximity to another

the tense conform.

^14.

18

in

yii

<&y,

&, C,

(S, JU,

and by the analogy

of 3'*

" and

Instead the pre-Aqiban reading seems to have been

for so read (6^^ 161-248. 2n. in and B.
Perhaps as McN.

nntt'ij.

gi3.

rir],

was dropped by mistake from nn^'^sn because of

after which rtn-sn was changed so as to make
'i',

fern.;

an apocopation of

The form

occurs also in

o^hSn.-i ^'c], i.e.,

some MSS.

God's

Cf. Baer, p. 62.

glosses for his metrical arrangement.

he, like Sieg., regards as a gloss,

."isr.

K.

6'*

n^i

gift (Del.),

otn3

and

Cf

BZ>B., Ges."^

Ez. 40" Qoh.

i^c;'2]

is

Ha. rejects as

The whole of vs. 24b

although he dnds

it

2- **

replaced by

(^<^"l

in metrical

dj)

form.-

MAN'S HELPLESSNESS
26. Sieg.

reject the vs. as a gloss along with vs. 24b.

The authorities last cited prove

pity," etc., like Syr. hus.

and

of (8

more
Aram,

i'irn.

"enjoy."

As. asasu, " to feel pain."

5DB. and

interpreters since Del.

the Ar. hassa, "to feel, have

ceive," "understand,"

Wr., No.,

Modern

reading of 'A and S,

with

it

that the reading

not primitive, for no one would change in that case to the

is

difficult

connect

97

That this is unshown under vs. 24. - in>]. For this (ft, 6 and & read
'A, S and i^" read inn-, or Din% "to suffer," "feel
24.

and Ha.

necessary has been

nnc'>, as in vs.

[Ch. 3'-

^i^n]

sensation, perceive,"

Thus we have

the Syr. has, " per-

and Eth. hawas, "understanding."

Ges.^"- take

it

Thus

Del.,

correctly for "perceive," "feel,"

does not occur elsewhere in BH., but occurs

in

Tal-

mud, e.g., Berakot, 33b, and Niddah, i6b. It is the equivalent of the
Aram, p 13, cf. e.g., Targ. to Isa. 43" 45', etc. >jdc], instead (6,
read udd. Of modern scholars, Gr., Zo., Dale, Del., Wr.,
H, IC and
Bick., Eur., Sieg., Wild., McN., Ha. and Dr. have followed this reading.

In

this they are

26.

I."ij].

undoubtedly

^JDC gives

right.

Ty.'s notion that the perf.

character of God's decrees,

is

is

no intelligible meaning.

used to indicate the unalterable

The

foreign to Heb. thought.

the perf. of actions, which experience proves to be customary,

40

(c),

io6k.

Ges.J^

part, of verbs, "n"'?

^^pii] is in

{cf. S^'

"n", h^c/.Ges.^ 7500.

his metre, while

9'

^3n

On

*8).

nr dj]

Ha. regards the

Q., except in

vs.

7*,

perf. is
cf.

Da.

pointed like the

the kinship of verbs "n"S

and

Zap. erases as a gloss, which destroys

metrically perfect as

it

stands.

MAN'S HELPLESSNESS IN COMPARISON WITH

GOD

(3-).

of this section is that man's activities are limited to

times and seasons, in which he goes his little round doing
what has been done before him his nature cries out for complete
knowledge of the works of God, but tne best he can do is ignorantly
to rejoice and get good within these limitations.

The burden

certain

>.

Everything has a fixed season, and there

is

a time for every busi-

ness under the sun.

'.

time to be born;

And

And
8.

a time to uproot what

time to

And

a time to die;

time to plant,

kill

a time to heal;

time to break

And

down

a time to build.

is

planted.

ECCLESIASTES

98
.

time to weep

And

a time

time to

And
.

a time

a time

A
A

stones;

a time

a time to sew;

time to keep silence.

a time

to speak.

time to love

And

a time to throw away.

time to rend

And

to lose,

time to keep

And

a time

to hate;

time of war

And
.

up

a time to refrain from embracing.

And

toil

to pick

time to seek

And

8.

dance.

time to embrace,

And

'.

to

time to scatter stones,

And

to laugh;

mourn

a time of peace.

What profit has a worker in that in which he toils?

which God has given the sons of men to toil in. ".

everything appropriate in

its

i^ I

know

saw the

made

has

time; also he has put ignorance in man's

heart, so that he cannot find out the

ginning to end.

'.

He

that there

work
is

God

that

no good

for

does from be-

them except

to

and to do good in their life. >^ And also every man that he
should eat and drink and see good in all his toil, is the gift of God. ^*. 1
know that all which God does it shall be forever; unto it, it is not possible
to add, and from it, it is not possible to take away, and God has done it
'^ What is that which is ?
Already it
that men may fear before him.
has been, and what is to be already is, for God shall seek that which is
rejoice

driven away.

1.

Everything has a fixed season].

to the thought of ch.

i,

In this ch. Qoheleth reverts

but treats the application of the thought to

human

activities in

there

a proper or divinely ordered time for

is

a somewhat different way.

His point

all

and that these go on over and over again.

human

Ha.

is

that

activities,

interprets the

word "time" here as a "short space of time," and so obtains the

meaning
ever,

for verses 1-9, that all is transient.

an unwarranted meaning to the passage.

bic proverb:

XV,

92).

"Everything has

Verse

is

its

This

gives,

Compare

proper time" (Jewett,

probably alluded to in the

last

how-

the Ara-

in

JAOS.

clause of

MAN'S HELPLESSNESS
Wisdom,

8.

2.

time

[Ch.3i-'^

Ty. and

to be born].

99

Sieg. hold that this

when various actions are

appropriate, betrays Stoic influence, since Marcus Aurelius (IV,
They believe this table
32) makes a somewhat similar contrast.
and

table (vv. 1-8), of times

seasons,

shows a knowledge of the Stoic principle

The

nature.

on

reflecting
these,

proof

life,

of living in accord with

however, not convincing.

is,

Hebrew, by

might have given expression to sentiments

though untouched by Stoic teaching.

Ha. transposes many of the clauses of

this table so as to secure

a more symmetrical grouping of events.

have been suggested

{e.g.,

like

Cf. Introduction, 6 (2).

Other transpositions

and

the transposition of 2b

3a,

and

placing 5a before 4a), so as to secure a logical sequence of thought,

the order thus obtained being:

i,

treatment of landed property;

emotions of joy and sorrow;

3,

preservation

2,

erty in general; 4, emotions of friendship

p.

Such

61.)

arrangements

artificial

Many

well says, foreign to the book.

meaning

as to the
these

are,

{Cf.

McN.,

however, as

McN.

made
The former of

suggestions have been

"be born" and "to

of

loss of prop-

die."

here to be taken in an intransitive sense (see

is

Ty. thought

it

life

has

its

fixed period before

it is

is

made

its

when

fixed

parallel to the fact

terminated by death.

believes that Qoheleth observed that there are periods in

history

note).

crit.

referred to the fact that pregnancy has

period before birth, and that this fact

that

and
and enmity.

the race exhibits great fecundity, as

Ha.

human

did after the

it

Black Death (1348-1351), and that there are other periods, like
that of the Black Death, when dying prevails.
It is doubtful
whether Qoheleth 's thought
imply.
life

there

is

more probable

It is

as abstruse as either of these would

that he simply

agriculturist has a time of planting

life is full

period

times

new

we have done.
life

and a time

of uprooting,

3.

time

to kill

and a time

at

to heal].

are illustrated by further examples.

i.e.,^

another

The

There are

when man destroys life, and times when he tries to save it;
when he breaks down old walls, and times when he builds

ones.

of the

that in every

At one period we undo what

of contrasts.

antitheses of

times

meant

a time to be born and a time to die, and that every

is

4.

time

to

weep and a time

mourning referred

to, cf.

Zc. 12',

to

laugh].

and

In illustration

in illustration of the

ECCLESIASTES

lOO
meaning
1 1 16.

17

"times of mourning and of rejoicing,"

of

Lk.

and Jn.

6^'

interpretation of the

i6-.

first

5.

clause

stones for a

new

Wr., No.,

structure.
VI., Wild.,

up stones

The

'

The

and AE. took

01

it

an old building, and collecting

Several modern scholars (Kn., Hit.,

and McN.) take it to refer to scatter-

ing stones to render fields unproductive

ing

Mt. 9"

cj.

scatter stones\.

to

difficuh.

is

to refer to scattering the stones of

Heil.,

lime

a hint from a suggestion of Del.,

K.

{cj. 2

to render a field cultivable

pick-

PL, taking

incHned to regard

is

and

3'- 25),

{cf. Is. 52).

it

as a refer-

among

Christians, of

throwing stones or earth into the grave at a burial.

Although he

ence to the Jewish custom, which survives

confesses that this leaves the "gathering" of stones unexplained,

it

would

human

refer to the severance of

which

pretation,

case there

is

the verse.

refers to fields,

no

"embracing"
though

in that

to

refrain from embracing].

Gr. and Wr. take the last clause to refer to the embraces of
in cordial friendly greeting.

Gn.

K.

29'3 ^7,* 2

4'.

It is

word

true that the

Ty., No. and Sieg. take

embraces, comparing Prov.

and

5^0,

Ct. 2%

it

is

to refer to erotic

where the word un-

On

"to refrain from embracing"

that mentioned in Lv.

This

latter

to lose,

view

a time

to

is

to be preferred.

keep and a time

of the verse are not exactly

to

this interpretation the

6.

time

seek

to

The

first

acquisition of property as contrasted with losing

guarding what one has in contrast with throwing

7.

to rend].

to rending
2 S.
is

I"

3^'

Most

i^"

2'2)j

past, also to keeping

Ps. 392126*).

),

and

to

silence

in

sorrow

in

it

2
(cf.

it

away.

Gn. 37"

44>

iS^*

Job 2"

Is. 58'

Ps. 26'

K.

a reference to rending a

division, as in the case of

which case the sewing would be

restoration of unity.

the second,

after the sadness

(cf.

utterance as a sign of joy

PL, however, prefers to see in

K. II"),

{cf.

and sewing them up

garment as a sign of schism or

(i

and a time

interpreters see in this verse a reference

garments as a sign of mourning

Job

2*.

refers to the

it;

to

time

time

15^3

The two clauses

throw away].

synonymous.

men

so used in

doubtedly has that significance.

is

in

inter-

between the two halves of

emhrace and a time

to

as

to be preferred,

is

logical connection

time

ties,

Probably the second

the last clause refers to the opposite.

He compares the words of

Ahijah

figurative for the

Jesus (Mt. 10"

^)

MAN'S HELPLESSNESS
show

to

Is. 58'^

show

that there arc times

While Qoheleth's principle might be

such cases as
versal

supposes,

PI.

customs

pare BS. 2o

'

lOI

when schism is necessary, and

when the opposite is in place.

that there are occasions

to

[Ch. 3'-"

of

mourning

in the

Heb.

8.

time

he had the uniand speech com-

likely that

On

mind.

in

figuratively extended to cover

more

far

it is

silence

Qoheleth declares

to love].

here that love and hate as well as their expression in war and peace

Wr.

have their appointed times.

the

words

of

Marcus Aurelius

"both

recalls with reference to vv.

(xii,

rov Be Kaipov^

23),

the opportunity

Sl8(0(tlv

t)

gives."

As was noted above, Ty. and

(f)vaL^

them

finds in

fundamental thought

nature

the limit

fi'tr

prot.

traces of the influence of

the Trdpra pel^ or universal flux, of Heraclitus.

serves, the

2-8

tov opov

Sieg. regard these verses

Pfleiderer {Jahrhuch

as the result of Stoic influence.

Theol., 1887, 178-182)

and

/cal

As Wild,

well ob-

of these verses in its connec-

tion differs

from every known philosophy.

It

when man

thinks himself most free that he

is

is,

Cox

as

says,

subject to divine

law.
9.

What

After his extended survey, Qoheleth returns

profit, etc.].

to the crying question of ch.

ative assertion.

time for

all

His position

The

i'.

is

positive question

is

a neg-

that there has been ordained a

these activities, but that no substantial advantage ac-

crues from them to man, though he must go through them.

10.

saw the toil]. Qoheleth reverts here to the very word which he
had used in i"''. The verse gives the reason for the denial made
in vs. 9.

11.

For a

Everything appropriate].

justification of the

rendering "appropriate" and "ignorance," see critical notes below.

The

seasons.

God

verse continues Qoh.'s observations about times

Everything, he declares,

suitable to

its

and

season, but

has so veiled man's vision that he cannot discover God's work

from beginning to end,

i.e., its

ignorance in man^s heart

ception of God.

He

It is

and the

story of

The

clause of this verse

first
3,

12.

purpose and meaning.

gives

thinks of

should become his equal.

3;9'

is

He

has put

us a glimpse of Qoheleth's con-

him as a being

jealous lest

man

Gn.

3"'^,

a Semitic thought.

Cf.

Adapa, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, VI, 92 ff.

is recalled in the Heb. text of Sirach,

There

is

no good for them].

This verse

reiterates the

ECCLESIASTES

I02

drawn

pessimistic conclusion previously

back

to

and

their appropriate times

in

Qoheleth comes

in 2".

here after passing in review the activities of

it

their

Do

futility.

human

life

Ew.,

good],

Heng., Zo., PL, and Wr. maintain that this means to do good in

an

Wherever the phrase occurs

ethical sense.

it is

defined by the context to

right in claiming that

next verse.

13.

And

also].

"and also"

is

dependent upon

as an adversative, as Wr. and

same as
what

dividual
God].

''all

man

**I

know."

It is

it

1 1

here from a some-

and

Cf. ch. 5'8

Ps. 116".

'-1 2.

14.

introduced like

gift to

All which

God does

This conviction

world-order and cannot escape from

can be seen that the world-order

shows, however, this

He

some

is

is

the bit of

of vigor.

See

This

by / know, contains a second conviction

vs. 12

caught

longs for

man

shall be forever].

based on vv. 2-3.

ordained to produce in

in-

Is the gift 0/

which comes with the years

life

of Qoheleth,
in the

the

is

Every man] or '^each man^'

In Qoheleth's view, God's one good

below, ch.

not to be rendered

The thought

VI. maintain.

humanity," though the phrase takes each

singly.

healthy animal

probably

quite right in maintaining that

Qoh. approaches

that of 2", but

is

and completes

verse continues

is

different line of reasoning.

stands for

vs.,

The

Ginsburg

the thought of vs. 12.

Del.

here equivalent to ''see good" of the

is

it

Qoh., however,

in

" enjoy life."

mean

men
to

work

the

God.

Qoheleth not a

vision of a

scribed activities, whereas

is

the fear of

all

that

is

man

is

This much

it.

of

God, and

As

the context

is

sufficient explanation.

permanent gain from man's prethat he can see

that

is

man

should

and drink and enjoy himself. It is probable that he does not

put into the word "fear" a meaning so religious as it often bears in
On the permanence of God's works,
other passages, as Mai. i.

eat

cf.

in

Ps. 7,y^.

BS.

heleth
to

i8.

The first half of this

What is that which

15.

now

reverts,

approaching

the thought expressed in

of the divine order in

Everything has

its

which

time.

it

i.

man

vs. is

is?

quoted and elaborated

Already

it

has been].

Qo-

from another point of view,

Here
is

it

is

the

immutability

caught that oppresses him.

Nothing can be put out of existence.

Acts and events recur continually, each pursuing the other in a

MAN'S HELPLESSNESS
Tyler compares

revolving circle.

103

[Ch.3'-'

XV,

Ovid, Metamorphoses^

I79/-'
on with constant progress
For neither can the river pause,
Nor the fleeting hour; but as wave is urged by wave,
The earlier pushed by the one approaching, and it pushes the former,
So the moments similarly fly on and similarly follow,

Even time

No

glides

itself

otherwise than a river.

And

ever are renewed.

Qoheleth's figure

not, however, a river, but a circle.

is

conceives of event as chased by event, until

Already], see on

by God.

i'".

pt] occurs in Heb.only in late books (Ne. 2 Es.

1'.

It is

used frequently

V and

The

2'.

In this he

brought back

is itself

it

Mishna

in the

(see e.g., Erub.,

participle occurs in Ezr. io>S

Ne.

lo^*

The noun means a

sense of fixing calendar dates.

9"

and

here).

f, and Zebakhim,

and 13",

the

in

"fixed or appointed

time."

Schechter conjectures that in the Heb. of BS. 4", pan ny

'J3

should

be

11, i).

The Greek

of

The

|0T,

np

|n?i

above

(see

>i2

Introd.

BS., however, translates simply by Kaipov.

same general meaning,

Daniel

Dn.

in Ar., Eth. and Aram.

In some of
Mand., Palmyrene and Samaritan), it is
occurs as simanu.
In the Aram, of

As.

it

occurs several times in the sense of "appointed time," see

it

"

2'

In

zibna.

3^-

etc.

*,

CS's

reading was pin.

Cf.

reading, 6 xP^^^^i indicates

McN.,

p.

141.

VDn],from

the

46<i

survives

and Job 21".

5310

in

{e.g.,

"business,"

the

to

mS*^].

"^^.y^,

ceding

Talmud

Qoh.

is

it

and

it

meaning
means "matter," or

occupied, or takes delight," a

and

8.

meant the same,

The

is

and

an

Sieg.

act. inf.

maintain that this

and

is

it

by

Cf. also on

not equivalent

is

connected with yon of the pre-

The

toO reKcTv of

(6,

as

labor of the mother, though from this Ko.

Del., Wr., Wild., VI., No.,

With this in part Ko.

Wr. observes, refers it to the

McN. and Ha.

(/.

c.)

dissents.

rightly take

intransitive or passive sense, as the opposite of pic.

used for "birth"

this

rendered

(S

see Ja. 492b.

refers to the act of begetting.

(2 1 5b) agrees.

cf.

see e.g.. Is.

this earlier

8oc.
Hit., Zo.

but that
vs.,

it

in

Here, however,

also has in ch. 5^

it

In the

word Ko.

2.

i2*- 1).

"that in which one

i.e.,

meaning which
irpdy/ia.

5*

Sometimes

pre-Aqiban

a root meaning " be

pleased" or "take delight," originally meant "pleasure,"

44"

having the

found

is

the dialects of the latter (Syr.,

zabna, or

root

in

Ho.

9'>

and

r\yj'^

it

Heil., Gins.,

as having an

Similarly nSp

for nrort^ in Je. 2$**.

The

'^

is

in

and the following expressions seems to express the genitive relation,

n>!t3'^] is
in some authorities pointed r^yj'i'^, see Baer,

Ko. 4oob.

ECCLESIASTES

I04
p. 62,

and

cf. h'^dS,

This form of

Ps. 66.

BH. The usual form is yajS

The form without the J occurs
bi'ith,

2K

BH.

in

meaning

2*),

in

the Mishna, but as

see

Is.

It

BH.
ii

in
2

iS' 31".
see She-

occurs in the Mishna, see

The

root also occurs in

and Eth., cf. BDB., sub voce. The Piel is used in

the sense of "hough," "cut the ham-strings," cf. Gn. 49* Jos.
';^^:\ Ha. erases as a gloss, to secure a more
S. 8% I Ch. i8<.
Syr., Ar.

evenly balanced metre.

and

i'"
ptpS,

Kal once only elsewhere

in the

to uproot.

Ahoth, 3!^ and the references in Ja., p. iio8a.

Aram.,

51" Je.

J^^ta^S,

a verb which occurs

is

i|"2yj

(Zp.

this inf. occurs only here in

or

Sieg.,

thought

it

3.

AE.,

Jin],

who

unfitting to take this in

followed by Hit., Gins,

is

its

ordinary sense of "kill,"

because that did not seem to him a natural antithesis to "heal," he accordingly rendered

No., Wr.,

PI., VI.,

it

"wound."

Wild.,

Most

McN. and

recent commentators (Gr., Del.,

Ha.) rightly regard the contrast

killing and healing

i.e., destroying life and saving it
as natand forceful. The restricts the word J"in to killing in war, but
as Wr. observes, it more probably refers to the execution of individual
I'njj^].
The root means to "break through," "to break
offenders.
down," and is particularly appropriate as an antithesis of nja in a country like Palestine, where buildings are uniformly constructed of stone.

between
ural

In

Is. 5' it is

There

is

used of breaking

down

a vineyard- wall.

a striking paranomasia between these,

ing,

whether public or private, see Gn. 232

Zc.

I21''-

The

".

sipittu) in the

Aram. (SchwaWy, I dioticon,

It also

64),

and

in

and
means "to hasten

root occurs in Aram., Syr.

Amharic with transposed

it

In

and

Ez. 20*, Ps.

pan]

with

JD,

meaning.

see Ex. 23^.

jects as glosses.

radicals,

same meaning.

this in the sense of scatter or

is

and

greatly," "to run with leaps

As. with the

For the use of

tinction in

Je. 16*

leap," "dance."

is

used here instead of

ncr, "to rejoice," on account of the similarity in sound toiDD,

2'.

"iipi].

occurs in Christian Palestinian

Probably, as Gins, suggests, the root

bounds."

and

used of mourn-

25' 28' 2 S. 3''

ZDMG., XXXV,762).Tn] means "to

Ar. in 9th stem

iicd

4.

is

root occurs in As. as sapadu (derivatives sipdu

same meaning.

as "dirge" (cf

The

i S.

idd

throw away,

cf.

5.

K.

l*^-'].

3**

j^*

used in Kal and Piel without apparent dis-

~p

pnn*?], for

cj^n] and

6. a'pa], literally

another example of the use of

pn-\

Ha., to secure his metre, re-

pan?:].

"seek,"

is

here apparently used of the

means "demeaning which it has even in this book in ch. 7^. Here, however, it is used in the weaker sense of "lose," BDB., in which it appears
This meaning also appears in Ps. 119'",
in the Mishna, Teharoth, 8'.
where "^a** ^^! is "a lost sTieep." 1'''?^'^]^ see note on previous verse.
It occurs in Gn. 3^
7. "Dri], "to sew," is a comparatively rare word.
It is also found in NH., see Sabbath, 13',
Ez. 13" Job 16" and here.
acquisition of

property,

cf.

Mt. 13"-

".

idn] ordinarily

stroy," a

and Kelim,

20.

8.

nr:n^c]

and

D"Stt'].

The change

in

8b from

infini-

MAN'S HELPLESSNESS
tives to the
9.

nouns denotes, as

on

pin^], see

may

marks, Q.

i*.

has noted, that the series

PI.

Bick.

nfc';'.!]

emends

well have written nt^yn.

to

Ha.,

in transferring

it

i',

cause.

11.

"13''],

sub voce, but in

2*,

Makshirin,

5*",

by

it

usually

has a

means

much

Mikwa'oth,

but there

is

ring.

no

evi-

a refrain

It is

10. rJ>], see

"fair,"

9,

wider meaning.

(ch.

Zabim,

E.g., in

"good."

io, no"* signifies

It is interest-

^g^'^-

he renders

"),

In Zabim, ^\ no^ jV^n means "a strong tree."

2^'>2.

re-

and with as little

" beautiful, "c/". BDB.,

when BS. paraphrases our passage

ing to note that

no''

BH.

in

NH.

completed.

practically rewrites

thither.

which well expresses Q.'s mood, and has a genuine

on i". Ha. counts the verse a gloss as he does vs.

is

but as Sieg.

'^'Djjn,

who

the book, regards this vs. as originally a gloss to

dence whatever to justify us

105

[Ch.3'-'*

In Nazir,

means "to speak very well." In Zebachim, 8-, Shebi'ith, i\

and Teruntoth, 2* , no"' means the "best" (animal for sacrifice), while in
Keriloth, 6, n^'^'p ^PZ' np> means "worth two Sela's," and tit n-ir^^ n?>
means "worth ten zuzim." That this later usage had begun as early
as Qoheleth is shown by ch. 5^^, where ^31 means "befitting" (so Ha.).
The context in the verse before us demands such a meaning here.
7<, (:n nD*-

"D^i]

should probably be pointed

d';'';.-

To

say that

eternity in their heart, so that they cannot find out the

beginning to end," makes no sense.

"God has put

of God from

work

Ko. (392g) would render

"i-'N "'^30

"only that not," but that makes the thought of doubtful lucidity, and
so far as

have observed gives to

"'^JJ':

Gaab,

an unwarranted meaning.

Kn., Hit., and Heil. derived the word from the Ar. ^aloma, and took

mean "knowledge,"

or "Weltsinn."

This, however,

makes no

it

to

better

Wang., Vaih., Zo., Del., Wr., Cox, No., Gins.,

meaning "eternity," or notion of eternity.
It is true that in Qoh. the word has the meaning "forever," "of old,"
and "eternal" in i<- " 2i 3" 9* and i25, but that is no reason why in
an unpointed text it might not have another meaning here. Dale and
Sieg. take it to mean "future," while Re. takes it in the later meaning

sense of the passage.

Wild, and

McN.

cling to the

of oSj; for "world."

Dod., more than a century ago, pointed toward

the right interpretation

Gr. saw that

it

when he rendered

more positively, have followed this

"unknown," D^'y, the unknown
"eternity."
(cf.

From

Ja. 1084b),

it

meant "ignorance," while

this

same

lead.

"hidden," or "unknown."
PI.

" hidden,"

means

of time, hence "of old," "forever,"

means "that which

in indicate that

oSy

root Q^l, frequently used in the

is

concealed," "secret,"

context in our verse compels us to render

253.

and Ha.

hesitatingly,

The root

an early reading was

d'^;;

it

"ignorance."

Sd tn.

nS

Talmud
The

etc.

(S^^cv
"-S^::],

8.

the

two negatives strengthen the negation. They do not destroy each

']^d] is
(cf. Ko. 352x and Ges.*^ i52y).
a late synonym of Vi?, cf. BDB., 693a. Sieg. assigns this vs. to the Chasid

other as in Latin and English

glossator.

Ha., although he translates

it

as poetry, also regards

it

as a

ECCLESIASTES

Io6

When

gloss.

thought

real

its

perceived, however, the vs.

is

The

mirably into Q.'s system of thought.

to their seasons, but they are vain

cannot understand them.

and contradicts vs.

Both are parts

it,

regards the verse as a gloss.

of 01X3 in

oinS in

(which

2^*

8'*,

return, for

ii.

man

draws the

This view

rests

of Q.'s pessimistic

ii.

vs.

ad-

fits

be suited

Ha., for a reason, too, so subjective that I do not appreci-

conclusion.
ate

and give no proper

may

12. Sieg. claims that this verse

pessimistic conclusion to vs. lo,

on a misunderstanding of

activities of life

which occur

D3].

It is

probable from the analogy

a corruption of dinS, see

is

note on 2") and

crit.

in similar expressions to this, that 02 is equiva-

it), and refers to mankind.

So Gins.,
and most recent interpreters. Rashbam, Luther,
Coverdale, the Bishops Bible, and Ty. took it as "in them," and referred it to the times and seasons of vv. 2-8.
This view is less probable.
210 nit'y'?]. Zirkel, Kleinert, Ty., Sieg. and Wild, regard 21:3 nfy as a

lent to dV (possibly a corruption of

Zo., Gr., Del., Sieg.

Graecism=e5

Del., Wr.,

irpdrreip.

McN. and

others declare that

it is

not necessary to regard the idiom as influenced by Greek, and they are

probably

12^^

right, since in 2 S.

we have

the opposite pi

nt:7="do

badly," or "vex one's self," in a book where no Greek influence can be

suspected.

ds

"but,"

'<2],

clause in a shortened form,

two instances

waw

of

Ko.

</.

n>nr^] expresses a subject

3721.

K6. 397a.

cf.

13. nN-\i nnuh]is, as

consecutive with the perfect.

pression occurs in 2", where the pre-Aqiban reading

imperf.

The

it

stands,

The same
was

-a*

Versions give no hint of a similar original here.

regards this and the following

vs.

as the

work

of the

Sieg.

Chasid interpolator,

but when one sees the sequence of the thought as outlined above,
so far as this vs.

concerned,

is

is

unnecessary.

gloss apparently because the thought

Ha.

that,

rejects the vs. as

strongly expressed in ch.

is

ex-

with the

8',

but surely an Oriental could express the same thought more than once

14. Sieg. and Ha. regard the whole vs. as the

work of the Chasid glossator, and McN. so regards the last clause, remarking that the mystery of the inexorable world-order, over which
Q. broods, was no mystery to the glossator. If our view of the preceding
context be correct, Sieg. and Ha. err in denying to Q. the whole vs.
McN. has probably needlessly beheld the hand of a glossator too. To

in a writing of this length.

mood God might make a world-order

Q.'s

to cause

men

to fear him,

but this would not constitute a satisfactory explanation of the limitations of

{cf.

Job

human
7'*-").

Latin idem,

S>],

cf.

any more than

life

sin] takes

Ges.'^

on the use of

it did to Job in
up the subject again

i4ih.

this, in

~\^r\^'\

additions,

deny a possibility, see 2 Ch. 20".

V"*i], cf. Dt. 4'
obj., cf. Ko. 397f.
to

2211.

19,

-{y

nt:*;],

the

-c

is,

certain of his
like the

moods

Gr. avrbt or

as Del. remarks, "will be."

Gn. 28'. For ps] with an

';''^\^
and I'D'^*^], on the inf. as
cf.

13'

inf.

ind.

and, for a Gr. equivalent, Rev.

expresses purpose, introducing an objective sen-

HUMAN OPPRESSION AND

tence,

cf.

plied

Such Heb.

K6. 384!, Ges. ^ i65b.

Rev. 13"

As Gins, noted

'.

from the preceding

to the Gr. t6 h^XXov,

vs.

the subj. of

Gn.

cf.

INJUSTICE

the original of

is

in"^^

[Ch.3'-"

Ho.

is

tW,

sup-

equivalent
ii4i

i?^; also Ges."^

9>'

07

-KoiiXv

cn, which must be

is

15. nvn'? nK'N], as Del. notes,

is'^ Jos. 2*

and Ko. 3992. a^'^N.ii], the clause has usually been interpreted as
though 1T>J, "that which is pursued," were to be rendered "that which
Some,
is driven away," and so simply referred to that which is past.
as Gr. and Ha., have noted, however, that the Niph. Tinj usually means
" persecuted." It certainly has this meaning in the Talmud (cf. Ja. and
Levy, sub voce), they accordingly render
"

God

him who

looks after

believe that the clause

originally to vs. 17.

is

If,

is

by "looks

C'p3^

after,"

out of place, and that

it

probably belonged

however, we recognize that Q.

is

thinking of

events as chasing one another around in a circle, and take

original sense of "pursue," as in Jos.

and the clause

of Sir.

That, however,
for the masc.

After PN

into

fits

Ben

5'.

its

(6,

its

phrase

and

31,

is

quoted

in the

Heb.

regards IT^J as masc.

not a decisive objection to the view advocated above,

is

may

be used to express such concepts.

we should expect

3S PN, ch. 7^

'A, S,

T'"^ in

Je. 291^ the difficulty vanishes

The

context.

Sira, like

8"

i.e.,

These scholars accordingly

persecuted."

On

l"^"'^'"''

The

article

these cases, see Ko. 288g.

is

Cf. Ko. 244a.

similarly omitted in

Ha. regards

this verse

as two glosses, apparently on the principle that Q. could say a thing but
once.

Sieg.,

on the other hand, recognizes

it

as a part of the

work

of Q'.

HUMAN OPPRESSION AND INJUSTICE PROVE MEN

TO BE NO BETTER THAN ANIMALS.3'
iM-Jl.

16.

And

again

saw under the sun the place

wickedness, and the place

of

righteousness

of

judgment there was

was wickedness.

there

17. I SAID IN MY HEART THE RIGHTEOUS AND THE WICKED GOD

WILL JUDGE, FOR A TIME FOR EVERY MATTER AND FOR EVERY WORK
HE HAS APPOINTED.
18. I said in my heart (it is) on account of the sons of men, for God
to prove them and to show that they are beasts. ... 19. For the fate of
one fate is theirs. As is the
the sons of men and the fate of the beasts
death of one, so is the death of the other, and all have one spirit. Man
has no advantage over beasts, for both are vanity. 20. Both are going
to the same place; both were from the dust, and both are going to return
to the dust.
21. Who knows the spirit of the sons of men, whether it
ascends upward, and the spirit of beasts, whether it descends downward
22. And I saw that there is nothing better than that man
to the earth.
should rejoice in his work, for that is his portion, for who can bring him
to see what shall be after him ?

ECCLESIASTES

Io8
16.

Again I

This

saw].

new

begins a

vs.

section,

and

loosely connected with the survey of times

Qoheleth expresses his views on the wickedness of

ministration of Qoheleth's time.

in

and

13

but contains the word

4',

it

men and

it

their

agaitt,

which

is

unusual

seems rather loosely to connect some independent observa-

The

tions of the writer with the preceding.

there

but

In

Zo. maintains that this refers back to vs. 12,

such connections.

but

is

The vs. pictures the corrupt adThe opening of the vs. is similar

lack of superiority to animals.

to ch. 2'2

which

seasons.

was

wickedttess],

^^

Place" has been regarded by Hit., Gins.,

and Ko. (33ok) not as

Zo., Del., Sieg.

place of judgment

the object of "saw," but

as ace. of place or pred. ace, the former being the favorite view.

Gins, urges that

accent, but, as

cannot be the obj. of "saw" on account of the

it

Wr. points out

in spite of this accent.

construction

is

to regard

in

Gn.

i',

we have

it

as an ace. here.

the place of the administration of justice.

is

Place of judgment]

is

Place of righteousness]

probably ''the place of piety," "righteousness," as Gr. has sug-

gested, being, as in

y'*-

'

20

government and

On

equivalent to piety.

^2^

Qoheleth maintains that wickedness prevails

of

the ace. occurring

agree with Wr. and No. that the simplest

this

view

in the administration

in the practice of religion.

See also

critical

note.

17.

The

righteous

and

interrupts the thought.

the wicked
It is,

God

will judge].

no doubt, the work

glossator (see critical note). Del. notes that

This verse

Chasid

of the

"judge" has a double

meaning, referring to the vindication of the righteous as

7* 26',

and

to the

punishment

righteous are vindicated

text.

This

glossator.

is

is

of the wicked.

entirely out of

The

in Ps.

idea that the

harmony with the conit as the work of a

a strong reason for regarding

On

the emendation which underlies our rendering,

see critical note.

time for every matter]

is

a distinct allusion

in the verse to vv. 2-8.

18. // is on accotint of the sons of men].

As Graetz observed, this

verse connects directly with vs. 16, vs. 17 being, as already noted, an
interpolation.
religious affairs
all their

Qoheleth's view
is

God's way

intelligence

is

that the corruption in civil

of demonstrating that

and assumed

superiority, really

men

on a

and

are, for

level

with

HUMAN OPPRESSION AND

For the phrase, "I said

animals.

Before on account

I".

in

INJUSTICE

my heart,"

of, it is, is to

109

[Ch.3'-"

see critical note on

be suppHed.

After beasts the

Hebrew has some words which were added through a mistake.

The reasons for this view and discussions of particular words are
given in the critical notes.

The thought

theirs].
is

19.

Job

Spirit]

Men and

104*".

12'"

man

distinction

is

is

is

as in 12^

life

same

are said to possess the

and animals a

For the rendering

opposed

in

Men and

definite.

cf.

is

beasts,

Ps. 49".

and

Ps.

In

spirit.

soul, but the

there largely a matter of phraseology on account of

The thought

place].

one fate

same as

are the

here the breath of

animals

beasts

It is further defined in this very

said to have a spirit

poetic parallelism.
of this vs.

is

For a similar thought,

"fate," see critical note 2^K

verse as death.

men

of vs. 18, that

here more fully developed.

On

Sons of 7nen

Wisd. 2\

both, see

20.

of the preceding verse

beasts

came from

The thought

2'*.

Both are going

the

is

here

to

the

same

made more

same dust (Gn.

2^

),

and to the same dust they will return (Gn. y). It is a thought
which finds an echo in Job io 34'* Ps. 104" 146^ and is quoted
Siegfried refers to Gn. 6^^ 7*' to
in BS. 40" (Heb.) and 41'" (Gr.).
prove

As
is

it

equivalent to "all flesh," but this

Del. observes, the

"one place"

common

contrary to the context.

Qoheleth

conceived as the great cemetery.

Sheol, but of the

is

the earth, which, as in ch. 6%

is

is

PI. finds the

sepulchre.

not thinking of

same thought

in

Lucretius:
Omniparens eadem rerum commune sepulchrum.
(The mother and the sepulchre of all.)

Ginsburg's claim that this verse refers only to the body, because

Qoheleth treats the

tained.

cluded

spirit in the

What Qoheleth
it

next verse, can hardly be main-

says of the spirit indicates that he in-

with the body.

Genung's claim that Qoheleth was

thinking simply of the present phenomenal

but at the
the whole.

moment

the

life

probably true,

life, is

seemed

to

Qoheleth to be

Siegfried's claim, however, that ch. 9'"

another writer, because

this denies, will hardly

to

phenomenal

it

must be from

recognizes the existence of Sheol which

convince one

who knows from

what seemingly contradictory ideas one may,

experience

in passing

through

no

ECCLESIASTES

transitions in thought, give room.

rogative

90"

Is.

is

in reahty

21.

Who

a strong negation,

cf.

Apparently, Qoheleth's contemporaries held that

53'.

as the breath of

man came from God

(Gn.

2^),

God, while the breath of animals went to the

leth combats.
That Qoheleth really held
spirit (or

breath) of

mood

in his

He uses

The interAm. 5" Ps.

knows].
ch. 6'^

of

man

returns to

God

is

so

it

went back

to

This Qohe-

earth.

the view that the

shown by

though

12',

despondent pessimism he seems here to deny

it.

mean ''the breath of life," BD5.,and not in the

sense of "soul." The latter was expressed by a different Heb.
word (see Schwally, Leben nach dem Tode, Sy ff., 161, 180 jf., and
**

spirit" to

Frey, Tod, Seelenglaiibe tmd Seelenkult, 18).

in the

souls

follows
that

up

"both return

his statement that

civil

and

convinced him that

From

although

true,

to dust,"

by the claim

to

of

one has

There is nothing

religious

man

is

moment,

has, at least for the

life,

no more immortal than an animal.

he draws in this verse the conclusion that man's only

this
is

22.

Qoheleth's train of thought, starting from the cor-

better, etc.].

ruption in

is

is

no one can make good the assertion that the breath

a different destination than that of the other.

good

This

Talmud it was supposed that Qoheleth was referring to the

of men (cf. Weber, J iid. TheoL, 1897, 338^.).
Qoheleth

have as good a time as he can

This

in the present life.

a fundamental thought of the book, to which Qoh. frequently

reverts

that

(c/.

no

2"

man

3'* 5'^

8>

shared by other

OT.

Here he adds as a reason

9^").

can know what

writers

will

(cf.

happen

after him,

Ps. 30" 88"'-'

Is. 38'8).

for

it

thought
It is

too

some have done, whether

Qoheleth refers to man's ignorance of what will happen on the
earth after him, or to an entire lack of knowledge after death.
The language of some of the Psalmists is as strong as his. In
Qoh.'s mood a complete negation of all knowledge is most fitting,
and grew naturally out of the old Hebrew point of view as to the
future life.
Although no reference is made here to eating, or to the
great a refinement to try to determine, as

pleasures of the appetites as in 2",

Genung

that Qoh.'s thought

creative aspects.

is

now

we should

not conclude with

centred on work in

its

nobler

Qoheleth has plainly shown that man's "work"

(what he can do) includes the sensual

side.

His thought

is

"Let

HUMAN OPPRESSION AND

a

man

live to the full the

partment, for this

round

III

of life's occupations in every de-

his fated lot

is

INJUSTICE [Ch-S'""

his profit for his toil

and

he

has no higher possibility."

an emphatic form of Df.

r\DV] is

16.

motion with a locative

after verbs of

122*

and here

an emphatic form of

is

it

noted that in the two halves of the

MS.

which Dr. also makes.

authority

cyje/Si^j for d<r/3ijs in all

McN.

it

used only
i8* Ps.

Gr.

^v-y].

and conjectured

transgression, a con-

probably

is

Had

right.

into the text.

Eur. regards

copies.

Ht is

Ko. 33oh.

cf.

tautological,

it is

This

should introduce

Dtt>,

we should read y^D,

that instead of the second

jecture

vs.

Ordinarily the

signification, but in Je.

any

it

(S curiously reads

as an early mistake, but

it

as an early dogmatic correction in the interest of orthodoxy.

McN. and Ha. regard

17. Sieg.,

this vs. as

an interpolation of the Chasid

In this they are right, for the thought

glossator.

out of harmony with

is

The opinion of Del. as to the double meaning of oo'^' is

by BDB. p. 1047b. The opinions of such Hebraists cannot

context.

its

reinforced
lightly

be rejected.

(gB

J48.

es.

same meaning

as

read

vs.

^n-\DNi.

18 joins directly on to

is

Sy]

used as

so BZ>B., Del., Wild.

V,

interpreting

it

pointed course of things" (Ty.), or a pud

the other hand, Houb., Dat.,

Wild., Ha. and Dr.

emend

Van

the

in

and Wr. take

(Heil.),

Deum

d. P., Luz.,

\"i"^:::n].

Heb.

has been variously

DU"]

"in that place"

as

vs. 16.

late

in

Hit., Heil., Ty., Gins., Z6., Del., PI.,

interpreted.

"there,"

Moreover,

&

and

J98

(Del.

"in

the

as

it

ap-

On

and Wr.).

Kn., Gr., Re., No.,

VI.,

done above. (S>^ * omits

do the same. McN. regards it as
a possible corruption of the last two letters of ntf^n or the first two of
As (ft puts it at the beginning of the next verse, it may,
the fol. ^nnoN.
This has led

it.

Sieg.

and

to oif, as I have

McN.

to

on the other hand, have been omitted for the sake of smoothness.
McN. opposes the emendation ot? on the ground of awkwardness of
but the verb

style,

clause

may

prefer the conjectural emendation of the

18.

nnjn

Qoh. 7"

Apart from this passage

and Ps. no*. The usual form is

nai Sj; {cf. Dt. 4" Je.

Cf BD5. Dia^ is, as BDB., Gins.,
8), or

have noted, from

and y^ from
bright."

<ft's

"<"(3,

the

"I3r, Je. 5".

Sto/cpivef

inf.

it

5'*.

It

has

also, cf. Kil., 2',

in

NH.

Maasr.,

the
2,

the whole,

Del.,

BH.

in

Gn. 20"

occurs only in

'\:i'\Sy

{cf.

means "for the sake

McN. and Ges.K (67p)
It

"tt^. Is. 45',

connected with the As. bararu, " to be

in the

secondary meaning of "choose,"

is used in i Ch. 7* 9" 16" and

meaning "single out," "choose," and "sift"
Sab., 7*, and Citt., 5".
" Probaret" (C), and

"select," in which the part, of the stem

Ne.

i4).

it

being formed like nn from

It is

takes

On

commentators quoted.

hy'\ is late.

8*

12" 43i Ex.

of."

near the end, and thb

in the first half of the vs. is

well have been inverted in like manner.

ECCLESIASTES

112
the similar reading of

meaning only
admirably.

presupposes a Piel, as

01,

8's

reading

n-\3

ZAW., XXIV, 215). n^N^';'].

netzky in

Hiph. "to show," which

McN.

No., Eur. and

pose, see

an error

is

Ko. 407c.

is

The

NH.

the stem has thi?

{cf.

Eur.

Instead

<g,

"sift"

fits

& and C read

clause introduced by ^

here

and Kame-

p. 58,

undoubtedly the true reading.

On

"S'].

in

The meaning

197b).

in the Piel (c/. Ja.

niNnS.

So, Wr.,

a clause of pur-

is

the pointing for the relative, see Ges.*^

onV ncn].

These words have been very differently treated by

Del. and Wr. take them to mean "they in reference to themselves," believing that ^'r^T\ was introduced because of its
Ko. (36) interprets onS similarly. Sieg. believes
alliteration to 'r\r::T\i,
that neither word belongs to the text, holding that ^r^ry arose by dittography with r\'Ci'r\i^ and that onS was afterward added as an explanatory gloss.
With reference to the origin of nsn, Gr. had anticipated
36.

different interpreters.

McN.

him.

lowing

agrees as to

with

vs.

Ko.i

T\r^r\^

but holds

because

that,

ending of

7 avTots, the

this

(S

begins the

fol-

was QnS

verse

Del. admitted that the last clause contained an unusual fulness.

reality

most awkward Heb., and

it is

words are an intrusion

from

in the

text.

beginning of

18 to the

vs.

vs.

dj.

In

agree with Sieg. that both these

19.

onS]

C5, jb

and

#"

bring over

(S^ reads ov (TVpdvTT]fxa, but

19.

ort, a translation of ""D.

Sieg. would
and make the comparison begin here. I'Ii'jd] MT.
points as though in the absol. state, which would compel us to read
a reading which
"fate are the sons of men, and fate are the beasts,"
Heil., Gins., Del. and Wr, follow.
(^, #, H and 21, however, read

the ov

is

probably a corruption of

emend o

to

-.7

n-i,*>D,

where

and

Stat, constr.,

Qoh.,

else in

this is

who

uses

undoubtedly
|nn.">

or

right.

n^n^.

(S,

nnin]

S and 6

occurs no-

read nn^

"d,

making the clause a question, to which pN was the answer. McN.

adopts this reading, and it has much in its favor. Zap. and Ha. erase
^jn Sdh >3, and Ha. also r\^p^2^ DtNn >j3 nnpa ^3 nrnjn, and nona |d on
metrical

omit

grounds with great arbitrariness. 20. (gBX*^

McN.

'i^'^^.

pre-Aqiban
support

text.

it.

accordingly believes that

Other MSB.

it

on Horace's

B.C. 3'^]

Whether

"Omnes eodem
instead

<&^

ut

of C6 as well as the other ancient versions

Ha., for metrical reasons, omits as a gloss -^n

nnN DipD, and suggests the improbable explanation that

23

ui-ut-is*.

was absent from the

cogimur,"
'69.

m.

261.

it

*iSin

which was written

is*

^h

Son

was based
about

read apparently

3'^'^

was a pre-Aqiban reading, or has resulted from a corruption in Gr. MSS., is uncertain.
21. -i], before nSj? and mi-, is
rightly taken by (&, &, U and 2; and by most modern interpreters (Kn.,
Gins., Gr., Zo., Del., Wr., No., VI., McN. and Ko. 379aa, 4i4d)
as interrogative.
Geiger, Sieg. and Ges.'^- (ioom) hold that the text
here was intended to be interrogative, but that it cannot be so considered
as at present pointed, and that the n has been in both cases changed
this

MAN'S INHUMANITY
This seems

dogmatic reasons.

for

and

16"),

some

in

(S,

22.

&

27',

3113],

and

(so Dr.) read

"reward," "profit"

2' 5"-

BDB.

{cf.

Job

Ko. 3926.

'^

"ijno^

Dixn], the

Da. 22 (c)). pSn]. The

and 9' it has the meaning of

{cf.

324a).

a strong denial.

vs., is really

mnx] Ko.

some cases
''^''i*'^, Nu.

at the beginning of the verse.

'':;i

in the sense of "better than," cf.

context shows that here and in

preceding

in

(see

a^^'n Lv. lo'^).

used to denote a class of beings

art. is

a mistake, as

cases daghesh forte before other letters (see 3^3n

and 60 MSS.

li'ND

to be

kamec before gutturals

the interrogative particle takes

23", 0"'N3n Is.

II3

[CH.41-"

c],

nv ^d

like

3 hni], see crit. note

(401 b) seems to be right in saying that this

is

the

of

on

2^.

equivalent

nnN. VI. 's interpretation, which limits the lack of knowledge

what goes on among men on the earth, seems forced. uso^]
Winckler (AOF., 351) emends to ijjo"', "cause him to perceive."
This is unnecessary. ^nc]. Hit., Del., and No. note that the pointing,
to PiD

to

seghol, here

is

due

to the influence of the following -2>.

Baer notes

i02k.

Sieg. assigns this vs.

and

interpolator, claiming

he

this
in

cites i^

'<

63) that

(p.

2''

20.

each part of the context

one who

is

Q' knew no joy

This

22f.

result

in

is

work.

In support of

reached only by excising

a process which can

be necessary only to

convinced that both Stoic and Epicurean thought mingle

Against this view, see above, Introduction, 6

in the book.

rejects as

ns-

kindred passages cited above to an epicurean

its

that
''f

Cf. also Ges.*^-

two authorities favor the reading

an unmetrical gloss

all

of

the verse after

vr;'::.

(2).

Ha.

His basis

however, too doubtful.

is,

MAN'S INHUMANITY.
4>- is

flections

a section treating of man's inhumanity to man, and the rewhich it caused in the mind of Qoheleth. The subject is

divided into three parts: (i)

The oppressions

of

men

by men;

(2)

The

vanity of rivalry; and (3) The lonely miser's inhumanity to himself.

41.

And

again, I

saw

all

the oppressions which are practised under

the sun, and behold the tears of the oppressed!

comforter.

And from

the

hand

And

they had no

of the oppressors (went forth) power,

And I congratulated the dead, who have

who are yet alive.
And (I regarded)
as happier than both of them him who had never been born, who has
not seen the evil work which is done under the sun.
*.
And I saw all
but they had no comforter.

*.

already died, more than the living

the

toil

and

all

other, also this

*.

".

full

the skilful work, that

is

'.

it

was jealousy

of one towards an-

vanity and a desire of wind.

The fool folds his hands and eats his own flesh.
is a palm of the hand full of rest than the hollow of two hands
of toil and the desire of wind.
^ Again I saw a vanity under the
8
Better

ECCLESIASTES

114
sun.

There

a lone man, without a second, he has neither son nor

is

brother, but there

And

wealth.
also
'.

'.

is

yea his eye

to all his toil,

whom do

Two
if

". Also,

one shall

the other can raise

fall,

man who

two

if

how

when

shall fall,

up

good

This

there

together, then they have

lie

shall he

be

warm?

>2^

And

if

(a

/ saw

is

warmth, but the

The deep emotion which

Qoheleth

The

oppressions].

all the

the

solitary

man) should attack

one,

not easily broken.

is

observation contained in

kindred to that in 3'% though different from

this verse is

toil.

companion, but woe

none to raise him up.

his

two could stand against him, and a threefold cord

Tears].

it.

tears of the oppressed excited in

evidence of his profound sympathies with the lower

is

Power]

classes.

not sated with

of

are better than one, for they have a good reward in their

to the solitary

4'.

is

and deprive myself

I toil

vanity and an evil task.

For,

man

no end

is

for

taken

is

by several commentators

to

mean

Such a meaning would fit

word bears such a significance in no other passage. Undoubtedly the context shows, however, that it means an oppressive use
The iteration of the phrase they had no comforter is for
of power.
the context admirably, but

violence.

the

rhetorical effect.

It

of the oppressed.

which men
those

who

make Qoheleth

suffer

was

The

2. / congratulated the dead].

feel that the only

This was, however, not

are dead.

It

(cf. g*).

heightens the impression of the helplessness

rather a transitory

oppressions

happy men are

his settled opinion

mood, though intense

in feel-

Job y*
who
had
never
him
both,
Happier
than
3.
the
asto
onward
surges
Qoh.
here
The
thought
of
been born].
sertion that better even than the dead are those who have never
been born. For similar sentiments, see ch. 6'-* 7* Job 3i-'
Je. 20'*, and among classical authors, Theognis, 425-428, SophoSeen] is here
cles, (Edipiis, col. 1 2 25-1 2 28, and Cicero, Tusc. v^.
not so much ''seen" as "experienced." 4. That it was jealousy
ing while

it

lasted.

and Herodotus

i".

For similar expressions, see

ch. 7^

of one towards another].

It

springs from jealousy or rivalry.

Qoheleth here passes from consideration of the inhumanity of

oppressors to the inhumanity of competition.
the motive of
6. Folds his

Eats

his

and the arts.

hands], a synonym

He

finds in this

toil

own

for idleness,

cf.

Pr. 6"" 19" 24*'.

fiesh\ devours his substance through

idleness.

MAN'S INHUMANITY
This

no doubt a current proverb, which

is

II5

[Ch.4'-'2

is

here quoted.

It is

harmony with the context, however, and was probably added

by the Hoktna glossator.
6. Palm of the hand], the slight hollow of the flat up-turned

out of

Rest], an Oriental's ideal of enjoyment, cf. Job 3'*.

The hollow of two hands], both hands so curved as to hold as

hand.

much
it

is

as possible.

This, too,

no doubt a current proverb, but

is

so in accord with the thought of the context, that

that of Pr.

I5'^

Again I sau^,

7.

rivalry to consider avarice.

Without a second].

8.

out helper or heir, though second can hardly

No

His

whom
and

The

eyes].

and

2'

note.

do I

to all his toil], activity

eye

This

mean

"wife," as AE.

frequently used as the organ of desire,

is

An

Sated],

avaricious soul

is

never

be a

to his

own

bit of

This also

dtution, 13.

cf.

For

satisfied.

Qoheleth suddenly drops the indirect discourse

toil ?]

may

ex-

is

has become a disease.

transfers us to the soul of the miser, perhaps to his

for this

BS.

end

was prob-

Qoh. means a man with-

plained by the words son nor brother.

thought.

it

The thought is similar to

Qoheleth now turns from

ably inserted by Qoheleth himself.

personal experience.
is vanity].

The

reflections.

own

soul,

See above, Intro-

Here Qoheleth

reverts again

sentiment of this verse

is

repeated in

14'.

912

are evidently current proverbs.

It is

an open question

whether the proverbs were introduced by Qoheleth himself, or by

See critical note.

glossators.

Gn.

9.

Iliad, io"<-"6.

the next vs.

The

good reward].

It is that

of the vs.

to

is

that

comradeship

lie together].

two

are better than one].

travellers.

nature of this

is

is

up

his companion].

the reward of united

Cf.
e.g.,

explained in

they help each other in time of need.

the one shall fall the other can raise

two

Two

Jewish and classic lore contain similar sentiments,

2'.

10.

The
toil.

//

thought

11.

//

The reference is not to husband and wife, but

The nights of Palestine are cold, especially in

and a lone traveller sleeps sometimes close to

warmth in lieu of other companionship (see Barton,

the colder months,

his

donkey

Yearns Wandering in Bible Lands, p. 167

for

that in the Aboth of R.

of friendship.

12.

Nathan, ch.

8,

j/".);

Del. observes

sleeping together

is

a sign

man], the Heb. leaves the reader to gather

FXCLESIASTES

Il6

from the sentence, but

the subject of the verb

robber

preceding

4.

^ry^v

.-i.snsi

An

i].

have been noted

"'n3!:>

in 9",

is,

adverb.

It is

currence

is,

Am.

3*

Job

2"^*

and

3 '3,

rare in

it is

equal to "again," see Ko. 369r.

use with the

its

^r2y\

Qoh.

like

The

D^^-^'i;].

tirst

oc-

Ko.'s limitation of this usage to the last two passages

^^nc, Is. 35'.

.i;?:2"i],

does not

it

fit

The second

and

thority for this, however,

RV. renders "on

n^D equal to

first

Ha. excises

z^t";: ^Z'h].

it is

CpK';'

the passive

is

sing, in form, is collective in

There

different turn.

this

Niph. part
it,

inserts r^* before

probably a mistake.

is

n3

no other auDnip^>' n-r],

was power," making

simpler to supply some

the side of their oppressors there

i^ Sy.

As McN. observes

verb like "went forth."

to the oppressed,

though

his metrical theory.

which gives the sentence quite a

takes the

waw consecutive with the im-

as most recent commentators agree, an abstract, as in

sense, as in Is. 25* Ps. 39> 42<.

as a gloss;

right.

is

as several interpreters have noted, a Heb. idiom for an

35.

Cf.

two are

if

this

fanciful.

Instances of

though

quoted (Ko. 26id) seems arbitrary.

part.

made seem

This is an instance of

in

that

Probably

still.

earlier instance occurs in ch. i".

perf.

means

thinks the phrase

other suggestions that have been

perf.

This and the

one of the best-known passages

threefold cord],

Genung

book.

better than one, three are better

The

clear that a

is

it

could stand against him].

present further proofs of the advantages of com-

vs.

panionship.
in the

Two

intended.

is

anS

r:rh\

and the second time

is

it

Ha. claims that the

first

refers

to the oppressors; cnjc] he also

time as "comforter," the second as "avenger."

In that

case the last clause should be rendered, "there was no avenger (for the
wrongs done, by them) " a view which is probably right. Sieg. holds

that the last onjD cn^ ji^

the context,

is a mistake, that the words are unsuited to

and must have arisen from dittography. On Ha.'s inter-

pretation, adopted above, this objection falls to the ground.

has caused the commentators

much

2.

nac't]

and has occasioned some

emendations of the text. AE., Herzfeld and Gins, regarded it as a
verbal adjective.
Ges., Kn., Heil., Elst., Del. (hesitatingly) and others
regarded it as a participle Piel, from which the D had been accidentally
nn? in Zeph. i'< a form which made Del. hesitate to call
dropped,
naB> an inf.
is, as Wr. has pointed out, a verbal adjective.
Among
trouble,

more recent commentators Eur. and

Sieg. hold that

explain the accidental loss of the r through

alphabet.

its

it is

a part.

similarity to

ir

Dr. suggests that possibly the original reading was

v'^nasM.

Rashbam, MendelsWild., McN., Ko. (2i8b

Both these suggestions, however, lack evidence.

sohn, Ew., Z6., Wr., Heng., Gr., Hit., VI.,

They

in the old

MAN'S INHUMANITY

II7

[Ch.4'-

an inf. abs. With this

Gn. 41" Ex. 8" and Ju. 7".
The word in the sense of "praise," "congratulate," is an Aramaism,
and occurs in late books only. It appears in Ps. 63* i Ch. 16", and often
in Aram, as in Dn. 2" 4"- ^ 5*- ", and in the Targum on Koh. 4' Ex. 15'
o\"iD ns]. As <S read D^nrn S^-pn inPs. 4', etc.
">3dJ, see note on i'".

and 2250) and

view

Ges.'^-

(ii3gg) regard

stead,

and the second

and Dr., but

by Hahn)

n:-;:^

it is

shortened to n?.

pT2.^

that

is

composed

^J7.?J

(pointed thus by Baer

njn

of

ij^

or p-nj:. In vs. 3
c/". the NH.

occurs nowhere else in BH., but

Kn., Wr.,

this.

VI., Wild., Sieg.

and Ko. (27ob) hold

governed by nac* of the preceding verse. Gins, and

it is

nar, to be supplied in thought from the preceding

served, however, 210 follows

B takes

nor

that TN

may be

as (S and

n3' very unnaturally,

and neither

He

it.

also suggests that

supplied, since "B renders judicavi.

l>

\'in">i''

is,

case,

perhaps, to be

In that case pn would be the sign

This is the view taken by No. and, apparently,

It seems to me the most probable view.
]"}>_], see

of the ace. as usual.

by Ges.'^ (1171).

happily rendered iyewfjd-q by 2.

note on

vs. 2.

here to

human oppressions.;in nfynn

r^>7\] is

pnJ.

<S,

was probably the reading

ntryrn ;nn, which

C5,

nom.

the equivalent of the Ar. 'ayya, a sign of the

render

McN. by

As Del. ob-

vs.

Del. accordingly suggested

as the object of such a verb.

it

be-

is

it

Scholars have differed in their interpretation of the

Pn].

"^S'N

government of

It

Of course

as glosses.

o-'in

cause of his arrangement of the metre.

3.

Ha.

properly regards this as the pre-Aqiban reading.

133-'

"irs

cf.

McN.

regards

as

it

For similar constructions,

agree.

omits y^7 on metrical grounds.

equivalent to jnp^see note on 2^'.

4.

jnr3]

in

'A and

ntryon] refers

read

"^d-.-n

Aqiba's time.

= "skill,"

though

in s*"

Ha.
it is

<S renders it in all three passages by

which does not give quite the thought. '':]="that" as in Gn. i*
as in
Job 22'^ cf. Ko. 4i4C. HNjp], "jealousy" is often used with
Dt. 32" Pr. 3", etc. p,
I K. iQio Nu. n", etc., and with 3 as in

dvSpeia,

PXJp],

y-iy-^o Z"<H

ciprocal idea,

in

this

w'-'N

K\"i is

6.

PNjp

Sieg.,

McN. and Ha.

McN.
The

is

used to express the

Gn.
Mand.,

sloth.

29'* 48'<',

re-

concludes that the true reading

point

is

uncertain, however, since

(5.

rightly consider this vs. a proverb inserted

by

was probably introduced because the context seemed to

p3-] generally in BH. means "to embrace," cf. ch.
It is connected with Aram. r>2n and similar
etc.

encourage

is

in his text,

(Jb* reading Sri t6 ^rjXoi dvSpl,

here a copula and might not be represented in

It

in

From

omitting N^n,

":;,

some glossator.
3

expression the

Ko. 3o8b.

cf.

which Swete adopts

was

':',

and Ar. stems. The root means "to embrace," except

Here it
ii
stem means to "gather together."
used figuratively for folding the hands. ntra S3N]="to destroy
Syr.

Ar., but

one's self,"
Hit.,

the Ar.

cf.

Ps. 27* Mi. 3'

Wr., Wild.

Is. 492*

Pr. 30>,

So, correctly, Ty., Kn.,

Gins.'s explanation, "to enjoy a delicate repast,'

ECCLESIASTES

Il8

which he bases on the analogy

The

wrong.
6.

that laziness

is

is

and ^c;' are the ace. expressive of the

means the "two hollow hands full."

2'JDn]

elsewhere only in Ex. 9* Lv.

{Yoma,

and

5'),

16'*

n.sns) ^in], a repetition of the

3i5n.

Di],

Pr. 30^

It is

4'.

phrase of

"inN],

8.

waw

which

in

4',

on the use of

thi.

occurs

It

in

NH.

7. >r3C')

consecutives

Ez. 2^^* and K6.

cf.

material,

found also

kindred to Syr. huphim and Eth. ha/an.

is

occur, see note on

'

Ez. 10*

39', is

suicide.

nSc], after this nnj,

Ko. 333d.

cf.

22" and Ez.

of Ex. i6'* 2i' Is,

sentiment of the verse

according to Ko. 3716, means "neither." hni p dj] (S

dji p ci, which was probably the pre-Aqiban read-

and 0H read ns
ing.

The

the Kt.

supported by

is

Eur., Ty.

and

VI.

Munah

nsM with the accent

pointing

17" we find ns) with Mcrka.

It

and

21

has

and

"B

work

defended by

is

is

it

stereotyped gloss, Ha. regards Nin

;'n ]^y;^

The Hebrew

their authors.

K.

of the

i4-

").

is

the reading

Bick., p.

12, regards

Zap. rejects ^Jn nr di as a

Sin ni o) as a gloss. These

who

opinions are only convincing to those

members

the latter

probably original.
editor.

of a

As

rry],

Hit., Heil., Zo.,

Mi. 4" and

(cf.

clumsy

this verse as the

In Pr.

unusual.

in its favor the fact that the

body are frequently mentioned in pairs

The Qr. is supported by (8, C, and &.
hardest to account for,

is

(2^ with Dj3i (2").

|NVi

Cf.

hold the peculiar views of

BS. (14O expresses the thought

text of

of this passage thus:

:nr ;-3;*3."i" ipji^sa)

-insS V3p' ik'dj yj)D

McN. and

Ha. regard these vvs. as proverbial additions

There can be no doubt as to the proverbial character of the material, but it is an open question whether Qoh. himself
may not have introduced them. They explain and give definiteness
9-12. Sieg.,

made by

glossators.

to vs. 8, but possibly

9.

nnNH and

(3i3h) hold,

one person.

epexegetical glosses introduced by others.

47

and Dn.

i'",

also

in;r"\

i57a. 10.

Ges.K-

here denotes an indefinite sing.,

plural

cf.

Ges.'^-

Sn u"n ncN>i in Gn. 11' and Ju. 6".

may have been Dip^ jrn nns'T Sc\

^,

and

"B,

Q>,

and seems probably

i57a.

This

The

Kn. comthe

is

If so, the

correct.

iSc:].

Dr. suggests that the

original text
of

Wr. and Ko.

used because the writer individualizes two persons and

i-'s]= "because," or "for," cf. ch, 6'* 10" Gn. 30'*

is

34" Dt. 3" Jos.

pares

may be

the art. in these words, as Ty., Del.,

"Jr't],

reading

corruption of

MT. antedates (&, for it is supported by it. i^v^] is taken by d and i>
and many Heb. MSS. as= ''V "iin. So, among interpreters, Kn., Gr.,
mn is regularly "woe," cf. Nu. 21" i S. 4'
Del., VI. and Ko. (32ic).
Is. 3 and Ez. 13'' (where it is spelled "in).
QI takes it as the Aram.

iS'K=Heb.

iS,

in

BH.

p.

43b.^"'nNn

"if."

The former

view

only here and ch. 10", but in

^h],

the "nNn

is

is

correct.

NH.

in apposition

it

>x]="woe" occurs

appears as

with the

'n,

suffix,

cf.

Ja.,

and the

POPULARITY OF YOUNG KING

governing ins,

suffix is anticipatory, the prep, logically

Del. remarks,

28".

it

down

see

in.-.,

cf.

e.g.,

Heb., though also

common

and

Its

Sabaean.

z^"^*.

in

the

i.e.,

Gn.
and the construc-

reader has to supply

The suffix ^- is
The verb itself

Ko. 323c.

Job

new

to sleep, see e.g.,

I^n] is here interrogative; not so in 2".

impersonal.

is

from the context,

in

11. oj] is often used to introduce a

has an impersonal subject,

iDpri"']

common

the conjunction introduces the apodosis,

tion of the verb

12.

potential.

used regularly for lying

33"'] is

3ni],

and No. regard as

so, Hit., Gins.,

McN. and Ko. (340 o, 343a and 406a). "^D-r.'], as

may be "who falls," or "when he falls." 'io^-n^] Del.

Del., No., Eur.,

thought.

II9

[Ch.4'-"

NH., Aram.

ordinary meaning

(Biblical,

Nab. and

Syr.),

"overpower," and Zo.,

to

is

more

instead of the

occurs only in late

Del., Sieg., Wild.,

McN. and 5DB. so take it here. The context, however,

requires here the

meaning "attack," so correctly Kn., Wr., Ha. and

making insn the subject a reading which Kn.

regarded as right.

subject of npri\

The

structions,
of

tt'-'i*

for
4'

who

'

<S read IH^l,

Ges.^"

prep, following lO"

as in Jos. io, or njj^ in

''JDa

and

the suffix refers

"'HJ;.],

deriv. in

BH. and NH.,

It is parallel to the late

'"T)'!?p.

cf.

the implied robber, the

to

more

is

Dn.

often in such con-

io'.

Ko. 3 12c.

expression

"t^^-I'D

on the use

.:'"':cn],

^n^t^^]

is

late

Heb.

in Ps. 147".

"^V.

vanity of the popularity of certain young kings

set forth the

are not named.

".

Better

is

a youth poor and wise than a king old and foolish,

no longer knows how

of the rebellious he

born poor.

".

to be

came

saw

admonished.

forth

although even

the living

all

Though from

'<.

in his

who walk under

who

the house

kingdom he was

the sun with [the

who

'.
shall stand in his stead.
There was no end to all
whose leader he was moreover those who come after
For this also is vanity and a desire of wind.
could not delight in him.

second] youth,

13. Better

all

is

a youth poor and wise\

the people

to children (i S.

y) and

The word youth

is

applied

at least forty years of age (i

K.

In the East great deference has always been paid to age.

12").

This vagueness presents a

vs.

men

to

Many

theories as to

difficulty in the interpretation of this

whom

Qoheleth

refers,

have been put

Abraham and
Nimrod; the Midrash, between Joseph and Pharaoh, or David
and vSaul. Joash and Amaziah, Cyrus and Astyages, the high
forth.

priest

The Targum makes

Onias and

his

it

a contrast between

nephew Joseph, have

also been suggested.

Graetz believed that the reference was to Herod the Great and
his

son Alexander; Hitzig, to Ptolemy Philipator, who, weak and

ECCLESIASTES

I20

headstrong, had been beaten by

Antiochus

and Ptolemy

III,

Epiphanes,

who came

age of

Winckler beHeves the contrast to be between Antiochus

five;

Egyptian throne

to the

Epiphanes and Demetrius

B.C. at the

in 205

Haupt, between Antiochus Epiph-

I;

a view which would be

anes and Alexander Balas

one could bring the book

down

as late as

Haupt

tempting,

if

Alexander

does.

who

Balas was a youth of humble origin

(c/.

tended to be the son of Antiochus.

Balas was friendly to the Jews

Mac.

(i

This would seem very tempting,

io<^).

make

evidence did not

175 B.C.

Justin, xxxv, i),

it

certain that the

if

the external

book was written before

This evidence makes

(See Introduction, ii, 15).

probable that Hitzig was right and that the "wise youth"
of the Ptolemies,

his

when he came

who

perhaps Ptolemy V,

aged father Ptolemy IV.

to the throne.

Ptolemy

14.

in 205

it is

the sun],

Symmachus,

better with

whom

Ewald,
in

Gn.

in the

it

designated a youth

kingdom and who usurped

held that the youth

is

the living

of popular

Second youth.]

and has been variously explained.

Marshall follows, thought

4i<, i.e.,

the

McN. and Haupt

15. All

an hyperbolical expression

here a difficulty

is

years old

last clause of the

enthusiasm upon the young king's succession.

Second

five

designated because

It is so

to take the whole verse as referring to the youth.

who walk under

it

one

of the rebellions] prob-

Ptolemy IV persecuted the Jews; see 3 Mace.

Targum, Wang., Del., Wr. and VI. take the
verse to refer to the old king, but

is

B.C. succeeded

was but

House

ably refers to the Ptolemaic dynasty.

pre-

it

analogous to ''second"

who

held the second place

the throne.

Kn., Del. and Wr.

''second," the old king, his predecessor,

first.
Del. cites as analogies the use of "other," Mt.
and "others," Lk. 23". The expression and interpretation are,
however, unnatural. As McN. declares it can only mean a second
youth.
Bick., Sieg., Ha. and Dr. (the last hesitatingly) regard
second as a disturbing gloss.
Erase this, and we have, on Hitzig's
view, a picture of the enthusiasm with which Ptolemy V was

being

8",

greeted.
to the

If

second

is

genuine,

it

would, on our view, be a reference

enthusiasm which greeted Antiochus III when he conquered

Jerusalem

in

198 B.C.

future, because

(r/.

Jos. Ant.

spoken from the point

xii,

3'').

Who

of view of the

shall stand],

moment when

POPULARITY OF YOUNG KING

In his

the enthusiasm burst out.

youth.

ine, in place of the first

in

after],

waned because

time

short

''second"

i.e., if

is

genu-

A^^ end of all the people], hyper-

young king's

bole again, referring to the

came

stead],

16.

121

4'-'

[Ch.

Those who

accession.

popularity

the

Epiphanes

of

Then

of the corruption of his advisers.

Anti-

ochus III (200-198) attached Palestine to Syria, and was gladly

See Bevan, House of Seleucus,

received by the Jews.

II, 37,

and

This also is vanity], the old refrain. Specific

y.
cases have demonstrated the fleeting character even of royal
Jos. Ant.

prestige.

xii,

If these are

was thinking, he had

13. 2Yc],

Horayoth,
It is

not

i.e.,

3*.

not the real instances of which Qoheleth

similar ones in mind.

better suited to govern,

pDCJ,

uncommon

in

poor, occurs in

Aram., see

e.g.,

what

cf.

BH.
the

said of a high priest,

is

only here and in ch.

9'*-

!.

passage, and to Dt.

01 of this

In Babylonian (Code of Hammurabi) the word occurs as miskenu

and designates the lowest class of citizens above slaves {cf. Code, col.
The root pD, "to be poor," occurs in
vi, 65, and CT., XII, 16, 42b).
Just why it should be applied
Is. 40*, and Pp?p?, "poverty," in Dt. 8*.
8'.

Ptolemy V, we know too little of the history of the times to tell.

word is an early gloss added by some one who did not per'^."'.] is used not only of
ceive that the reference was to a royal youth.
to

Possibly the

boys, but of Joseph

of

when

17 years old (Gn. 37'),

Jeroboam who were about 40 years old

to a

the

reference

^nr,

"to be bright," but

is

real

boy.

-\^u]

is

this is doubtful

K.

(i

and

of the

companions

Here, however,

128).

usually explained as from

{cf.

BDB.

264a).

In Niph.

means "warn," or "admonish," cf. ch. la'^ Ez. 320 33<- and
*A, S, and
render rov (pvXd^ejdai, "to be on one's guard,"
Ps. 19''.
but this destroys the parallelism. 14. cn^Dn], some MSS. and <B, 10,
read amoNn (see Baer and Dr.). AE., Kn., Heil., Gins., Heng.,
Del., Wr., No., VI., Eur., McN., Kam. and Ges.K- (35d) hold this to
and Hiph.

it

be the true rendering on the ground that

in late

Heb. n

& and 21 give the word a different interpretation, and

Ha. take

from

it

"md,

the truth.

his theory.

with most interpreters

the sake of

"though."

Je.

2'^'

to the old king as S,

its

This

17")-

{cf.

may mean

believe to be nearer

was but a. tour

"although"
Ko. 394f) than as "for" with McN. For
DJ

^3],

it

is

the

sufTix

21,

Wang.,

usual meaning.

it is

imperf.,

better to take this as

consistency, however, the

mi^Scs],

ably has here

{cf.

Gr.'s contention that

nx^J is perf.
fit

often dropped.

"to turn," the derivatives of which

"rebels," or "outcasts"

de force to

is

Ew., Hit., Dale and

first

"'D

should

be

rendered

probably refers to the "youth," not

Del.,

Wr. and

It is true,

VI.

held.

as Ty., Gins,

nSu]

prob-

and Gr. hold.

ECCLESIASTES

122

Mishna it means "arise" or "become" (c/. Terumoth, 8,

and Temurah, 3*), but a more natural meaning is obtained
by taking it in its ordinary sense. It then means that the "youth"
was born poor in the kingdom which he afterward ruled. Possibly
that in the

Ned.f

9',

clause,

this last

account

of

por,

probably

cf.

Egypt

of

disorders

and XIV,

more common,

a gloss, though

is

state

political

bius, V, 107,

is

like

impoverished

the

to

42*.

Is.

12.

may

preceding

in the

'jr] is

supported by

sense of " reign" or " arise," see

and

The Kal

the Versions,

all

BDB.

764a.

Gn. 21"
Its

hold.

Kit.
26*.

imperf tense
.

o;*],

in the

"'^>''],

is

is

and

paralleled

often used of a successor to a throne, see

is

r^n'"'

cf.

Poly-

Cf.

reign.

not a gloss, as Bick., Sieg., Ha. and

K. 3" and Job 15",

possibly refer

15. DoSnrn], the Piel part.

"with," in the sense of "on the side of,"

it

Ptolemy V's accession on

at

means "posterity"
who come after."
If we are right in our interpretation of the passage, but seven years had
3n^joS n"n "iu'n]=" before whom he was," i.e., whose leader
passed.
he was, cf. Ps. 68* and 2 Ch. i'", thus Ros., Ges., Gins., Del. and Wr.
Ew. misunderstood it and made ^^~ refer to the two preceding kings.
djJ is ad1^, V and IB changed on- to 1-, misunderstanding it also.
iQi

e.g.,

2 S.

(cf.

i" and

Is. 41*),

Ch.

i.

16.

D"'jnnNn] often

but here probably simply "those

versative,

5'

-^

(Heb.

cf.

Ko. 373n.

4'^-5) treats of

shams

in religion.

(417). Guard thy foot when thou goest to the house of God, and
draw near to obey is better than that fools should give sacrifice, for
*(i). Do not be rash with thy
they do not know (except) to do evil.
mouth and let not thy heart be hasty to utter a word before God, for
God is in heaven and thou on the earth, therefore let thy words be few.

5>

to

For dreams come through a multitude of

*(*).

And the
<>.

is

When

voice

business,

of a fool through a multitude of words.

thou vowest a vow to God, do not delay to

no delight

in fools,

what thou vowest

fulfil.

fulfil

it,

Better

*<*'.

for there
is

it

thou shouldst not vow than that thou shouldst vow and not
(*'.

Do

speak

not permit thy

in the

mouth

to

make

presence of the angel, for

it

thy flesh to
is

an

error,

a multitude of dreams and words are many

6' (4'^.

Do

Guard thy foot].

thoughtlessly, or because

it is

should

^().

vanities), but fear

God

{For in

thou God.

not run to the place of worship

the fashion to go frequently, but con-

sider the nature of the place

preted by what follows, this

and do not

sin,

Why

be angry at thy voice and destroy the work of thy hands,

that
fulfil.

is

and thy purpose in going. InterThe house of God]^

the meaning.

SHAMS IN RELIGION
often used in the

OT.

[Ch.5'-^

for the temple,

probably means that here, though some think

Whether

how we

it is

Mi.

6^

The

sacrifice].

the whole,

it

be taken

may have

more probable

is

votive sacrifices.
sacrifices

S.

than that fools

15" Am. 5"

Qoh. was think-

and obedience, and that

we interpret vows as

topic, unless

except

to

do

They go from

evil].

with an easy conscience to plunge again into

Rash with thy tnouth

God

to refer to vows.

Jitter

is

This

a word].

The

in heaven].

is

evil.

The

verse

Sieg.

<*>.

paraphrased

is

and Ha. are

in

their

explained in

^'\

vs.

belief in the transcen-

dence and aloofness of God, Qoheleth shared with his age,

ii5.

On

referred to the synagogue.

that this verse refers to the well-

up a new

Know

is better

literally,

contrast between literal sacrifice

the next verse takes

It

37'.

the synagogue.

it

be interpreted by the following verse as

to

if it is

figurative for words, he

known

To obey

sentiment recalls

If this sacrifice is to

ing of the temple;

Is.

23

temple or synagogue depends upon

to be regarded as

interpret the next clause.

should give

12"

S.

cf.

cf.

Ps.

BS. 7'^

right in regarding this verse as a gloss.

5* and in reality breaks the connection

was probably introduced because the
reference to a fool's multitude of words seemed kindred in meanIt has a proverbial form and is apparently the
ing to vs. 4(').
It is

a proverb, kindred to

of the thought here.

work

of the

the vs.

is

Hokma

It

The

glossator.

of business].

sentiment of the

The words apparently mean

that one

with cares cannot sleep, but in that case there

with the next clause.

Tyler thought the

referred to the multiplicity of images

troubled dream.
of a fool " closer.

but not

all

<*>.

cf.

Nu.

30 Ps. 50'*.

were not infrequent

in later

23='.

Do

who

is little

is

worried

connection

multitude of business"

the confused action of a

parallel with the

it is

This

"words

not clearly expressed,

is

taken with as

little

For other statements about

not delay to

Judaism, and

fulfil].

many

Gn. 28" Lv. 27

Hasty vows

evasions were at-

tempted, as the Talmudic tract Nedarim shows.

the sort here referred to, see

part of

clear.

thou vowest a vow\

change as possible from Dt.

vows,

meaning

popular proverbs are

When

**

and

This would make the

If this is the

first

Dreams come through a multitude

expressed in BS. 31'*.

On vows

of

Ju. ii'" Jos., BJ.

ECCLESIASTES

124

Mk.

15'; f/- a-lso

ii,

God

7" Acts 18" 21".

They

fooh'sh.

There

Vows

has no delight in them.

is

no delight in fools].

are the favorite resort of the

What

think to bribe Providence.

thou vowest ful-

fil].

This expresses in another way the meaning of Dt. 23"

verse

is

quoted

BS. 18".

in

^^ >.

Qoheleth's point of view on this point

at least honest,

Do

The

".

Better not to vow], for one

is

then

similar

is

by rash vows.

not permit thy mouth]

to that of Acts

5<.

Thy

Flesh here stands for the whole personality perhaps

it is

In

Flesh].

<*)

used here because the Jews thought of punishment as corporal.

This has been variously interpreted:

the presence of the angel].

(i)

has been held that angel

It

alluding to God.

^ actually read "God" here.

is

is

This view has

God's representative

a priest as in Mai.

(2)

either

2''

in its favor the fact that (8

That angel

God

it

is

Qoheleth has

he angry].

much

Probably the

of

which underlies our expression, "tempting Providence."

many

in a multitude of dreams and words are

But fear thou God].

the connection.

This

is

3.

first in-

Why

should

God

as that

^*\

This

vanities].

other interpolated proverb, corresponding to vs.

vs.

or

as a temple messenger

same idea

the

3,

That we

(3)

Error], a sin of inadvertence.

right.

of

and

messenger)

Mai.

here, of course, a priest.

recorded vows and collected the dues.

terpretation

(literally

prophet as in Hg.

should translate "messenger," and regard

who

way

a later and more reverent

It

is

For
an-

interrupts

the conclusion to

6.

1-7.

and

McN.

regards these verses as the work of the Chasid glossator,

Sieg. assigns vvs.

One

and

2 to

Q*

a term which covers a mass

of glosses.

with so keen an eye for glosses as Ha. has, however, regarded

and

Really the whole section, except vvs. 3 and 7a,

Because he held a Sadduca^an point of view, he was not
1 (4'^). T'VjnJ is, according to
prevented from speaking of religion.
vvs.
is

as genuine.

Q.'s work.

Qr., "iSjn, a reading

and

is

probably

MSS. and (5, #, and ,

Analogies can be adduced for the plural {e.g.,

which

right.

is

supported by 160

i'* 4s).

Ps. 119")

and

goes,

a matter of indifference which reading

it is

"when,"

as in

for the sing. (Ps. iiq"* Pr.

Gn. 18".

<S,

6 and

inf.

3 np]

it

as an

inf.

4*, 71',

meaning

nyN3]=

and

Megill.,

was taken by Ros.,DeW.

continuing the imperative construction, but recent

interpreters (Kn., Del., Wr., No., Zo., VI., Ha.

regard

far as the

followed.

Tal., Jer., Berak.,

yic, Tosephta, i7=',read ">-'Na bymistake.

and others as an

So
is

used as the subject.

and Ko. (223a)

nn?;],

2vj

is

to

rightly

be supplied

OPPRESSION, DESPOTISM, RICHES [Ch.5M)

in thought before this, as in

i33e, and Ko. 3080.

Ges.^^

9'', cf.

125
(S,

%, and

much

mean "they do not know (how)

which is obviously contrary to Q.'s thought. Kn, under"they do not know when they do evil," Del. and Eur. "ignor-

take the word as a noun="gift," but this is an error.

;n nir;''^ d^/It* dj'n] has occasioned
n3T D-'^Djn] (^ read oS-'Don nar.

to

do

stood

evil,"
it

ance makes for

Sieg.,

naturally seems to

It

trouble.

tions has to be

made, the

The

out after D^pv.

MT. 2

support

(>.

cn^NH

Dt. i4 15"

i8

""Jd"^],

a not

uncommon

37>^

Is.

God

where

i.e.,

a^tay?:],

verse

is

on

i'.

Hb.

2*

paraphrased

and

Ps. i9'2.

to "nNn nS of the
o-inSuS]

in

as a gloss.

It is

his

for a class,
(iniquity).

w). -\-i'ND]

and

house;

\-iDi;'

"?;'

Ex. i6

cf.

late

{cf. Ko. 334b),

and rare usage. This

cf.

DiSnn], the art. is

<2).

Ges.^- i26r.

3">3]

pjy], see

instrumental,

is

corresponds to^^of Dt.

23*2.

cf.

-inNn Sn]

same passage. Ha., for metrical reasons, erases

As
;'on] means usually "delight," "pleasure."

Yahweh

the "delight" of

':';*

in

BS. 7", see Heb. text. 3

make the sing, stand

S read d.voiiXa.%=\\'S

Ps. 15^

^Ji:'"'

is,

all

23"

e.xpression, see Ex.

as a plural predicate

occurs elsewhere only in Ps. 109*.

used to

while

nir;-"',

older than any of the Vrss., for they

is

*^>] is

""O

before

to rvi'ySD.

Parallel expressions are

Ps. 5o' Pr. I61".

Pr. i6".

last is

error

One of these emendathe simplest, as the c may easily have fallen

emends

follows,

dn

supplied

Re.

doing,"

evil

whom McN.

his "will," also PI. takes

is

to

it

mean

"fixed

no fixed purpose in fools" not enough to fulfil

a vow. Such a meaning would be attractive, if it had lexical authority,
'^^v \-T\ ->'i'x ns].
Zap. erases this as a
but it has none. Cf. Is. 62^
purpose,"

i.e.,

"there

is

gloss for metrical reasons.

an

<*>.

I.-j],

"permit," takes

in the sense of

and dat. of the end, cf. Gn. 20 31^ Ex. 39 Nu. 22"
9I8.
N^tpn*^] is for
is omitted as in Job
Sometimes
l'"c], instead <S and & read D^dSn, which
53q.

ace. of the object

Ju.

K'Onn^,

Job 31".
cf.

was probably

7.

J8. 19.

njju'] is often

the original reading,

for sins of error or inadvertence,

i^te.

*^

Ges.'^-

BD5.,

cf., e.g.,

used
Lv.

in

4^

Such sins were readily atoned by offerings.

Lv. and Nu.

""

and Nu.

^n^]

is

used

Ko. 3546. 7 ). The first

part of the vs. is a proverbial interpolation, but its te.xt is evidently corrupt.
It is probably a variant of vs. 3, and was written on the
margin, afterward creeping into the text. The simplest emendation

in

is

Heb. idiom as we would use "lest,"

to

It is
is

51
(2)

suppose that Q'^^n and

thus translated above.

a-'-^ai

<8,

&,

cf.

have been accidentally transposed.

read nns for pn, which reading

"H, IC,

to be followed.

(7).

69 treats

Of riches,

of oppression:

(i)

Of despotic government,

6 ">. If thou seest oppression of a

justice

and

5*, ;

s^o-e*.

right in a province,

poor

man and

do not look

in

the wresting of

astonishment at the

ECCLESIASTES

126

matter, for one high officer

is

higher ones above them.

<\

whole
"

a king

is

who

loves silver will not be satisfied with silver, nor

loves riches, with gain;

crease, eaters of

watching above another, and there are

But an advantage to a country on the

an agricuUural land.

(i.e.)

He who

(9),

them

also this

increase,

the sight of his eyes?

i*

is

and what
Sweet

(">.

"

vanity.

is

profit

When

<<.

goods

in-

has their owner except

the sleep of the laborer, whether

much, but the satiety of the rich does not permit him
'
(12). There is
to sleep.
a sore evil which I have seen under the
" <3). And that wealth
sun,
wealth guarded by its owner to his hurt.
he eat

or

little

unlucky adventure, and he begat a son and there

hand. '^ <"'. As he came naked from the womb

perished in an

was nothing

in his

came; and nothing shall he rewhich he can carry in his hand, " <>*). Also

of his mother, he shall go again as he

ceive through his labor,

this is

a sore

vantage
he

is

in

is it

evil

to

exactly

him

as he

came

so shall he go,

"

that he toiled for wind.

much

darkness and mourning and

(').

and what ad-

Also

all his

days

vexation and sickness and

anger.
18

Behold what

(17).

drink and to see good

number

of the

19 (18).

saw,

days of his

Also every

a good

in all one's toil

man

life

to

that

is

toils

which God gives him,

whom God

is it to eat and
under the sun the

beautiful

which he

for that

is

his lot.

has given riches and wealth and

it and to take up his lot and to rejoice in

God. " (). For he will not much think
his life, for God occupies him with the joy of his heart.
an evil which I have seen under the sun, and it is heavy

has empowered him to eat of

his

work

this is the gift of

on the days of

6'. There is
upon mankind; ^ A man to whom God has given riches and wealth
and honor and he lacks nothing for himself of all that he desires, but
God has not empowered him to eat of it, but a stranger eats of it this
'.
Though a man beget a hundred (chilis vanity and an evil disease.
dren), and live many years and multiplied are the days of his years, but
I have seen
his soul is not satisfied with good, and also he has no burial,
.
For into vanity it came and
that an untimely birth is better than he.
into darkness it shall go and with darkness shall its name be covered,
*,
Yea the sun it saw not, nor had knowledge. This has more rest than
.
the other.
And if he live a thousand years twice over and good he
does not see, are not both going unto the same place ?

7.

All the

And

of

man

is

for his
is

mouth,

not satisfied.

For what advantage has the wise man over the fool, and what the
who knows how to walk before the living ? . Better is the sight
This also is vanity and a dethe eyes than the wandering of desire.

poor
of

toil

yet his appetite

sire of

wind.

OPPRESSION, DESPOTISM, RICHES [Ch.5M)

5

one

to

The unequal

oppression].

(7),

{cf. ch. 4'"

pessimism

Oriental state

Wresting of

and

justice

from time immemorial

of thought

as a

when he

The

right].

own
One high

looks out for his

official

an excellent description

should

As each

under them.

that the poor peasant

Higher ones

heap

This

perhaps an impersonal allusion to the king.

be squeezed.

a country on the whole

is

officer

above

them].

An

^^K

Qoheleth thinks

a king].

was

the lowest stratum

of the

to

officer is

of a satrapial

might be done to the poor, but to squeeze

wonder

an oppressor, no

after all,

interests,

the fact that these officials were watching, not,

revenue out of the petty officials

vantage

it.

constant complaint against

appropriateness of this remark to Qoheleth's line

lies in

rule, that justice

is

may lead
how an

considers

to the present day.

watching above another],

The

but

),

life

organized and governed he does not marvel at

is

Oriental rule, where each

system.

oppressions of

127

ad-

that,

monarchy has some advantages. Others have thought

Herod had some good points (cf. Jos. Ant.
in that they prevented plundering raids and rendered

that even kings like

xvi, 9'),

agriculture secure.

10

^*K

He who

loves

serves as the starting-point for

Will not be

of riches.

cause his desire

is

amount

I,

consume

our text:
the

more

"Do
I

it.

was

reflections

The

11

eyes?].

miser
('">.

is

always poor, be-

What

One can

It

upon the vanity

profit

has their

really enjoy but a

who has more, has

only the pleasure

For similar sentiments,

cf.

Herod.,

and Xenophon, Cyroped., VIII, 3"**.

passage (40) is particularly in harmony with

32; Horace, Satires,

part of the last

some

satisfied].

of wealth, he

of seeing others

reflection

this

officials referred to in vs. 8.

not satisfied.

owner except the sight of his

limited

perhaps

silver],

suggested by the rapacity of the

I, i^""

you think, Sacian, that

possess?

Do

I live

with more pleasure

you not know that

neither eat, nor

more pleasure than when I was

poor? But by having this abundance I gain merely this, that I
have to guard more, to distribute more to others, and to have the
trouble of taking care of more."
12 <">. Sweet is the sleep of the

drink, nor sleep, with a particle

laborer].

Qoheleth recognizes that the healthy out-door

the peasant has

some

blessings which

money

life

of

not only cannot buy,

ECCLESIASTES

128
but which

14

(">.

it

destroys.

guarded

hurt], i.e. J

After

hand].
^'^^

As

Wealth guarded by

He

all

begat a son

and

there

in a caravan which
was nothing in his

Probably, as Del. remarked, Qoheleth

For similar thoughts, see Ps. 49'" and

<'^'.

Both

this vs.

What

vs. 14.

and the preceding were suggested

advantage], perhaps, refers back to

Graetz thought.

father, as

Toiled for wind], a figurative

expression for nothingness, only in late writings.

ii2.

17

to his

his anxiety he has nothing to leave his offspring.

mind.

by "father" in

Cf. Is. 26'* Pr.

The vs. refers to

who are bent upon

All his days he is in darkness].

^'O).

self-denial

owner

its

he came naked].

has Job 1 21 in
I Tim. 6^
16

the

^^^K

expense of anxiety and sleeplessness.

Unlucky adventure], such as speculation

robbers capture.

15

13

at the

and mental

distresses of those

accumulation of wealth.

the
the

Qoheleth's thought reminds us of that

I Tim. 6% ''They that desire to be rich fall into a temptation

and a snare and many foolish and hurtful lusts."

in

18

"'>.

good that

evils incident to the

advocates the enjoyment of

this is the order of life

of his

life

enjoyment

appointed

man by God.
The

19

ily

It is

an

iteration

sentiment probably refers

(i^),

This expresses the same thought as

in

Qoheleth

of present good, in contrast to miserly self-

denial for the sake of hoarding.

The way

17,

as one goes along, claiming that

fundamental philosophy.

to rational

In contrast to the

is beautiful is to eat].

accumulation of wealth given in vs.

j'his is the gift of God].

in a different

vs. 18

way.

which Qoheleth dwells upon the idea shows how heart-

he was in favor of getting rational enjoyment as one goes along.

The

vs. is

much

quoted and opposed

One

think].

will not

Wisdom 2\
life's

20

brevity,

<''.

Will

if it is

but believes in being content with such satisfactions as

has allotted to man.

Di
6*.

verse.

There

2.

is

Has

an

7iot

full of

Qoheleth sees no very bright ray illuminating

proper enjoyment.
Hfe,

in

brood over

On

the sentiment,

tibi divit'ias

evil].

cf.

Hor. Epist.

I,

God
4,

dederunt artemque fruendi.

The phrase

introduces the following

given riches and wealth and honor]. This descrip-

tion is almost identical with that in 5",

where Qoheleth described

what he regarded as the

life

right course of

for a prosperous

man.

OPPRESSION, DESPOTISM, RICHES

The

description

[Ch.5^-G^

purposely repeated here in order to

is

29

set forth

what inQohelcth's judgment is one of Hfe's greatest misfortunes.

God has not empowered him to eat of it]. "To eat" is used in the
Perhaps he does not enjoy
sense of "enjoy," cf. Is. 3'" Je. i5'.
it

through worry, or because

he has

lost the

not even a son to inherit

in the

real

its

it,

hard processes of obtaining

A stranger eats of it].

power of enjoyment.

enjoyment

is

He

it

has

obtained by an-

Though a ynan beget a hundred children]. A numerous

offspring was to the ancient Hebrew an object of great desire, and
its possession regarded as a great blessing, r/., e.g., Gn. 24" and
other.

Ps.
2 S.

3.

27*-*.

and

24'

hundred]

simply a round number,

is

And

Pr. 17'".

many

live

Long

years].

regarded as one of the most desirable blessings,

11"

*'

and

Soul

Pr. 28''.

the following lines

{cf.

i.e.,

he does

Also he has no burial].

At the end

Thou
His

of the

Gilgamesh epic are

KB., VI, 265):

He whose dead body

hast seen,

spirit rests

He whose

is

thrown on the

field,

see,

not in the earth.

spirit

has no caretaker

Thou hast seen, I see,

The dregs of the pot, the remnants of
What is thrown in the street, must eat.

food.

Much

This idea prevailed widely among the Greeks.

of the Antigone of Sophocles turns

among

the Hebrews,^/.

Mac.

7'^ 2

Mac.

to burial

Untimely

here

is

birth], cf.

Job

As Delitzsch

observes,

of saying this

is

good or

It

it.

of the plot

also prevailed

Je. i6<

Plumtre's idea that the importance attached

due

to

Greek

influence,

3'

Ps. 58 .

it

the above.

really has

As

in

is

quite wrong.

4. Into vanity

With darkness

into a lifeless existence.

is

"

upon

Job 21" " Tobit i' 2*

also Schwally,LZ>c nach dem Tode,

Is. i4'-

5' 13', see

48-51, and 54-59.

birth

26'*

also

ancient Semites, like the ancient Greeks, attached great im-

portance to proper burial.

Gn.
was

Ex. 20'* Dt.

not satisfied with good],

is

not obtain that enjoyment praised in 5".

The

cf.

cf.

life

shall its

no name.

Job

3'"

and

it

came],

i.e.,

name be covered].
The Hebrew way

Ps. 58*, the untimely

an example of something that has no sensations either

evil,

and which leaves no memory behind

it.

It

of

can be

ECCLESIASTES

130

conscious of no loss or suffering, hence in comparison with the unfortunate in question, Qoheleth regards

sun

it

saw

The

not].

Hfeless

fcrtus

had knowledge], did not come

than the

rest
is

other],

an Oriental

the Buddhistic

fortunate.

and Qoheleth

toil

of

in this expression

6.

good he does

thousand years

mortal existence, which in

Are not both going unto

5'

life.

misses the one redeeming feature of

see],

fiot

Rest

life.

approaches

twice over], twice the length of an antedeluvian patriarch's

And

the

Nor

This has more

and worry

appreciation of Nirvana.

Yea

5.

sensation.

all

to consciousness.

freedom from the

ideal,

it

escaped

the

Qoheleth hasrecognized

same

place?].

Both the

to

be such.

lifeless foetus

and the man whose life has been long but wretched, are destined
to Sheol, and the lifeless foetus is to be congratulated because it
reaches the goal by a shorter and less agonizing way.

man], here the long-lived individual referred to in

and
life

probably used symbolically.

appetite] are

for a satisfaction

has the wise

man

which he never

attains.

8.

7.

The

Mouth

vs. 6.

One toils all his

What advantage

The idea that the lifeless foetus

man prompts a repetition of
What, the poor who knows how to walk

over the fool?].

has an advantage over a prosperous

the thought of ch.
before the living?].

2'^".

This evidently means, as

McN.

has seen,

"what advantage has the poor man, who has got on in the world
by knowing how to walk prudently and successfully, before his
fellow-men?" This, like the question about the wise and fools, is

man
The

suggested by the comparison of the prosperous, long-lived

with the

lifeless foet^^s.

9. Better is the sight of the eyes].

shows that tijs expression means "better is the enjoywhat one has." Wandering of desire], desires for various

last clause

ment

of

unattainable things.
5*

('>.

Sieg., of

Sieg.

and Ha. regard

Q^ his Chasid

this verse as the

glossator.

work

taking n::n in the sense of (XKavSaXl^eadac in Mt.

to

-i?:t:'j,

and following Kn.,

Heil., Zo.,

BD5. and

taking dti^j, plural majestalis, referring to God.

Ew., Del, Wr., Wild., Gins.,

hierarchy of

officials,

as

Pi., VI.

we have done above.

10*.

^J"'"'':],

in the sense of

132',

It

however,

emending

npc'

Ges.*^- (i24h), in

It is better

and McN.

oughly harmonious with Q.*s point of view.

Is.

of a glossator

Sieg. misinterprets the text,

with Hit.,

to interpret

it

of a

then becomes thor-

accD

Sri],

cf.

taotr'D Srj,

"Province," occurs frequently

in the

OPPRESSION, DESPOTISM, RICHES

[Ch.5-6

books, Ezr., Neh., Est., Dn., La., and Qoh.

late

books, only in

K.

2o'<-

" " and

''

"look with astonishment," see

Ez. 19^.

nDnr^]

131

Outside of these

on nop,

in the sense

Job 26".
and Pr. 3113, it has here passed from that
to mean "matter," or "thing," BDB., as in the Talmud, cf. Ja. 492b.
9 <>. This verse has been a crux to interpreters. The various renderings from that of Dod. to that of Sieg. are, when compared, an eloquent
testimony to the difficulty of the verse. n-\r] Dod. emended to ''"'-'
rendering, "Superior land, whose king is a servant of the Almighty."
Ewald and Zo. rendered, "A king set over a land"; Kn., Ges., Vaih.,
"A king who is served by the land"; 21, Ra. and AE., "A king who is
of

)>Dn=" business"

13* 29^ Je. 4* Ps. 48*

Is.

in Is. 58''

"A

subject to the land"; Del., Heng., Wr.,

land,"

and Wild., "King

Ha. have correctly rendered substantially as

alone seems to have correctly seen that niir

and Ko. (286d) hold

king devoted

kingdom which

of a

is

is

it is

that they cannot refer to the

same

show

construed with rnr and not with

article

Gn.

totality, vc/.

161* 2 S. 23^

Perhaps, as

^7ri iravrl.

Ch.

McN.

7^

"i3;'j

8.

nif],

is

to be

Ssj expresses

in

and K6. 30ia.

McN.
McN.

y'>i<.

thing.

that

(S

suggests, the scribe thought

the hierarchy of officials in vs.

The

Ha.

rendered above.

epexegetical of

correctly observes, however, that the accents

"iSd.

to arable

McN. and

served."

and 2 read

it

referred to

literally "field," i.e.,

land for

and
and always means "till."
10 (>. iDj ^hn] was regarded by Zirkel as a Graecism=0tX<ip7i'/3os,
a view which McN., p. 41, has sufficiently refuted. See above, Introduction, 6 (i).
IDo was among the ancient Semites the specific word
pasturage or
Ez. 36-

for

tillage.

3 dhn. -3 occurs with

It is parallel to

ans only here.

-2 yon in Nu. 148 2 S. is^*,

the sense "whoever,"

Ko. 382b.
root,

in Dt. 21*

*,

money.

idea.

This Niphal occurs only

12;?:].

strengthens the

'c] is

used

in

Ex. 24" 322* Ju, 7^ Is. 44'" Pr. 9<- , also

pan] usually means "multitude," being derived from a
cf.

"to roar," or "murmur."

"wealth,"

It
etc.

60* Ps. 37'"

cf. Is.

may have been

poc, since that

fore |iDn he regards as

due

Sometimes

Ch.
is

has as here the meaning

it

Dr. thinks the original reading

291*.

the reading of

to dittography.

&

and 21. The 2 beo] Zap. regards

'^an nr

as a stereotyped gloss, while Ha. refers the whole verse to a glossator.

11

oo).

pon^l affords an example

time by a prep, and an

infinitive.

of a common

Sem. method

of denoting

Cf. the As. ina kascuiisa="

when she

approached," IV, R., 31, 12; KB., VI, 80, and also cf. Ges.^- 1146.
r\2M3n] is another way of referring to pnn of the preceding vs.
V'^^:^],

see

on

4*.

i^7j,'3].

It

Vyj

primarily
is

means

skill,

but

frequently used in the

pi.

is

here equivalent to inpv

form with a sing, sense, but

iVand Ko. 263k. nw\] is

always before a suffix, c/., e.g., Ex. 21" Is.

probably to be read with Qr., though Eur. takes the opposite view.
Cf. Dr., in loco,

and BDB.

p.

909. 12

('>.

ip';;] (ft,

2,

9 and

read

ECCLESIASTES

132

MT.

"slave."

13?.,

however, supported by &, H, W, and

is,

As AE. noted, Gn.

right.

pression

OH

and

4}

shortened from nniN

is

n^j?,

without

oh], usually

make

Pr. i2i

1,

and

refers to

mean

it

probably

is

probable that the ex-

an agricultural worker.

"either".

"or";

cf.

Ko.

For ';2t', in the sense of " satiety," cf. Dt. 23^^- The construction
n-ijc], Hiph. part,
of the word is a case of casus pendens, cf. Da. 106.
The inf. is usually used
of mj, followed by S, and meaning "permit."
in such constructions, see Ko. 289d.
V'^'% from p\ is one of the
37 ir.

made

rare forms of the inf.

Ges.^- 69n.

13

means "sore,"

It

after the analogy of the strong verb,

nVm

nSin nyn].

^^^K

is

part, of nSn,

cf.

used adjectively.

"deep-seated" (so Del., Wr. and BDB.). (ft

it is followed by #, which leads

or

reads d/)/3W(rTk=" sickness," in which

McN.
is

an

is

so

to conjecture that the pre-Aqiban reading

evil sickness."

much more

and

support

01

intelligible that

it

was

pn

"'Sn

MT., however, and

v\ "there
its

can but be regarded as the

reading
original.

Qo. the adj. regularly follows the

cf. Je. 14" Na. 3".
For the use of the passive followed by V to express agency, see Gn. 14"
and Ko. 104. "i^Sjo] see on vs. 12. Ha., on account of his metrical
14 d^). nyi fjj?], most
theory, erases rn^'n nnn and iny>S as glosses.

Then, as Kn. long ago observed,

The Niph.

noun.

in

of nSn has a similar meaning,

interpreters agree that the phrase

pj;?]

on

see

i>^

no].

means "a bad business,"

Kn., Gins., Heil. and PI. hold that

refers to the father or the son.

refers to the former, while Gr., VI.,

Wild, rightly remarks that

comparisons,

in

On

n^SS 3iC'i]="go again."

is

often used to express

literally

K. 5" Ps.

Tl^T was read by

ably a Kal, but
that

is

glosses.

account of

is

it

''"

it

to the latter.

Ha., for his usual

15

<">.

"^^'hd] is fre-

i6ib and Ko. 388h.

Ges.^its

idea,

poverty in adverbs,
cf.

Ges.^- i2od.

3v.i'
sir'"'],

here used in the sense of "receive," as

iSdv^], the 2 expresses instrumentality.

"i^'aJ.

Ko. (i94b) regards

better to regard

it

"iS*

here as prob-

as a Hiph. Jussive.

Wr. notes

one of the few Jussives in the book. Other instances he beoccur in 10" (n^J:) and i2< (o^p'). 16 <i5). nSm ny-\], on this,

it is

lieves

see

24".

and S

(ft

it

cf.

Sieg. refer

refer to either.

an adverbial

"take up," "carry,"

Dt. 33

in

may

it

No. and

and noinc as

reason, regards Kinn ic^'n

quently used

or "venture."

Interpreters differ as to whether the sufl&x

on 5"

<').

-^

nDy-^D]

is

variously regarded by different scholars.

Geiger, who is followed by Wild., McN., and Ges.^"-, regarded it as a

compound of o, S, and poy, comparing i Ch. 258. Ko. (2771, 339r
and 37in) seems to favor this view. On the other hand, Del., who is
followed by Wr., Sieg. and BDB., regards the expression as an imitation
of the

Aram, -n lap

This view

MT.
is

is

correct.

of the verse

impossible.

Sd (Dan. 2"),

pnn^J^read

is

and accordingly as an Aramaism.

r^:^-\n^

= ^epcaaeia dvrod. 17

<).

The

obviously corrupt; a translation of the present text

Many

attempts have been

made

to explain Sdn^ i^'na].

OPPRESSION, DESPOTISM, RICHES

Some, as
like

Del., taking

Mi.

in

att'^

7*.

it

05,

[Ch. 5-6

as Wr., taking

literally; others,

however, reads Kal iv 7r^i'^=

33

figuratively

it

the preposi-

"r^Ni,

from Itrna. This is the best solution of the

and with Gr., Kn., Sieg., McN., and Ha. we adopt it. d;:]
be corrected to D>:d, and taken as a noun with No., Eur., Sieg.,

tion being carried over

difficulty,
is

to

The

McN. and Ha.

as an error

(c/.

of v'rn

untranslatable.

is

We

1.

Ha. regards

n^P"" ^""^n

the metre.

He

('7).

nouns

Ch.

all

governed by

3 in HJi'na.
it

spoils

unnecessarily denies the whole vs. to Q.

This verse contains no Athnah.

in that respect with Gn. 2i Nu.

5 I

and McN.),

as a gloss to the rest of the vs. because

compared

Am.

should be omitted

have observed, arose by an accidental doubling

thus obtain a verse which by supplying a copula

at the beginning contains a series of

18

It

McN.

which, as Kn. and

of the following

(so Kn., Gr., No., Eur., Wild., Sieg.

6^),

262

28' 2

Ch.

As Del.

The phrase

23'.

notes,

it is to be
13" 51" Ez. 4210

9' Is. 361 Je.

r\t^ it:'N

3io

is

difficult.

must be disregarded. Gr.,

PI., Wild, and Sieg. regard this as a translation of the Greek koKov
Del., who is followed
Kdyaddv.
That, however, would be hdm 21C3.
In interpreting

by Wr.,

Ho.

the Massoretic accents

McN. and Ko.

12',

-\dd::] is

(4 14m, 383a), noted that the one parallel

which

Nton-\B>N i;.r=" iniquity

suspicion of

it,

Greek influence

ace. of time,

cf.

is

sin."

As

Hosea, the phrase

in

vn

K6. 33 la.

is

is

in

is

there can be no

not a Graecism.

an accidental misspelling

Sieg. holds that the vs. is the work of the

Cf. Dr., ad he.
Epicurean glossator. Ha. also regards it as the work of a secondary
hand, but as we have interpreted it, it belongs naturally in the sequence

of v>n.

of the thought.

19

(>*>.

(6 irds dvdp(,}iroi=:i-M< So.

D"'Nn ^2].

The

pre-

Aqiban reading apparently lacked the article. d-'Ddj] is an As. or

Aram, loan word, cf. As. nikasu, "possessions," "treasure," Syr. nekse.
(P) 2 Ch. i"- >* and Qoh.
It occurs in Heb. only in late works (Jos. 22*
6* 7".
tO"'Stt'n]= " to emEzr.
e.g.,
in
Aram.,
see
common
6), though

power," has an Aramaic coloring, cf. Dn. 2'8 *. The only Heb. passage
N^n] is a good exin which the meaning approximates is Ps. 119'".
ample of the copula, cf Ges.*^- i4ih. Sieg. and Ha. regard the verse

as the

The

work

the preceding verse, but that

has caused interpreters

The
rty;,

There is little convincing reason for this.

it might be regarded as a doublette of

of the later hand.

only ground would be that

root njy

may

"answer."

latter root,

not in this case convincing.

(i)

nj;-,

Sieg.,

"occupy"

Wild, and Ha.

notes that

the

reading

which was the pre-Aqiban reading, but

desired object of the verb, so that

and

both do, we need to

if

njyc]

<).

to n^y.

(Ar. 'ana, Syr. ''no), or (2)

(cf.

McN. take it from the

JBL., XIX, 71) from the

of (8 Trepi(nrd

avT6p=^ni];^:,

fails to see that this

we take

make no

20

and Dr. would emend

difficulty,

Ew., Del., No., Wr., and

Dejong,

McN.

former.

be

is

much

supplies the

the verb from

nj;?

(i) as

further change in the text

and

ECCLESIASTES

134

obtain the most satisfactory sense.

Aram, loan word (BDB.).

In that case

Ha., in JBL.,

XIX,

in accord with It to u*? nnotyj, so that iS could

much

is

older authority,

with

lieve, it carries
61.

new

is

ly'^]

Ha. and

this vs.

it

MSS. add

"heavy upon";

(18),

i.e.,

after

wrongly make

and

be either as a vb. or an adj.

i

S. 2ii

Del. takes

K. 11" Pr.

12'.

be-

a gloss.

and perhaps 2".

n3n]=
~hy

512.

cddj],
npn] may

8.

The suffix is pleonastic as in Gn. 30",

ijj-'n].

compares

use in

cf. its

this

to introduce

lo^)

cf. 8*,

nSin, as in

n>'-\],

genuine, as

If vs. 17 is

Sieg.

several times used by Q. (4^ 512 8'^

"be great,"

be the object, but (S

simpler and gives the better

topic or example, but not always so used;

Dr. notes that 20

519

is

& and A.

supported by

It is also

sense.

reading

its

r\y; is probably an
proposed to amend

71,

on
form

see

2.

in

here rightly as an adj. and

it

is

partitive after ion,

cf.

and Ko. 81.ib'CJ] "himself," cf. 2^ BD5. noj] ordinarily

"foreigner," but as Gins., Wr., VI. and Sieg., it here signifies one of an-

Gn.

62

other family

not a regular

the reading

is

heir.

y"i

^'?n]= " evil disease,"

peculiar.

is

genuine, Q. must have varied the text from

If

purposely,

S'^

in his mind as an incurable diswhich may have been in his mind).

perhaps because he regarded the thing

ease in

human affairs

(cf. i

2ii2ff,

Ch.

Ha., for metrical reasons, regards DinVsn] in both

this vs. as glosses;

hnd] carries with

1I8.

and

also Nin

support

MT.

it

in

118

and Ne.

"S']

9'.

it

^D""

as a gloss,

may have been

regards

it

above, he

is

and

(5,

supply

IC

Is.

cf.

2K

S.

cf.

&

a-'ja.

as above.

it

t^::'\^

cyi';

cf.

with

By

makes poetry

of

|r,

may

Dr. thinks the original reading

tempted with Ha. to regard vniiy nni

seems such a

i?3r],

part to Artaxerxes

occurrences in

its

dn]= "although,"

interchangeable with

repetition, but as

inserted by Q. for emphasis.

as a gloss.

not be strange.

3.

seems, as Wr. noted, pleonastic, but K6. (387k)

One
it

most recent interpreters take

as an iterative of as.

it

have been vnt oon.

nr.

reading, while B,

its

cyi'], as Del. observes, is

regards

vja>

^Sm S^n

after n^Sv the idea of e^J3,

Hit. follows the latter, but

ni3n

y-\

cf

Is.

McN.

observes,

In late Heb. this would

66^Ki<h nn^n nh

Ha.

\)2p dji].

eliminating this and the gloss mentioned

Del.

it.

Memnon, who

and

PI.

think that the

vs. refers in

had, according to Justin (X,

115

i),

sons by various concubines, besides three begotten in lawful marriage,

and in part to Artaxerxes Ochus, who had no burial, his body being
thrown to the cats. Possibly some such tales floating through the cenGr. takes the

turies, influenced Q.'s expression.

Hyrcanus
is

frequently=

where
cf.

3".

II (cf Jos. Ant. xv, 62), but this

in

IDT,

cf Dt. 9"

Qoh. has the

article,

Je. 3i 431' Ez. 32^ Jo.

y'\'']

2 makes

is
it

S.

but

24" 2
is

2"' 4'*,

is

an

last

S. 14^ Ps.

hni

72". 5.

frequently used in
etc.

clause to refer to

idle fancy.

BH.

B'dc']=">in

4. icr], Du*
C'Dtt*]

else-

without

hni

of

it,

Job

construed by several interpreters like nxn, as governing tt'cr.

govern nnj, but Wild, is right in taking it in the sense of the

OPPRESSION, DESPOTISM, RICHES

[Cu.S^-G^

Lat. sap^re=" to have knowledge" or "discernment,"

Sb'" Ps.

73" 82* and Job

some

be used here as

to

Talmud

in the

(cf.

same meaning as
Hb.

2'.

6.

in

3'9and Ko. 48.

13*.

in the sense of " better," as

39oy.

oipj;!)],

the

dual="two

the preceding numeral, but in

DTHP^S

^^'^"ch

later gloss,

still

'7>"i]= "

but
I

times,"

Is. 3o*

There

enjoyment of

both," see on 2'^

life,

7.

we should

the analogous expression,

i.e.,

in life,

it

The

Dinh].

in vvs. 3

vs. 3.

ing to his measure," or "proportion"

an individual.

aji]

is

It is

The

cf.

sator,

and Ha. breaks

cient warrant.

Gins.,

BDB.

whom

In

8. Sieg.

it

ii.

form

is

article

is

of the
it

by most

may

inter-

right in regarding

it

as

and

6,

the nVdh nS

C'ijjn]

not to be taken with

VT'ijS],

some have th0Ught,=" accordEx. 12* Gn. 47'*), but in its

(cf.

all the consumptive desires

and H in>52 is a corruption.
373n.
rcj]= "appetite," cf. Is. 5'<

Ko.

29' Pr. 16", also IJullin, 4^

appetite," see

n^ic]

used to represent

reading of &,

concessive,

and

introduced (Da. 21 (a)).

recently

Zo. and No. in contrast with vd2, nor, as

ordinary meaning.

worse than

9'"

c/.

as

It is

admirably into the context, that

fit

man mentioned

refers to the

lot is

a proverb so appropriate that

it is

corresponding to yarn S v^dj of

whose

It is true the poetical

it.

to a subject

refers

of

n:3i:2

regard this verse as a gloss,

preters taken to be the generic art., but Gins,

Here

who

Ha.,

nS] after

Di|">c= Sink*,

5'^

cf.

well be introduced by Q. himself.

which

7x7X7-

a limit to Q.'s pessimism.

is

It

and Ko.

usually understood to double

McN. and Ha.

so interpret

saying suggests a proverb, but

the art.

48b).

Ja.

(cf.

ch.

c/".

24" Ps. 52*

dn, Ez. 3*

s*?

a glossator, rejects

to

can so easily be interpreted to

it

think

is

Cf.

we have

has had no enjoyment

that of a lifeless foetus.

refers to the

nr,

S.

but he misses the point of Qoheleth's thought.

man who

only the

;<.

explains as equal to 343,

01

strangely assigns the verse

an Aramaism

is

held by

two passages
must have the

it

Job 3" as well as Qoh. 4* and 9". m

This use of p is very common, c/. i

occurs elsewhere in BII. only in Est.

is

in

it is

observes

nir:].

(=1*? 1N="|'^ V^)

I'jN

McN.

Ja. 886b), but as

45"

44'

Is.

cf.

a segholate noun from mj,

nnj],

35

up

It fits well

into

"B

this latter

assigns

two

into the

this

passage

riD^'n

glosses, but

1^00

= "good

Hokma

glos-

both seem to lack

suffi-

verse to his

development

of Qoheleth's theme.

Dr. follows, would supply |D before yiv] from the

first

and make the meaning, "what advantage has the poor man over
one who knows," etc. Del., Wr. and McN., however, take V"iv as
an attributive without the art. Del. compares Ps. 143'" (naio ini-*),
but as Br. points out (Psalms, ad loc), the words are taken from Neh.
9^", where n^ita has the art.
It is easier to disregard the pointing of
MT. and suppose that 'J>'^] is without the art., then ym can be attribul^n^], for the strong inf.
tive without the art. also (cf. Ko, 41 ic).
D>^n] isnot="life" (Kn.,
instead of pdSS, cf. Ex.3" Nu. 22>- " Job 34".
Hit., Wild.), but "living" (so Gins., Del., Wr., McN., Ha.). 9. Scholclause,

ECCLESIASTES

136

Ha. regards

ars differ as to the genuineness of this vs.

Sdh

the words

and the
glossator the

glossator
verbial

last clause to his

As

really inapt.

it

himself?

scholars to Ps. 352' Gn.

HNnn]

is

found

in late

iSn], again the strong

form of the

S^n

nr dj],

be assigned to a glossator, said of

Q. inserted himself,

vs.

Puny man

510. 12

it

inf.

Compare

of desire."

Wisd, 4'^

'>

to his pro-

Hokma

9a

is

a proverb,

hn-io] has

been com-

if

vs.

but the comparisons are

Heb. only

occurs again in ch. ii and in Yoma, 74b

in

3*, etc.,

It

desire,"

his

it

here used to denote the power of seeing and en-

is

joying a meaning which

= " wandering

assigns

in the case of vs. 7,

not Q. have introduced

many

pared by

McN.

Q'

part which Sieg. attributes to Q', but regards

the last clause as genuine.

why may

R'.

as Q.'s, except

it

Sieg. attributes the couplet to

nt dj].

{cf.

vs. 8.

BDB.

909b).

as in the preceding vs.t trcjiSn]

^c/n/Sao-yuds

etc.

{cf.

Ja. 834b) in this sense.

is,

If,

if

^7rt^uju/a5=" roving of

the

first

however, the

part of the vs.

first

part of the

applies to the roaming of desire.

against Fate.

name has already been called, and it has been

and he will not be able to contend with Him who
". For there are many words which increase vanity.
is stronger than he.
What advantage has man ? ". For who knows what is good for man in
life, the number of the days of his vain life, for he spends them like a
shadow: for who shall tell man what shall be after him under the sun?
That which
known what man
'".

6'".

Its

is, its

is,

name has

already been called].

It

has already existed.

The phrase is perhaps influenced by the Babylonian, in which

"to name a name" is equivalent to saying that the thing named
When, at the opening of the Babylonian Creation
exists.
epic,

the

poet wishes to refer to a time before the existence

of the heavens

and the

of Creation,

i):

I,

When
And
Cf. also

Is.

40".

foreordained.

Creator,

in the

//

to that of Is. 45 46'

of in vs. 10.

As

has been known],

i.e.,

foreknown, and so

mill not be able to contend with

who ordained

crease vanity].

height heaven was not named,

the earth beneath did not yet bear a name.

He

earth, he says (see King's Seven Tablets

his fate.

and Rom.

The
9"".

Him], with

thought of the

11.

his

vs. is similar

Maity words which

in-

Del. saw, this refers to the "contention " spoken

Delitzsch and Wright held that the verse contained

a reference to the disputes between the Pharisees, Sadducees and

PUNY MAN AGAINST FATE

Essenes, as to

how

it

men, the Pharisome of their actions, the Sadducees

them, and the Essenes that it controls all

and BJ. ii, 8'^). To what ex5'; xviii, i'

were carried on as early as the time of Qoheleth,
"

xiii,

tent these disputes

We

however, we do not know.

mentioned

What

cannot clearly trace the sects

man

Qoheleth maintains that

in his time.

so power-

is

his Creator that discussion of the matter

less against

advantage has

Who knows what

37

controls

controls none of

it

(see Jos. Ant.

far fate controls the actions of

sees contending that

that

[Ch.6">-i

No

negative assertion.

The

good for man].

is

futile.

is

powerless position.

his

in

7na7i],

one knows what

is

12.

positive question

is

power,

really good, for

and wisdom have been shown to

The number of the days of his vain life]. This reminds
the reader of the verdict on life which Qoheleth has repeatedly
possessions, sensual enjoyment,

be vanity.

Like a shadow].

reached.

The thought

that

human

life

is

as

unsubstantial as a shadow finds expression several times in the

OT., as

Ch.

Job 8^ Ps. io2' and 144*.

same sentiment from Sophocles:

29'5

expression of the

In this

see that we,

all

we

cites

PI.

an

that live,

Are but vain shadows, unsubstantial dreams.

{Ajax, 127/:)

The thought expressed by Qoheleth

shadow.

like a

What

109".

It

shall be after him].

The

">K'n], i.e.,

what

sort of creature

to ch. 8'

Job

man

is,

is

cf.

good

Dy

piS],

192b), though
parallel

is

in

contain tn>

Gn.

If that

used

Gn.

Ex.

Perhaps, as

14''.

6',

^'n,

at strife," occurs in 2 S. 19'".

Nin Qyz'2

BDB.

(cf.

The

nearest

though there probably the original reading did not

BD5.

Some have
its

was

(in Kit.'s

right.

1>pnna'],

Qr.

T'p.nc'

RH.), a corruption of

']'pn

taken the Kt. as a Iliph., but that

Hiph. does not occur

in

Dn. 2*- " 3" and the cognate Syr.

and Gins, as "things," as QI takes it, but

cf.

6',

occurs only here

192b).
Ty. thought this text an allusion to
had been corrupted into its present form by the time Q.

(cf.

Dr. conjectures
as elsewhere

the sense of

]n:="be

wrote, perhaps Ty.

ch. 2".

in

14^ Ps.

man.

for

Ty. thought, the words were shaped by a reminiscence of Gn.

nt:'3.

life flits

uncertainty of the future

what

creates a part of the difficulty of telling

6'".

human

rather that

is

more nearly akin

is

Heb.

is

H'pr]

probably, as
cf. Sd>'

t^^r\zf'.

not so probable,

is an Aramaism,
was taken by Kn.
and A, which render it

11. d>-\3i]

(6, iJ, "B

is

Ninr,

ECCLESIASTES

138

"words," are rightly followed by most recent interpreters.

se querere

H, to

after the

makes

out the

fill

it

Est.

CJ.

words

MT.

of

Zap.

(f^).

On

'"'^^''],

this vs.

majora

(Kohelet, p. 14)

thinks

in

necessary to adopt an equivalent for these words

The words

line.

a supposed abruptness

relieve

are an ancient gloss supplied to

absence from

in the sentence, liut their

other versions attests that they were a late addition to the text.

all

adds

{=']i^ptp2h?

that the metre

of

Ko. 3i8e.

cj.

iS^n ^-^n], an
ace. of time, cf. Ko. 33 la, also ch. ^".
Da. 24 (c). ory-'i]; nr>*, in the sense of "spend time,"
is without parallel in BH., but occurs in Midrash Tillim {cf. Ja. 1125a).
(8, in Pr. 13", shows that the LXX had before them some such reading
12.

"^BOr.],

an

attrib. gen., cf.

there, while Trotijcrai^es 5^

xP*^*'*"'

iviavrbp (Jas. 4") preserve

(Acts 15" 18")

same idiom

the

(cf.

and

TroL-^aofiev

iKci

also Acts 20' 2 Cor.

Tob. 10' Jos. Ant. vi, i*). The idiom is found in both Greek and
and is claimed by Zirkel and Gr. as a Graicism. McN. would
avoid this conclusion by making S]0 complete the meaning of the verb,
thus, "seeing that he makes them like a shadow."
It seems more natural
Such an idiom may have been borto take the words as a Gracism.
rowed after a few years of Macedonian rule, even if Q. was not influenced by Greek philosophy. \B'n]=" because"; does not differ from
o when n follows, cf. Dt. t,^*. It is causal in Q., also in ch. 4' S^i and
iQis, cf. Ko. 389a.
Sieg. makes the verse a gloss, Ha. four separate
11^*

Latin,

but

glosses,

7'

<.

1.

1.

I see

no reason

for so doing.

A Variety of Proverbs.
A ^i^ood name

is

better than

good ointment,

And

the death-day, than the birth-day.

It is

better to

Than

For that

And

go to the house of mourning

house of feasting,
the end of every man,

to the
is

the living will lay

to heart.

it

grief than laughter,

For through sadness of countenance

Better

4.

The

It is better to

8.

Than for a man to list to songs offools.

As the crackling of nettles under kettles.

is

hearts of wise

But the hearts of

So

is

it is

the laughter
is

well with the heart

are in the house of mourning,

fools, in the

house of mirth.

hear the rebuke of a wise

[This also
1,

men

man

offools.
vanity.]

For oppression makes mad a wise man.

And a

bribe corrupts the heart.

Better

is

Better

is

Do

the end of a thing than

its

bf-ginning;

patience than pride.

not hasten in thy spirit

For anger

to

lodges in the bosom

be angry.

offools.

VARIETY OF PROVERBS
Do

>o.

And an
For

i.

is

is

good with an

advantage

wisdom concerning

in

1 39

this.

inheritance,

who

to those

the protection of wisdom

behold the sun.

as the protection of money,

is

And the advantage

of knowledge
Consider the work of God
For who is able to straighten
What he has made crooked ?

>.

7'-i

days were better than

that the former

it

For thou dost not ask

Wisdom

11.

"Why

not say:

these?"

[Ch.

is,

wisdom makes

its

possessor to live.

In the day of prosperity be joyful, and in the day of adversity

God has made to correspond to that in order that

".

consider; even this

man
7'.

should not find anything (that

good name

is

to be) after him.

This

than good ointment].

is better

is

a pro-

Sieg. and
verbial phrase which has no relation to the context.
by
a
glossator.
This
added
may be
been
have
it
to
McN. believe
motive
can
divine
what
have
induced
a
to
difficult
right, but it is

add

glossator to
2 S.

cf.

is

is

''honor

who

sat

at

3'

Dn. lo^

2.

In Ct.

90'^

The death day]. This has

House of mourning]. The
22'2,

those

to comfort the mourners, see Je. 16^

living will lay

i it

how-

of this line,

a death lasted seven days, see Gn. 50' BS.

The

Jn. II"- ".

Ru.

The thought

6*.
cf.

round about sought

ilar to Ps.

in hot climates, highly valued,

7^^

better than vanity."

is

the true ring of Qoheleth,

mourning

is,

Pr.

6 Ps. 45^

good reputation.

a simile for a

ever,

Ointment

it.

12" Am.

it to

3. Better grief

The thought

heart].

than laughter],

i.e.j

is

sim-

sorrow than

wanton mirth. It is well with the heart]. The idea is similar

A similar thought
the Greek proverb, ''to suffer is to learn."
expressed in Job

Qoheleth,

The

4.

who

The thought

sy^-"^^.

of mourning

enforces the thought of vs.

ing

it

rebuke],

gloss.

Its

Pr.

13'-

cf.

is

however, foreign to

is,

never seems to grasp a moral purpose in suffering.

verse as Ha. has seen

House

to

2.

thought
,

is

a proverb added by a glossator.

house of mirth].

The vs. reverts

McN. and Ha.

is

are

wrong

"like attracts like."

from which the expression

is

5.

to

and

in regard-

Hear

the

borrowed.

Songs of fools], probably mirthful drinking songs, such as are

mentioned in Am. 6'. This proverb is probably also a gloss. Its
thought

is

out of

have perceived.

harmony with Qoheleth,

6.

This

vs., like

several

as Sieg.,

which

McN. and Ha.

follow,

is

a proverb

ECCLESIASTES

I40
added by a

The crackling of

glossator.

There

nettles].

is

a wordIn the

play in the original, which our English rendering imitates.

however, the word rendered

original,

was commonly used

the East charcoal

47'* Jn.

Is.
(r/,

58"), or

as

i8'),

36"

Je.

even stubble

was

the result

symmetry
a

(Is. 47*^),

for fires

{cf.

burns slowly

In

Ps. iS" 120*

in a brasier

Thorns

(Ps.

might be burned by the hasty, but

The

noise, not heat.

This also

laughter of fools]

This clause

is vayiity].

is

alike

spoils the

and as Sieg.,McN. and Haupt agree,

For oppression makes mad a wise man].

of a poetic couplet,

later gloss.

still

It

means "thorns."

gives out considerable heat.

noisy, but valueless.

is

to-day.

is

it

and

23^^

nettles

7.

This clause has no connection with the preceding. Del. supposed

that two lines had fallen out, and proposed to supply them from

As

Pr. i6.

Sieg.,

McN. and Ha.

have noted, the

introduced by the hand which inserted so

it

is

many

vs. is

a gloss,

of these proverbs;

vain, therefore, to seek for connection of thought, or to sup-

pose that another couplet

is

necessary.

bribe

corrupts the

in Heb.
and
also.
moral
nature
and
the
includes "understanding" (Ho. 4"),
and
folly
together,
goodness
go
In Hebrew thought, wisdom and
proverb
This
is
a
thing].
a
and wickedness. 8. Better is the end of

This

heart].

is

an echo

of Ex. 23

Heart

Dt. 16".

mood.

quite in Qoheleth's

but

Haupt

is

and McN. regard

Sieg.

right in seeing in

it

Q.'s hand.

It is

it

as a gloss,

too pessimistic

to be true without qualifications, as Pr. 5^ 23" show.

patience

troduced
9.

Do

This

than pride].

theme, but

it

belonged to the proverb which he quoted, so he

Its presence led a glossator to

it.

not hasten

to be

mony with Q.'s thought,

of vs. 8b.
in Pr.

10.

Anger

i2'

it

This

angry].

is

add the next

a proverb out of har-

lodges in the bosom offools]: a sentiment set forth

and Job 5^

Why

is

it

also as a gloss, but

that

the former

it

is

not in

days were

better?].

2,

good with an inheritance].

"Beautiful

is

knowledge

This

is

and McN. regard this

the form of a proverb, and is in
Sieg.

thorough harmony with Qoheleth's thought, see ch.

is

in-

verse.

was introduced because of the suggestion

always the plaint of an old man.

dom

Better is

has no connection with Q.'s

last

of the

Compare

'".11. Wis-

the saying in Aboth,

law with a secular occupation";

VARIETY OF PROVERBS
also

Tim.

heritance

is

6.

[Ch. T''*

141

does not imply that wisdom without an

It

no value, but that with an inheritance

of

it

in-

makes an

happy combination. The vs. is, as Gr., Sieg., McN.

and Ha. have seen, a proverbial gloss. Those who behold the sun],
12. For the protection of wisdom is as
the living, c/. Ps. 58*.
Money ransoms a life (Pr. 13"), while
the protection of money].
especially

wisdom may deliver a city (Ec. q^'). The verse is a gloss by the
same hand as the last, and gives a reason for it. 13. Consider the
work of God]. Qoheleth has not given up belief in God, though he
is a pessimist.
This vs. followed vs. 10. Vvs. 1 1 and 12 have been
interpolated.
Who is able to straighten what He has made crooked?].

This

is an iteration in other words of the thought of i".

Sieg.
and Ha. unnecessarily regard it as a gloss. It is certainly Qoheleth's thought, and he could as easily repeat himself as a modern
writer.
He has
14. This God has made to correspond to that].
made good and evil correspond to each other. Not find anything that is to be after him].
God has so mingled good and evil
that man cannot tell what the future will be.
Here, as
Cf. 3".
there, ''after him" refers to what will be in this world.

7>.

31J3]

best regarded as pred. adj. with Gins,

is

attributive (Kn.

and

"

Pr.

Zp.

39'

here meaningless.
that - here

Hit.).

Da*]

used

is

means "one's," but they

(McN. and Dr.), or n'^Sn

In vs. 4 we have nncir no.

Probably the original

(Bick.).

2. nntt'c],

In Est. 9"

we

cause," cf. Ko. 389e.

Nin]=

refers to the thing first

the gender of

1''D.

*'

that."

nn], the art.

S. 21".

3S Vy

All

nr

here

Exceptions to this rule occur in Gn.

3S, 2 S. 13".

mentioned.

occurs with

6'9

D^i:*

"drinko'l'

iu'N3]=" be-

would have been inappropriate,

Del. remarks that sin follows
rightly pointed with

is

and

in

lit.

find nrut'D

nncri, which shows the close association of the words.

it

Ez.

are really not parallel, as in each

reading was i^in

for

Del., not as

22>. n'?jn] (nb and i^ omit the suffix, which is

Ec. 5" 8" and Is. 17* are sometimes cited to show

case the accompanying verb implies an agent.

ing bouts."

and

in the sense of 3ia Da* as in

Is.

these expressions are syn.

Is. 178.

42" 477
3.

bef. n.

aS Sn in>]=Sx
571.

d^d], cf.

Dir^

n and ^Sj in

on

i'*.

v!^\

an

and the expression dS yn = "sad heart,"

3*? aa^-"], if used in the meaning attaching to it in
which it contains.
ch. ii, makes no sense; if used with a moral signification, it contradicts Q.'s whole thought.
As the first half of the vs. makes a moral
signification imperative, the vs. must be a late gloss
late, because the
inf.,

so Del.

^"ID

j.n], cf.

Ne.

2*,

ECCLESIASTES

142

OT. has

expression everywhere else in the

Ju. i82o i9

K. 2V Ru.

> I

Ec.

3^

. 4.

the non-moral meaning,

cf.

Del. remarks that the Zakef

'?3n].

Katon on

'7JN divides the vs. instead of Athnah, because none of the

words after S^N are tri-syllabic. Cf. for the opposite vs. 7. 5. mj?j],
"rebuke," occurs in Q. only here, but is used in Ps., Job, Is. and Pr.
ycc" tt>>N^]. Gins, held that the
frequently.
Cf. the Targ. on Zc. 3^.

normal form of expression would be yco'D

but

pcB''? B'^n'? 3it3,

and McN. maintain that

is introduced before '^'dv because the two hearings are supposed to be the acts of different individIt occurs in Is. 34'' Ho. 2*
uals.
6. on-iD], a rare word for "thorns."
and Na. !>", also with plural in m- in Am. 4^ in the sense of " hook." In
Del., Wild,

tt''''N

Sabaean

it is

found as a proper name

{cf.

Hommel, ZMG.

used here for the sake of the paranomasia.

sounds.

7.

ptj);']

xlvi, 532).

stands for

Sip]

It is

all sorts of

connected with the As. esku, "strong," the same stem

is

"injustice," and in Syr., "slander."

It often
means "extortion," cf. Ps. 62" Is. 30'* 59". Ew. emended to "svy and Gr.
to B>pp, but later comm. have realized that no emendation is necessary.
in Ar.

means "roughness,"

njPD] disagrees with

its

vb. i^n"" in gender,

Polel of VSn, "to shout," "boast."

the sense

it

has here.

inr, so Del.,

cf. 1

2'*, etc.

2'*.

Some

of the Vrss.

had a

but there seems no reason to change the MT.,

interpretative

of

curs also in Pr. 25^ in the sense of "end."

little

weight.

con

n2-i],

(g

in the sense of

With

Ex. 34 Pr. 14" I5> 16".

in

i6

In Pr.

inna

not naj (Bo.).

different

different reading,

pn]

is

nnnNJ octakes the word as

Sieg.

8.

not from Q, since he has used liD for

is

on^i.

accidentally dropped before the following c.

Ja. i2ia.

in

In so small a work, however, arguments from mere vo-

in 3".

cabulary have

coupled with

VSin']

here =

is

Eur., p. 82.

cf.

another's words ace. to Ko. 288g.

evidence that this mashal

"end"

njno]

n^SSvn in i"

44" Job 12"

Is,

noun

Cf. the

Mac.

Ges.''- i45a.

cf.

occurs in

It

14*9,

however,

S-^'d,

as a parallel.

d;'3

9.

meaning than

in vs. 3,
I

T^n].

final D

t^n

was

usually

is

cf.

Talmudic usage

cf.

nn

on

agrees,

used for the opposite, and

is

"\i'p

n3J], constr. of

di^d':'], cf.

for difference of authorship.

^\^^^

"long suffering" or "patience,"

this the

Perhaps the

i8.

nbj

BD5.

{cf.

147a),

Sieg. notes that d>'d has a

and makes the difference an argument

agree as to difference of authorship, but

word is no argument for it, since the Semites naturally employ the
same word to express "anger" and "sorrow," both of which are exnir
pressed in the modern dialect of Jerusalem by za'lan.
P^na],
aVi, Pr. 1433.
10. nc] used in the sense of nr;S, as in Ct.
cf. nun
noDno].
S*.
CS, & and A read rtr^Dn:, which was probably the original
In earlier Heb. it was
reading.
^'J Ssi'] is a late idiom, cf. Ne.
oy], with the use of this
-h Snb^, cf Gn. 43\ and i S. 22'3.
11.
this

i''.

prep., cf Ahoth,

parently

2^,

connected

inx
it

i-ii

oy n-^in iioSn ncv

mistakenly

with

the

DnSpj].

root

'r^n.

has ap-

tt'cirn

nwn],

USELESSNESS OF EXTREMES
and

[Ch.7'^-"

niN hn-i Ps. 492

143

Job 3'. 12. Sxa

c/. 8>ntt'

vn S3

^^xa]

a corrupt text. (6, &, 2, C, H, K, 21, all support the readin the second instance, while in the first instance all, except (S,

is

ing

^TSD

ho: Ps. 589,

nt:'N

The

support the same reading.

ogous to Gn. 18" and Ho.
as

Je.

48" and Ps.

essenticB,

cf.

Ges.*^-

91'.

13.

1 16.

niv], see also

used of persons,

rip;;'?]=

maism

{cf

nn^i

Sj?,

Dn.

"

2^

99.

]pn],

an Aramaism,

it

cf.

when

c}.

3it2 is

cf. Je. 44" Ps. 25'*.

an easy corruption of the text.
Ch. 2431 2612. yn-<2TSj?], an Ara-

the idea of 2V,

for n\i,
i

for the

4>*)

Heb.

ij?dS

or ic^n

hdind] was mistakenly resolved into two words by

7.5_io3.

ANOTHER ARRAIGNMENT OF

See

y;::^.

2 and "K.

LIFE.

Uselessness of going to extremes.

22

716.

carries with

it

SxD, anal-

14. 3i!02 nvn]. Del. notes that

"corresponding to,"

K6. 396p.

715

was Sxd

MT. be retained, 3 must be regarded

On Sx=" protection," cf. Nu. i4
Del. observes, is not = n^n, but means

ch. ii" 7"-

cf.
!>".

and iJ" read n^n

e, IC,

(g, 'A,

on

iigi.

hni], as

"thoughtfully consider,"

on

text, therefore,

If

4'.

..

Both have

There

And

seen in

my

vain

life,

man who perishes in his righteousness,

wicked man who prolongs his life in his wickedness.

a righteous

is

there

is

and do not show thyself excessively wise;

". Be not excessively wicked, nor be a
?
^^.
It is good that thou
fool; why shouldst thou die before thy time?
take hold of this, and that thou refrain not thy hand from that.
FOR HE THAT FEARS GOD SHALL BE QUIT IN REGARD TO BOTH.
i.
Wisdom strengthens the wise more than ten rulers who are in a city.
2".
For there is not a righteous man in the earth who does good and
21.
Also to all the words which they speak do not give heed,
sins not.
".

why

lest

Be not

greatly righteous

shouldst thou ruin thyself

who
hts

Vain

is

Qoheleth here drops the Solomonic

equivalent to "short

OT.

doctrines

(Ex. 2o'* Dt.

4<'

Ps. 91

shall not live out half their

life."

a wicked

Righteous

man who

man

prolongs

Qoheleth here takes issue with two

in his wickedness].

orthodo.x
life

life]

perishes in his righteousness

life

Por even many times thy heart

that thou also thyself hast cursed others.

7". Both have I seen].

mask.

".

thou hear thy servant curse thee.

knows

That the righteous have a long

y ' 4o), and (2) That the wicked
days(Ps.37'<'55"58-73"').
16. Be not

'

(i)

Pr.

greatly righteous], probaljly a reproof of the excessive legal ob-

servances of the Chasidim.

Do not show thyself excessively

wise].

ECCLESIASTES

144

The world

often hates

In one sense

it is

greatest

its

men and makes marks

not good to be ahead of one's time.

Some

excessively lutcked].

interpreters, as Del., hesitate to

may

that Qoheleth really implies that one

That, however,

what he undoubtedly

is

of them.

17. Be not

sin to a

admit

moderate degree.

implies.

It is true that

he was led into this statement by the necessity of an antithesis,

but there

no reason

is

Nor

to him.

to believe that the thought

and

heleth kindred terms, while wickedness

balancmg

Why

couplet.

spite of the fact that

in

premature death.

folly

form a counter-

shouldst thou die before thy time?].

Qoheleth had seen

wickedness

lives in their

ends

was repugnant

Righteousness and wisdom are to Qo-

be a fool].

(vs.

15),

many men

he recognizes that debauchery

18*. This

that refer to "righteous-

ness" and ''wickedness" of the two preceding verses.

here

sums up

either

righteousness

wickedness.

or

that fears

Horace,

Cf.

tUrimque reductum

et

Ovid, Medio tutissimiis

For he

Qoheleth

his thought, advising the avoidance of extremes in

medium viatorum
18^.

(Epist.

I,

Virtus
18, 9),

strengthens the wise].

is

19. Wis-

impossible to find any intelligent

It is

doubtedly an interpolation by the glossator

proverbs (so Gr., Sieg.,

This

be quit in regard to both].

connection for this verse with the preceding context.

in

est

and

ibis {Met. II, 137).

God shall

a gloss added by some orthodox Jew, probably a Chasid.

dom

In

prolong their

McN. and

Ha.).

who was
Ten

It is

un-

interested

riders].

Gins.,

Ty. and Plumtre took "ten" as a round number, Delitzsch thought

it

referred to

some

definite situation,

such as the archons at Athens.

Wright, with more probability, compares the Mishna (Megilla,

which says that "every

leisure."

The

city is great in

idea here

is

i^),

which there are ten men

similar, only the

"men

of

of leisure" are

represented as "rulers."
20. For there

with

vs. i8a,

is not

man in the earth]. This connects

now separated by two interpolations,

a righteous

from which

it is

and gives the reason for it. It is a quotation from i K. 8". There
is no good reason for regarding the vs. as a gloss, as Siegfried and
Haupt do. 21. The words which they speak]. "They" is indefinite, referring to men in general.
The way in which men talk about

one another

is

further proof that

all sin.

Lest thou hear thy servant

USELESSNESS OF EXTREMES

One

cjirse thee].

Thy

phasis.

and so used
Conscience

Thou

us."

see

ithers

22.

Many

The

times].

sentence for sake of em-

in the first part of the

The Hebrew had no word

heart].
**

145

peace of mind and often gains nothing

loses

by seeing ^'oursers as
words arc placed

[Cii. 7'^='-

for con.science,

heart," which stood for the whole inner nature.

occurs

(o-ui/eit^T^o-t?)

Wisdom of Solomojt, 17'".

The verse is an appeal to

the

first in

also thyself hast cursed others].

maxim

one's conscience to enforce the

One knows how

meaning attaches

little

of the preceding verse.

many

to

own

of his

idle

words, and should not, therefore, listen to the idle words of others.
S3n]="both,"

7'5.

C'n^

4- "" 5'"

as in Dt.
wise,"

self

Ch.

it

on 2". ^'^^n ^co],

cf.

Ex.

cf.

137; in

612

and Job

Pr. 28'6.

Dt.

ODnnn]="to show one's

16.

and Sojnn, Ps.

i^' 42',

inNc].

expressed,

See also similar use of Hith. in pinnn,

i'".

r]iii:^r\,

and

Jos. 24^'

27'2.

It is often

10525.

Sieg.

2 S. lo'^,

would render

"play the Rabbi," citing X2jnn, Ez. 13", "play the prophet," as a
nnv], cf. on 2'*.
DP"'i5'n], a Hithpolel.
The n is assimilated

parallel.

Nu. 21", and nsw,

as in uisn,

frequently used like

n^'N

is

cf.

renders

in the sense of "

nS inS dn.

2':

ns",

N:f>

cf.

Ps. i' 1042^

Dv

is

nS

be quit from," or "guiltless

|;1DDN. n-\|1'^!^

prpjni

n-wp n^n

7\-\ypi

n'qeph, "to adhere" or "follow closely," but this

an accidental error for n'^phaq.

Ps. 682' proves that

for the wise."

Dy

17. inj; nS].

such expressions, cf. Is. 1322 Ps. 371' Job 1820.

"3 IPN.'^], cf. Dt. 32<i. nx>], as Del. has pointed

Mishna

in the

Berakoth,

KX\

time for a thing,

in

P)?

on 5^

2^\D], cf.

used as

out,
of,"

fitting

ny nS means "untimely," or an unfitting time.

Pr. 1523, hence

18.

Cf. Ges.^- 54d.

Is. I's.

with suffix means the proper or

is

cf.

to be supplied in thought as in Pr. 282.

is

19. ~S

probably

ijjn]

may

tt>'

"be strong

be used transitively.

If

it

has a transitive force here, S would be used as in Aram, as sign of the

direct

Since

object.

strong,"

it

is

As. ezezu, usually

like

try,

means simply "be

unnecessary to assume an Aramaism.

by Gins, and

PI. as

(Gn. 31^ Nu.

i4'2

a round

Job

19')

number="many,"

nnB';]

do not bear out the interpretation.

takes the word in the sense of "wealth," but the versions are
this.

20.

^n

pn>(

onN],

cf.

]r\}

r<

P.^, Ex.

5'*.

"n^i""

21.

garded by Zap. and Ha. as a gloss for metrical reasons.

personal,

cf.

an

really

Ges.'^-

2 = Xoi5o0oOrre$,
ing,
cf.

cf.

Lv.

10

"revile,"

19'^ 2 S. 16',

Ko. 4iod.

i"2"'.

i44f.

unnecessary

N^

22. DJ].

taken

is

but the parallels cited

(ft,

I&,

and

interpretation.

which

The

is

part

i^S

01

add

a happy rendering.
is

yz'n'l

nDT']

D>>'tt'-i,

|nn], cf.

Wild,
against

all

on

On

re-

is

is

im-

but this
i'^.

the

is

^S""^]

mean-

used here after a vb. of hearing,

niTN] {cf. N^a'' of 7'<)

= TP

of earlier

Heb.

Cf. Est.

Gins, held that this belongs to nns, but because so far

ECCLESIASTES

146

removed, another was inserted.

Wr.

better with

emphasis as

regards a

gl.

Sieg. regards

with

it

The

the ace. of time.

ni3-^],

of

to take

"i^*^,

>n-'].

(^

9I'

Zc.

Job

2'".

and 'A read

ntni]

p- here,

Ha., for metrical reasons,

which

is

evidently a blunder,

makes no sense. The present reading of (S is conflate,

having been combined with it (so Montfaufon and Wr.).

for

It is
D''?:;'d

construction has been inverted for sake

in vs. 20, also 3'3 5'8.

as a dittograph.

it

6'i

Ho.

cj.

it

that of 'A
hn],

Qr.

nnx, correct.
72''-2!'.

The

wisdom

search for

leads to a severe

judgment of

women.
All this

have tested by wisdom.

said "I will be wise," but

it was
and deep, deep; who can
fmd it ?
X turned in my heart to knovv% to search and to seek out
wisdom and (its) sum, and to know that wickedness is foolishness; and
26.
And I found a thing more bitter than death
folly, madness.
woman who is snares and nets are her heart, and her hands fetters.
He that is good before God sh.all escape from her, but a
SINNER SHALL BE CAUGHT BY HER. 27. gge this I have found, says
28. Which again and
Qoheleth, (adding) one to one to fmd the sum.
again my soul has sought and I have not found.
One man out of a
thousand I have found, but a woman among all these I have not found.
ONLY SEE WHAT I HAVE FOUND, THAT GOD MADE MEN UPRIGHT,
BUT THEY HAVE SOUGHT OUT MANY CONTRIVANCES.
23_

far

from mc.

24.

p^r

which

off is that

exists

2r,_

2'-'.

7". All this I have tested by wisdom].

The

''All this" refers to the

new theme, assures us

maxims have been tested. / said "/ will be
wise,^' but it was far from me].
Though Qoheleth could by wisdom test some things, he declares that he had found it impossible
to become actually wise.
The verse really forms a transition to a
new topic. 24. Far off is that which exists].
That which exists "
preceding.

writer, as he passes to a

that the preceding

seems here
below

all

grasp

it.

can find
28>2.28

'

'

to refer to the true

changing phenomena.

On

it?].

BS.

2428cf.

i".

reality, as

3'^

To

and

-23. 29-31

know

Although

Qoheleth has

is folly,

This

off,"

man can

never

for emphasis.

the verse,

Who

that wickedness is foolishness;

it is

is

is

compare Job ii"

and Rom. 11 ^\ 25. To search and
and

impossible to find out the ultimate

just said,

that folly

is ''far

repetition

the thought of

Bar.

29

folly, madness].

ness

The

Deep, deep].

seek out],

inwardness of things, the reality

he could ascertain that wicked-

madness.

26. More

bitter

than death].

WOMEN

SEVERE JUDGMENT OF
Death

is

frequently thus spoken of,r/.

A woman who
The Hebrews

woman

ing against

bad women

mean

Gn.

{c[f.

in thinking that is the

does not

BS.

S. 153= Pr. 5^

nets are her heart, and her

6'-5

BS.

thought here.

women

25-'),

22.

28-' 41'.

man

entered

but Gins,

Qoheleth

in the vein of Pr. 5'-

to say that all

147

hands fetters].

held that the sin and wretchedness of

the world through

wrong

and

snares

is

[Cn. 7-^=9

is

He

^22. 23 221*.

23

are destructive, for in 9'"

He

he encourages honorable marriage as a source of happiness.

that is

This and

good before God].

that follows to the

all

is

inveigh-

end

of vs.

McNeile regards a Chasid gloss. 27. Adding one to one to find

This is an expression which impresses the reader with

the sum].

Qoheleth's laborious and thorough process of investigation.

Per-

haps Qoheleth was thinking of the experience of Solomon as described in

K.

Cy. BS. 47'^

28. Again and again my soul
does not say simply " I have sought." It was no

ii'ff.

He

has sought].

mere curious inquiry

man

number

the

in

Possibly the

Solomon's harem

as ''a thousand"
34^ Dt. I"

among

Job

9'

was something

;^^^^

of a misogynist.

bitter experience

with a

member

than men.

Oriental view

would further

Chrysostom,

when he

is

uncertain,
2o

A woman

60".

This implies that Qoheleth

apparently had some

He is more
more prone to

of the opposite sex.

women

Hom. Ad.

says, ''Satan left

are

Cor. 28, represents the

Job

Qoheleth

his purposes."

but this

Is. 30'^

He had

than reflecting the Oriental view that

sin

i^),

round number, see Ex.

Ps. 5010 84'" 90^ 1058

I have not found].

all these

K.

(cf. 1

often used as a

is

One
number was suggested by

of the intellect, but a heart search.

out of a thousand].

his wife, thinking she

saying "perfect

is

men

women are non-existent."

and McN. are right in regarding

are rare, perfect

29. Sieg.

Chasid glossator.

of a

ence to Gn. I"-

The

2^

this verse as the work

God made men upright], probably a referThey have sought out many contrivances].

point of view here

is

that of the writer J. in Gn. 42'" 6*^.

to suggest that the harem was one of

Perhaps the Chasid intended

man's wicked contrivances.

23. n?:Dn3 p^dj],

cf.

by Zap. and Ha.

for

n::Dn3 nip,

metrical

of acohortative in the book.

It

I'l.

nn^ns

reasons.

Tin?:?*] is

hcdhn

is

omitted as a

the

expresses strong resolve.

gl.

only instance

24,

n\-itr

hdJ

ECCLESTASTES

148
was misinterpreted by
rupted to

n-'nB'!:.

but the

exist (i9 315 6'"),

and &.

C6

n">nr]

Probably their

text

had been cor-

means events or phenomena which

context makes it necessary to understand it
usually

here as that which underlies

phenomena. pr^y pny], an ancient exmeans of repetition, cf. Gcs."^- i33k and
Ko. 309m. 25. o'i'i] is difficult. Gins, renders "I and my heart,"
taking it as a separate subj. AE., Herz., Moses, Stuart, Del. and Wr.
construe with what follows: "I turned and my heart was to know."
79 MSS., S, (5, and H, however, read ''3'^3, and as Winckler and
McN. have seen, this must have been the original text, cf. 2'. ?i3i:'nj,
an Aram, word =" reckoning," "sum," cf. Ja. 509a. It occurs in BH.
only here, in vvs. 27 and g^.
On its formation, cf. Barth, NominalVd3 pan]. McN., on account of & and a reading of
hildimg, 202a.
Jer. and some peculiarities of Ci>, holds that the original reading was
>'rn Sdd.
MT., as it stands, gives, however, a more climactic and clearer
niSSin ni'^DOn], cf. on i'^
thought, and should be followed.
Sieg.
and Ha. regard the vs. as a gl., the latter as a double gl. 26. nxic], in
pression of the superlative by

late

Heb. the

part, is

used instead of various forms of the verb, and here

is equivalent to a perfect, cf. Ko. 239g.

In late Heb. verbs "nS are
often confused with verbs "nS, as here {cf. Ges.^- 75rr).
Del. points

out that in the

Palestine

in

happy?"

Talmud (Yebamoth,

One

63b)

common

said to have been

it is

inquire after a wedding

to

nxid in nx?:

" happy

or un-

was to Pr. 18^2, the other to this passage. n\"i] is

om^fr] (^ read iixd (sing.). "ic'N nc'Nn
here the copula, cf. Gn. 72.
DniXD N^n]="the woman who is nets."
Cf. nScn ""JNi, Ps. io9<.
.Sieg.

ref.

regards the

vs.

upon

as genuine, while Ha. looks

it

as a double

Ha. declares that Qoh. was no misogynist, but favored happy

It is difficult to escape the
marriage, and refers for proof to ch. 9'".

gloss.

conclusion, however, that the words here employed are sharpened by

bitter personal experiencie

The

with some woman.

passage referred

to (ch. 9'o) urges

her.

vb.

enjoyment with a woman, not the placing of trust in

27. nSnp n-^Dx] is the only place where nSnp occurs with a fem.
In 12* we have nSnpn -idn, and the majority of
Cf. I* 12* 12'".

scholars so take
Elst., Heil.,

it

here (Grot., Houb., Mich., Durell,

Van der

P., Stuart,

Wr., Wild., Ges.^- i22r, Ko. 25 id, and Dr.). 28.

Perles would change to ncs, but nothing in the versions supports

Ko. (383a) regards

"again and again."

"\C'n

for &v6pu)iros, but as

McN.

222. 23. 25 08.

12.

Perhaps Q.

17. 20. 21

is

din]

)^

is

more

as in Ru.

"(i^']

i'^

is

opposed to

nti'N

in

an unusual sense.

Its

D^nd], generic

nr"']=" honorable," "morally upright,"

29.

12'^],

occurrence

"alone,"
in Is.

=" mankind,"
cf.

S.

29*.

Gn.

nrNJ.

whcre there can be no Greek influence.

in

this.

here=

explained by Gr. and Sieg. as a Grajcism

has noted din

kindred, but not quite parallel.

shows.

effective.

thinking of the S^n ntrN of Pr. 31'".

then "only," occurs here

is

far

nir-N]

26"

as ncn

Pij3rn],

REFLECTIONS ON DESPOTISM
a rare word, occurring only here and in
In Ch. it is applied
K

26'5.

49

means "contriv-

It

to engines of war.

ances," "devices."

S^

Ch.

[Ch.8'-

Reflections on despotism.
n

8'.

7/0

man

/i^c the loisc

/.v

And who knows

the interpretation of a matter?

The wisdom of a man illumines

And the

his face

coarseness of his countenance

changed.

is

2.
Observe the command of a king, even on account of the oath
OF GOD. 3. DO not RASHLY GO FROM BEFORE HIM, NOR STAND IN AN
E\iL MATTER, for what he will he does. ^ For the word of a king is
supreme, and who shall say to him: what doest thou?

COMMANDMENT-KEEPER SHALL KNOW NO HARM

AND TIME AND JUDGMENT A WISE HEART KNOWS.
FOR EVERY MATTER HAS A TIME AND JUDGMENT.

^ A

For the misery

T.

For there

is

who

restrain

the wind, nor

''.

is

All this

him

shall tell

is

is like

at

enables
Ps.
is

No man

*.

it

to express

The

Hokma

courage

power

xvii,

heart to

glossator.

all

has power over

is

its

work

the

man

there a

owners.
that

to his hurt.

by

Job

of two
and McN. as

Illumines

glossator.

{cj.

Sieg.

{cf.

and

29-'),

countenance

is

his face],

Nu. 6"

Ps. 4),

intelligence

{cf.

changed], such

of character.

of the oath of God], probably the oath of allegiance

McN.

2\

it

This verse which consists

coarseness of his

On account

cf.

Ch.

11

29" Jos. Ant. xv,

assigns this clause to the Chasid

rightly

Qoheleth's statements are greatly strengthened when

the glosses are removed.

whole section
rebel against
is

my

rightly regarded

taken at the king's coronation,

This

man

when

shall be, for

has mastery over the wind, to

he ruler in the day of death, nor

the wise man].

the transforming

10';

upon him.

graciousness and power to inspire

i9).

2.

a time when

from the hand of the

it

great

have seen and have applied

gnomic sayings, has been

gives

is

war, nor will wickedness effect an escape for

done under the sun

Who

8'.

in

man

no one who knows that which

shall be,

furlough

of

Sieg.

to glossators.

him

3.

and Ha. needlessly assign the

Do

not rashly go from before him],

or renounce his service.

ambiguous.

"Enter not in"

(r/.

Ps.

It
i'

may mean
106"

(i)

Stand in an

evil matter].

"Linger not

Je. 23'*), or (3)

"Stand"

in,"

(2)

(as king)

ECCLESIASTICS

150
(r/.

Dn. 8"

Probal^ly the second meaning

i i^o).

nearer the writ-

is

er's thought, at least the context favors the interpretation ''enter

not into opposition to him."

he will he does].

For what

See, however, crit. note.

accordingly folly for a puny subject to op-

It is

This bears out the interpretation we have given to the

pose him.

preceding clause.

4.

For

the

word of a king

is

This

supreme].

what

shall say to him,

doest

but

is

which

thou?], a thought

God

times expressed concerning

Is.

(cf.

45

Job

several

is

Wisd.

g'^

is

Who

given as an additional reason for the preceding exhortation.

i2'2),

here purposely used to describe the autocratic power of a

king.

5.
is

commandment-keeper

brought

shall

know no harm].

such a way that the

in in

that of the king previously referred to

interpreters to
is

to

be

which has led many

fact

it to Rom. 131-5.
The word for command
commands of Yahweh (see crit. note), and

compare

usually applied to

the thought contradicts vvs.

right in regarding the vs. as

harm],

This statement

"commandment" seems

"know"

is

used

6b and

7.

McNeile

from the Chasid

in the

accordingly

is

glossator.

Kjiow no

sense of "experience," as in Ez.

Ho. 9^

Time and judgment], i.e., the final end and deThe wise heart knows], cf. Ps. 90'". 6^ For every
matter has a time and judgment].
This remark is also from the
Chasid annotator, and gives his reason for the preceding remark.
6 For the misery of man is great upon him]. This, except the
word "for" which is editorial, is a remark of Qoheleth himself,
and connects immediately with the statement of vs. 4, concern25'^

termination.

ing the irresponsible character of the king, though

removed from

it

by the

it

glossator's interpolations.

has

now been

It is

ginning of Qoheleth's reflections upon the evils of tyranny.

one

who knows

that

which

shall he].

This

not as in 3"

is

simply a reference to the fact that the future

the fact that one never
do.

The

bility of

knows what an

7.

No

and

unknown, but

6'2

to

irresponsible despot will

writer blends, however, his statement of the impossi-

knowing what a despot

will

inscrutable character of the future.

can one

is

the be-

tell

when

causes misery.

do with a statement

When

the despot will choose to

8.

do

it
it.

shall be].

The

of the

Neither

uncertainty

No man has mastery over the winds], cf.

ch. 11*.

REFLECTIONS ON DESPOTISM
Qoheleth

illustrates the

by examples of

man

to

know

The wind

is

the future

He

his powerlessness in other respects.

control the winds.

(Am.

powerlessness of

151

[Cii.8'-'^

cannot

one of God's grandest creations

and a symbol of his power (Na. i^), the control of

own hands (Pr. 30^). Nor is he ruler in the day of
a second example of man's powerlessness. Nor is there

4'3),

which

in his

is

death],

This statement seems to contradict Dt.

furlough in war].

20^-**

one of these laws.

Judas Maccabaeus conformed to

John Hyrcanus (135-104 B.C.) employed

foreign mercenaries

{cf.

According to

25^

Mac.

3*

Jos.

No

Ayit. xiii, 8^).

soldier in such

ranks could obtain a discharge when his employer had a war on

Such mercenaries had been employed

hand.

from the time of the

XXVIth

dynasty

{cf.

Egypt

freely in

Breasted's History

and by the Persians in all periods of their

was in Qoheleth 's day no new thing. The
allusion is probably to such soldiers, and thus becomes a third
9. All this I have seen\\hc power
illustration of Qoheleth's point.
of Egypt, p. 569
so

history;

that

ff.),
it

my

Applied

of the despot described in vvs. 1-8.

power over man

to

his hurt].

This

has

an apt description of the

is

Such

an Oriental despotism.

justices of

heart to all the

When man

work\ thoughtfully considered, or investigated.

in-

has existed

injustice

under every Oriental monarchy, the allusion accordingly affords

no clue

to the date.

"To

his

hurt"

is

ambiguous,

(f^,

and ,

which are followed by Kn., Gins., Zo., Del. and Wild., make
refer to the
to the first

second man.

delayed,

The

man.

retribution to

DDnn^] for the

and Hitzig and Ha. take

of these views

which allusion

and meantime

8'.

first

is

made

it

the correct one.

is

end

at the

of vs. 9

it

to refer

is

The
often

the subjects of the tyrant suffer.

more common

The

dd."I3.

full

writing of the article

"^B'c], an
35n.
Aram, loan word, occurring only here in BH., but frequently in Aram.
6. 15. 16. 21 ^12. 16^ q^q
* '' 9- IS. 24
25. 26. 30. 36. 45 ^4
-(^J-,]
llCrC
{cf. Dn. 2^= " thing," "matter," as in i"* and 7^. vjd "^"Np], cf. Nu. 6 Ps. 4^
Job 2924 Pr. i6'5 and BS. 13" (Heb.) for -nN with a>J^>', Ps. ly*. d^jd t^].
The Versions read ?;; the adj., not v; the noun. This should be

occurs not infrequently in later Hebrew,

cf.

Ges.*^-

adopted.
ness,"

cf.

It

is

used of "shamelessness," "impudence," or "coarsen"^ and n"^

i^r. 7'3 2i29 Dn. 823. kjc-;] for n^C';.

Dt. 285"

verbs are often confused in the later books,

cf.

Ges.^- 75rr and 2 K.

ECCLESIASTES

152

and La.

4'.

"change," others

fr.

25" with
nj::'=

fr.

Je. 52^3

Some of the Rabbis interpreted this as

Nj>="hate" (so (6 and ^), see the dis-

cussions cited by Del. and Wr. from the

7b. 2.

Taanith,

Ha. supply

^jn]

m;:N as in

's,

2'-

Tahnud, Shabbath, 30b, and

Gins., Del., Wr., Sieg. and

Heil.,

difficult,

is

These passages

etc.

however, not

are,

which Q. uses this expression he presents

observations, which is not the case here.
Wild,

parallel, for in the nine cases in

the products of his

conjectures that the reading was

this is purely conjectural.

nx, which

mand,"

as so often

"'J2,

&,

Gn.

used

Ex.

4521

17'

Lv.

""fl]

3I6

Nu.

24'2

Qoh., without the

Job 39".

is

but

does not seem necessary so to regard

it

d^iSn niV3c']=
tion

is

ni,-i>

used instead of

A, which Dale,
verbs

Sieg.

3, cf.

2 S.

Ko. 336t

and McN.

/3.

2V

"i^.P],

3.

it.

mon

K.

^.1:371], is

on

S;'], cf.

The

2".

Sieg. con-

like /3a<ri\us,

in

a single idea, as

is

3I8.

genitive rela-

taken by

(&,

& and
Two

frequent in Heb.,

one of them having an adverbial force.

them must be in the inf. with V, does not

S. 2^ 35 Zc. 8'5, etc.,

Wild.'s objection that one of

all cases.
Cf. Da. 83 (c).
V^ ">3"i] Dt.
"irN3]="for," "because," cf. on 2^^ (~?i'?)-

hold for
4.

follow, with the preceding verse.

may be combined, however,

Gn. 19"

cf.

art., in

m;3U- of Ex. 2210

follows, read

by metonomy for "com-

a definite sense

tends,

in

Prov. 1-9, but

in

and A, which Eur.

ul

probably the correct reading.

is

cf.

(&,

ing "master," "ruler."

It

occurs in

BH.

i7 2

K.

pt^Sr],

only here and

4^', etc.

a noun, meanvs. 8.

It is

an

Aram, loan word, occurring frequently in Jewish Aram., cf. Ja. i58ib^.
It is here used adjeclively.
5. msr] may be used either of a king, as
'^- '^ or of God,
I K. 2^3 2 K. iS^", or a man, as Je. 35'^
as Ezr. lo^, and
frequently in D., e.g., Dt. 8'- 2.
The Chasid introCf. also Ps. 198.
duced here a phrase coined concerning God, and made it apply ambigu;n -lan], if this has the same meaning as in vs. 3, it
ously to a king.
means he will "know no wrong," i.e., will be innocent, but Zo. and

Sieg. are right in taking

"matter," "business,"

cf.

it

in the sense of >n of Ps.

on

3',

also

Ko. 80.

loi^

nj,n], (&,

6.

Von] =

A read

6 and

and must be an early

and add fliD3 or didS, but it is clearly
an explanatory addition and not original. itt'ND] was interpreted by
Kn., Hit., Heil. and Zo. as "how," but Gins, and Del. rightly oppose
p>n, but this gives no intelligible thought here,

corruption.

this.

8.

word

It

is

7.

hi.-it],

&

always means "when," even

ta-'Sc'],

quence,

an

adj., cf.

a noun.
cf.

On

Ko. 4o6a.

in

Qoheleth,

cf. 4'^

5^

and

8'6.

BDB.

1020b and Barth, NB. 35. Elsewhere the

~^] points to a consethe root toSr, see on 2'9.

nnn ns nSdS]

is

regarded by Zap. and Ha. as

rn'^c::],
pto'^'k:'], see on vs. 4.
a late word, occurring elsewhere in BH. only in Ps. 78^^ It is found in
Aram, in the Midrash to Numbers, cf. Ja. 855b. nonSc^], (& read
nonSn dv3.
Possibly this is the correct reading, though as McN.
suggests, it may be a corruption arising from an accidental doubling of

gl.,

on account of

their metrical theory.

RESULTS OF RIGHTEOUSNESS

the D in nnnScj.
finite

verb,

Ko. 2i8b.
33 lb.

810-iJ.

is

53

on 5'". 9. jipji], an inf. abs. used as a

Gn. 41", also Ges.^^- ii3z, Da. 88(a), and
.n;'],
cj. on i'^.
ace. of time, cj. Je. 51" and Ko.

V^ya], see

ch. 9"

cf.

3S

ppj],

McN., take

Others, as

"there

[Cu.8">-'^

as the beginning of a

it

new sentence =

a time."

Results of righteousness and godlessness the same.

And then I saw wicked men buried, carried even from the holy
and they used to go about and be praised in the city because they
had done so. This also is vanity.
". BECAUSE THE SENTENCE AS TO AN EVIL DEED IS NOT ACCOMPLISHED
QUICKLY, THEREFORE THE HEART OF THE SONS OF MEN IN THEM IS
FULLY (given) TO DO EVIL. ^-. ALTHOUGH A SINNER DOES EVIL EXCEEDINGLY, AND PROLONGS HIS DAYS, NEVERTHELESS I KNOW THAT IT
SHALL BE W^ELL WITH THOSE WHO FEAR GOD, WHO FEAR BEFORE HIM.
1^.
AND IT SHALL NOT BE WELL WITH THE WICKED, NOR SHALL HE PROLONG HIS DAYS LIKE A SHADOW, BECAUSE HE DOES NOT FEAR BEFORE GOD.
*.
There is a vanity which is done upon the earth, that there are
righteous men to whom it happens according to the work of the wicked,
and there are wicked men to whom it happens according to the work
8'".

place,

of the righteous,

ness, because there

say that this also

is

no good

for a

is

and to rejoice, and it shall attend him

which God gives to him under the sun.

to drink
his

life,

10. Wicked

men

buried],

i.e.,

away

puss

buried was to be greatly dishonored,

on 6\

Carried even from

even

holy place

is

praised glad-

in his toil the

22''-'.

and

days of

Not

in honor.

Je. i6^

to be

See also

For the reasons for this

These wicked men had ])assed their

where they ought never

in the temple,

The

ated.

the sun, but to cat

the holy place].

rendering, see critical note.

lives

cf.

And

'\

vanity.

man under

the sanctuary,

cf.

to

have been

toler-

They used

Lv. 7^

to

go about and be praised], for the justification of this rendering,

see critical note.

had done
end.

so], i.e.,

The

verse

is

In the city], probaljly Jerusalem. Because they

had ruled over others to their hurt, cf. vs. 9, the
a further confirmation of the fact that retribution

does not always quickly overtake the ''possessors of wickedness."

11. Sentence as

to

an

evil

deed

is not

accomplished

qtiickly].

Chasid glossator here takes up the thought of Qoheleth that

bution

The

is

sometimes delayed.

Jieart

of the sons of

governed by childish

men

So

correctly, Sieg.,

is fully

evasions of

given

to

do

penalty,

Ha. and

evil], i.e.,

cf.

Ps.

The
retri-

McN.
men

73"".

are

12.

ECCLESIASTES

154
Although a sinner does

and prolongs

evil exceedingly

his days],

is

not prematurely cut off from those blessings which that age re-

garded as the peculiar rewards of the righteous,

cf.

on 6^

the basis of the rendering ''exceedingly," see critical note.

vs. is also

be well

comment

Chasid

of the

glossator.

The

with them that fear God\.

/ know that

For
This

it

shall

sinner, in the view of this

annotator, runs the risk of disastrous retribution, but the religious

man, although his actual lot may be no more prosperous than that
of some rich men, is nevertheless free from this risk.
Who fear
before him].

Ha. as a

This

gloss.

is,

of the language, r/.ch.

This

wicked].
io25.

27

Nor

1427 j53i

for metrical reasons, regarded

42-

and 6^

13.

orthodox

the

reflects

Job

526 1^32 20^-

Probably the Chasid glossator

Sieg.,

made

that the concession

ways

of explaining

may

take them as an

man

to state his conviction that,

preceding

vs.

represents the ex-

Like a shadow].

emblem

48.

vs. 12.

did not prolong his days, and

There are three

words: (i) With RV. and

these

McN. we

of transitoriness, expressive of the

RV., "His days which are

rapidly fleeting

life

as a shadow."

This interpretation has

of the sinner,

the figure elsewhere in the

I02" Wisd.

(for the verse clearly reflects his

in the

ception rather than the rule.

with the

Jewish doctrine, see Pr.

This seems to contradict

Na. and McN.) meant

generally speaking, the wicked

late period

// shall not be well

22i Is. 65^" Ps. 39

'

shall he prolong his days].

hand, so

by Zap. and

probably simply a tautology of the

It is

cf.

OT. has

in its favor the fact that

this force, cf.

on

6'2.

(2) (B,

#, H, followed by Hit. and others, divide the vs. differently, rendering "like a shadow are those who do not fear God," taking the
figure
(3)

indicate

to

The

rendering

the transitoriness of the sinners themselves.

we have

followed takes the figure differently,

and makes the point of the illustration the fact that at evening the
shadows become long, and implies that sinners never reach the
evening of
is

life.

Although not used

no good reason w^hy

14. Righteous

the wicked].

men

it

to

may

whom

in that sense elsewhere, there

not be so used here.

it

happens according

In Job 21' this fact

is

to the

work of

stated as in passionate grief,

here with a calmness which indicates that

it

had become a part

of

the recognized order of things, though one of the proofs of the

RESULTS OF RIGHTEOUSNESS
**

vanity

of

'-^

Or

life.

[Cu.8^o-i*

155

the difference one of artistic expression,

is

the poet in Job speaking in the character of an acute sufferer, while

Qoheleth speaks as a reflecting thinker? " Work " is used as the

work, or "wages." 15. / praised gladness]. The reQoheleth bring him back to the thought expressed in

fruits of

flections of
322

and

is

It

5'.

runs

a refrain through the book.

like

point of view, but

rialistic

it

It is

a mate-

kept the writer from despair.

Life

out of joint, the rewards of goodness and wickedness are often

no ray

reversed,

of light falls

the present; eat, drink

on the future, but make the most of

and have a good time while one can,

haps on the ground that

God

per-

even could not rob one of pleasures

actually enjoyed.

p3 made up

10.

BH.

only in Est.

170a, 647b).

of 2

4'*,

It is

and p, a combination which occurs besides in

is common in Aram. {cf. BZ>B. 486a, and Ja.

but

(& correctly renders

an Aramaism.

should be emended on the authority of

M.

text of

is

it

t6t.

mean "entering

into the

and

into life" (Ew.),

in3i]

The

"in31

some having taken

world" (Kn., Gins, and Wr.);

still

to c^n2i::.

here meaningless, as the various renderings which

received at the hands of interpreters prove

has

it

to

others, "enter

others, "enter into rest" (Zo., Wild., Sieg.,

The emendation makes

Ha.).

and &"

(S, IC

On

a translation possible.

the construc-

K6. 41 la. --ip D i-'r] naturally means temple {cf.

This natural meaning suits our emended text. The
Lv. 7 Mt. 2410
difficulty of rendering it with 1x3 has led some to render "grave" (Ew.,
D^N3i::, cf.

tion of

Marsh.), others "Jerusalem" (Hit., Wild.), while Del. and K6. (305d)
rightly take

it

as "holy place."

many

take

it

as=a

the Piel

is

not used for the Kal.

To

Job

24'".

oSri":]

do,

On

is

is,

as the text stands, difficult.

also unsatisfactory.

the basis of

Elsewhere

we

&", 'A and

to

iDS.-fi,

to (S, 'A,

Marsh.), which

is

here pass, and

not reflexive,

to be taken in its ordinary sense of "thus."

lating

(I,

Eor the force of the Piel, cf. ch. 4'^ ii^ and
It, too, should be emended, according
inDPU-^i] is difficult.
e, K, H, ^, &" and 20 MSS., to in2PU-M (so Kn., Winck.,

emend

should

Hiph., as

MT.

as

it

cf.

The

Ko. 101.

"t^] is

difficulties of trans-

stands led Kn., Gins., Del. and Ha. to take iry

p=

"to do right," and to suppose that two classes are referred to in the
verse,
p has this meaning in 2 K. 7", but here it should be akin to p3
in

some way.

to but

one

and Albrecht
take

it

The original text, as the versions testify, made allusion

S alone taking this as Del. does. 11. ^f K^]' ^^-j Wild,
{ZAW. XVI, 115) would point ryty}^ but Del. and Wr.

class,

as fem. part, (not 3d sing, fern.) as

a fem. as well as masc.

in

gender.

This

it

is

stands, regarding

ajnc

probably right. aJPo]

ECCLESIASTES

156

a Persian word, in old Persian patigama,

is

patgam.

BH.

In

Aram., cf. Dn. 3'6 4" Ezr. 4'^ e^

511 8. n>nn n::7?:], (g, 19, ^ and

in

of 55 La. 42

and

Ct. 72

is

in

6".

i'

paigam, Armenian
hut frequently

i'^",

In post-BH.

read

n;nn

favor of

MT.

as

as usually in BH., an adverbial ace,

:h nS::]

late Pers.

occurs elsewhere only in Est.

it

The analogy

^tr*;?:.

stands.

it

Nu. 17" Dt.

cf.

occurs in BS.

it

nnn?;] here,

ii^^ Jos. 8''

lo''

Heb. expression, cf. ch. 9^ Est. 7* and Ex.

3535 (ps.).
In Aram. (Targ. of On.) it means "comfort the heart,"
Here it means that the thoughts (3'^) are fully occupied
cf. Ja. 789b.
23'*, etc.

with

evil plans.

is

nna]

late

is

12. N^n] for Ni?n.

SI

supplies

is

favored by Zo., Del., Wr. and

On the mixture of
One

D^jc*.

harsh and unusual.

to be corrupt.

<&,

dw^6avev=nT2 or

^ and

(U

has to supply

n""^

MT.

in late writing.

on

n"'^, cf.

726,

The

As McN. observes

nxc],

The

or D^c^ or a^nyo.

this,

McN.

and

last

omission of the noun

is

readings, showing the text

'A,

S and 6

read

both

readings.

U,

rdre).

while IC has a conflate

of

(p. 148),

none of these are

necessary to presuppose an original which will ac-

satisfactory.

It is

count for

all

readings.

began

write

to

verbs

The Vers, had different

& and H read rvs:: {cltto

P''?:,

support

uncommon

a pleonasm, not

McN.

"inxDi, but

suggests two possibilities: (i)

having accidentally omitted

scribe

discovered

^,

mistake when he had written

"(xa and wrote the word again.

Then
and later 'ni nsD and 'ni nr:. (2) The
original text had ind, which would similarly give rise to the variants.
The latter seems the more probable and has been adopted above in the
translation.
I^nd]; d-'D"' is to be understood in thought, cf. on 715.
OJ o].
Ko.'s " wenn auch" (394f) does not suit the context. Heil.'s
"tamen" or McN.'s "surely also" is much more probable. 3ia n>r\>].
The thought is similar to the D. point of view {cf. Dt. 6^^) and the Chasid
(Ps. 37").
Zap. and Ha. for metrical reasons regard v^ehr^ iNn-o ic'n]
It is tautological, but not more so than the book is elsewhere.
as a gloss.
^sd makes much better sense, and the variant
13. '"'^i], (S read Sx3.
is probably due to an early corruption.
14. V"\Nn '^;'], a variant for rnn
U'uja'n, which is more common.
~^n V^^J^
ic'NJHa. regards as a gloss.

his

"inNonN:: became

'n-i

tn?:,

"to happen to,"

1".

Est. 9^6 Ps.

32s also Ko. 323d.

of this word,

for

15. Nini]

BDB.

clause.

cf.

cal

reasons. Ha. regards w'crn

13

9'.

makes

530b.

"but,"

cf.

It

iJ'i'^"'],

takes an ace. like

one,

CN

8'f'

cf.

nryc], the peculiar use

begins a new

here.

mn

and

(&^ read

cf. i S. 252.

"cling to" or
r3n in

Gn.

0"'n'?Nn

"iS

on

"accompany"

i9'9.

jnj

-'';* >^j:;

orj-], cf.

For metri-

as glosses.

Ko. 372i.

Knowledge cannot be obtained,

yet Qoheleth,

knowing

this,

the effort.

8'6. When I gave my heart to know wisdom and to see the toil that is
done upon the earth for both day and night he sees no sleep with his

KNOWLEDGE CANNOT BE OBTAINED

eyes

the

work

all

before

157

[Ch. S'-9>

saw all the work of God, that man is not able to fathom
done under the sun; for as much as man may toil to
search, but he will not fathom it, and even if the wise man think he is
about to know, he will not be able to fathom it. 9'. For all this I took to
heart, and my heart saw all this, that the righteous and the wise and
their works are in the hand of God; also men do not know love or hate;
then

that

is

them

When

16.
of

men

sees

no

my

upon

is

"He"

sleep].

This

the earth].

described

is

This

heart].

the protasis, the apodosis

in vs. 17, the last part of vs. 16

Toil that is done

of

vanilv.

I gave

which occurs

toil

is

Ijv

the

refers to

being a parenthesis.

recalls ch.

i'',

which the

in

same graphic Hebrew word. He

man. In i''' the toil is called the

man, and the writer here presupposes that man as the

victim of the toil is lying in the background of the reader's thought
toil of

as in his own.

"To see sleep" is an unusual

Ad Fa mil tares, vii, 30: ^^Fnit enim

figure,

by Cicero,

mirifica vigilantia,

qui suo

consnlatu somnumnonvideriV^ ; also Terence, Heaiitonti-

toto

morumenos, HI, 1,82: ^^Somnum

cf.

Gn.

6^

31^" Ps. 132' Pr.

node

hercle ego hac

Ordinarily in the Bible the thought

meis.^^

It is,

is

but

is

used

non vidi

oculis

expressed differently,

however, simply a bold metaphor

which anyone might employ, and no dependence on extra Hebrew

sources need be suspected.
not fathom
that in

This

it].

leth

had

nature of divine things

many

And my

panaceas.

universal
is

many

9'.

is

similarly

systems and the

/ gave

and

heart saiv].

their

my

For the

justification of the text

The

works are in the hand of God].

righteous

Qoheleth,

as so often, recognizes God's supreme sovereignty over

hate,

Men

i.e.,

do not

know

they can never

love or hate], probably

tell,

life

accord so

human

God's love or

God is
The
whether God

from what they do, whether

going to treat them as though he loved them or hated them

occurrences of

heart].

used for the whole inner nature including

this translation rests, see critical notes.

the wise

affairs.

he will

in

heart, as so often,

on which

to search, but

Job ii"' and Rom. ii^^ F.ven if the wise man

Qoheabout to know, he will not be able to fathom it].

of

the mind.

and

He may toil

seen, apparently, the inutility of

inefficacy

The

17.

a stronger expression of the thought than

The unsearchable

7-'.

proclaimed also
think he is

is

ill

witli character, that

ECCLESIASTES

158
loves or hates

an individual

tioned in the preceding

them

For the

is vanity].

The meaning

vs. 2.

no knowledge

16.

on

'3.

men

before

begins a parenthesis.

Gn.

cf.

DJ

is

gl.,

nrx and shows

erases the words as a
3" 729 Job ii7 and
(hesitatingly)

emend

hold that ^D

is

etc.

nfyo],

dniVn."!

Q.

Je.

18^3,

''^S

nx Tnj],

McN.,

etc.,

ascribes

as

Wild,

activities

all

on

cf.

i".

have noted,

the object of the act. part. nxi.

is

that
gl.

12I'

of the future.

because of his metrical theory.

introduces the apodosis.

nt";i

All before

a blank, they can gain

as RV., Wild., Sieg.,

id],

njr]

regarded by Ha. as a

cannot fathom.

God's attitude toward them or

of

nrvS'D]="when,"

Vy;r^], cf.

man

text of this rendering, see crit. note to

all

is,

one of the inscrutal)le things men-

is

which

vs.,

vjiya]

17.

notes

this

God.

to

is

TiiNm].
is

Ha.

NVir:V] is used in an intellectual sense, cf ch.

25. nu'N Wd], Kn., Ew., Hit., Heil. and Dr.

Del., Wr., Eur. and others

to Sd3 following (^.
due to an early correction, ^'Z':i being parallel to the
Aram. '^nD, which occurs in Targ., Onk., Gn. 6^. In Jonah i^ we
find "'^^Sco, and i'^ ^h'C'2.
Such compounds are late and influenced by
Aramaic. C/". Ja. 140a and K6. 3890 and 2840. as O)] corresponds
Ko. 394f. "S "icx] applies to
to Ph. DN AN, CIS. No. 3", cf
9'. -113S1] is taken differently by
thought, cf. Ex. 2'^ and 2 S. 2ii.
Hit., Heil., Gins, and Zo. take it as from "in,
different scholars.
which in the Mishna is used as "prove," etc. (cf. Ja. 197b), and re'

gard

it

as an

inf.

used instead of the

finite verb, cf. i S. 8'2, Je. i7>'' 1912

Del., Wr. and Wild, take it from

same root, but supply "Ti^in with it, as ^''^ is used in 3'^ with rwn^.
Gr. and Ko. (4i3s) emend with H, and
to ninSi.
(S, 2C and ^,
which are followed by Bick., Sieg., McN. and Ha., read n? Vd tn dn-i n'^i,
which is probably right. This reading has been adopted above. "^w n =
"that" as in 8^^, cf. BDB. 83a. -"'^j;.], a.X. in BH. It is an Aramaism,
Ha.'s theory of the book leads him to
cf. Syr. '^bada and BDB. 714b.
break this vs. into four glosses and scatter it to different parts of the work.
'^o^], vs. 2, was read ^2n by (S, 2C, & and A, and attached to vs. i.
This is rightly followed by Dale, Sieg. and McN., and has been
2

Ch.

7'^

(cf for constr.

Ko. 4135).

the

adopted above.
Q2-6

__xhe hopelessness
9% Inasmuch as to

to the clean

and

an oath.

one event,

to the righteous

to the unclean, to the sacrificer

sacrifice; as is the

fears

humanity's end.

of

all is

'.

good, so

This

is

is

an

the sinner; he

evil in all that is

and

to

and to the wicked,

him who does not

who swears

is

as he

who

done under the sun, that

is to all, and also the hearts of the sons of men are full of evil,
and madness is in their hearts while they live, and after it, to the dead!
*.
For whoever is joined to all the living, there is hope (for him), for

one fate

HOPELESSNESS OF HUMANITY'S END

dog

verily a living

is

their hate

and

dead lion. ^ For the living know

dead know not anything; they have no longer

memory

2.

in

Inasmuch
all is

forgotten.

Also their love as well as

in all

For

justification of this text, see critical note.

as].

one event], death,

cf. 2'^ 3'

As Qoheleth had no

9.

faith

anything beyond death, this seemed to him to reduce good and

bad

to

one

level regardless of

content, but as righteous

class,

ness

it is

either a

his oath

Many

first,

compels us to

was prohibited (Ex.

as in

He who
Is. 65'^

who

fears an oath], he

Ps. 63".

3.

This

is

an

among

all," cf.

Ob.

and La.

i'.

For

observes

evil in all].

scholars regard this as equivalent to a superlative,

greatest evil

20", cf.

Plumtre, of that judicial swearing which was

(Dt. 6 '3).

God

by

moral

of the

is

take this of profane swearing which

commended

and

now made to ceremonial cleanHe who swears]. The analogy of the series,

and uncleanness.

5''^),and not with

the clean

moral or ceremonial

and wicked have disposed

probable that reference

which the bad character uniformly comes

Mt.

To

moral distinctions.

The words might have

to the unclean].

in

is

have already perished, and they have again

that is done under the sun.

their jealousy

no portion forever

To

159

better than a

that they shall die, but the

a reward, for their

[Ch.9^-

i.e.,

*'the

details, see the

Whatever determination one may reach about the

critical note.

Hebrew method of expressing the superlative, the writer surely

means to say that the evil which he is about to mention, is of special
prominence. Hearts of the sons of men are full of evil], full of discontent and unsatisfied longing.

Madness is in

their hearts].

Life,

according to Qoheleth, consists of vain strivings, fond hopes and

wild desires,

cf.

i'-

2^-.

To the dead].
The

ever is joined to all the living].

The broken

hope from him], hope that he

enjoyment out

of

life, cf.

2-'

5'^

may

object of contempt in the East, see

Rev. 22".

dead

lion].

The

lion

4.

Who-

peculiar introduction of "all

gives emphasis to Qoheleth's lack of belief in a future

is

construction

gloomy outlook.

gives dramatic vividness to Qoheleth 's

eat

get

The dog

living dog].
i

There

life.

and drink and

S. 24'^ 2 S. 3* 169

was a symbol

some
is

an

Mt. 15"

of regal power,

used metaphorically of Jacob (Gn. 49") and of God (Job

10" Is. 38" La. 3"' and Ho. 13^). Death reduces the kingly lion

and

is

to a level

below that of the

living dog, because

it

reduces him to

fxclesiastes

t6o
state of nothingness.

The

For

5.

must

die

To

memory

and 115'^ For their

That a dead man would be forgotten seems

is forgotten].

This verse

I" 2'^

Ps. 9 31'^ 41 ^

cf.

Qoheleth one of the great tragedies of

fact constitutes for

life, cf.

quoted and opposed

is

Wisd.

in

2*.

Their love as well as their hate and their jealousy have already

The

perished].

No

strongest passions are

portion forever

mind makes

This

149).

adopted above.
it

in the

calm

The dead

of death.

are denied

which Qoheleth knows,

this to

the pathos of death a tragedy.

See on

Sdh].

92.

McN.

hushed

under the sun].

participation in the only world of

his

who have no knowledge.

that of Ps. 88'"

is

have been taken for granted by the Hebrews,

This

The

of pessimism.

have power to perceive that one

to be greater than the dead,

is

Qoheleth's eschatology

6.

that they shall die].

mood

verse, but the reason betrays a strange

dead know not anything].

to

know

the living

clause presents a reason for the statement of the preceding

-ic*nd], (g,

vs. i.
is

S and

1 apparently

read -*rN3

{cf.

by Zap. and McN., and has been

a supernumerary in the text. Gins, held that

rightly followed

^loS] is

was introduced before

and

nintaS

moral, not ceremonial, qualities;

it

show that these

NDta^ to

not only makes

referred to

awkward Heb., but

moral qualities have been included in the preceding

the

and
omits 2VjS altogether, and
pair.

j&,

added >nS to make another balanced pair, but (&

(& has apparently preserved
is rightly followed by Bick., Wild, and Sieg.
many pre-Aqiban readings in this passage, and this one has been adopted
above.

Nn>

two pairs
as a

way

^''^^l,

varied.

is

rhetorical effect the structure

for

panied by the

where the

and that

this is really parallel to

do not have the

art.,

and where

it

9^.

xSr;]

may, as Del. and Wr.

this

and
accom-

Jos. 14'^ Ju. 6'*

is

Ob.

is

and La.

i',

doubtful whether

intended to express a superlative or not.

the writers

on 2" and

comparing

out, however, that in these cases the adj.

article,

adjs.

of the last

Kn., Hit., Gins., Ew. and Del. take

"^rii >'"(].

of expressing the superlative,

Wr. points

Ct. i^

3.

"inx ^"^pr:], cf.

note, be either

an

adj. or a

Everywhere, except in Je. 6", it takes an

ace. of material as here, cf. Dt. 6"
34^ ."n'^Sm], cf. on i'^ Perhaps
inns], (g read onnnx, using the pi. suf. to refer
to be pointed niS(:'in.
verb, but

is

probably a verb.

t^t^''^^

to

D">\s.

altered.

better with

McN.

it is

and

forceful exclamation.

32"

suffix of

MT.

need not, however, be

Sn], Gins, insists that in translation Di^Sn

but

Cf. Ex.

The

read DPnnN.

D^nn

2 S.

20".

to regard the expression as

4.

Ko.

-\Ci<

t]

(39oe)

is,

must be added,
an abbreviated

as Del. observed,

regards

it

= " whoever."

as="when."

"^na"']

PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
does not

fit

The

the context.

MSS. and

Qr., 20

l6l

[Ch. O'-IO^
(g, i&,

Iff, QI,

read n^n^,

which should undoubtedly be adopted into the text, as has been done
pn'j3], an r- formation from ni33, occurring elsewhere in
above.

BH. only

in 2

K. i89= Is. 36^ but found also

2Sd^], S

Ja., 156b.

cf.

may

in the

Mishna and Talmud,

be taken as the prep, standing before the

casus pendens (K6. 27ib), or as an

emphatic particle=Ar. "la,"

Haupt, Johns Hopkins Circular, XIII, 107; Budde, ZAW.,
IX, 156; Ges."^- i43e and Ko. 35id). The analogies are very evenly
balanced, but seem to me slightly to preponderate in favor of the latter

As. "lu"

view.

(cf.

forms a paronomasia with

-^^^J^" already," on
"^yc]

5.

Is. 488.

cf.

Q7.16.

"iDf.

6. aj

di

restatement of Qoheleth's philosophy of

Come eat
for already God
97.

dj], cf.

!".

life.

thy bread with joy and drink thy wine with a glad heart,

has accepted thy works.

At

let thy garments

Enjoy life with a
woman whom thou lovest all the days of thy vain life which he gives
thee under the sun, for it is thy lot in life and in thy toil whicli thou toilest
under the sun. ". All that thy hand finds to do, do with thy might, for

be white, and

let

not

oil

".

times

all

be lacking for thy head.

no work nor reckoning, nor knowledge nor wisdom in She'ol

". And again I saw under the sun, that the
race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the valiant; also there is no bread
for the wise as well as no wealth for the intelligent and no favor for those
who have knowledge; for time and chance shall happen to them all.
'^ For even man knows not his time; like fish which are caught in an
like them are the sons of men
evil net, or like birds taken in a snare,
'^ Also this
taken at an evil time, when it falls upon them suddenly.
I have seen as wise under the sun and it appeared great unto me. ^*. There
was a small city and few men in it, and there came against it a great king
and surrounded it and built siege-works against it. ^s. And one found
in it a poor, wise man and he delivered the city by his wisdom, but no
man remembered that poor man. '. And I said wisdom is better than
might, but the wisdom of the poor man is despised and his words are
there

is

whither thou art going.

not heard.
'^

The words of the wise heard in quiet

among fools.
Wisdom is better than implements of

(arc better) than the cry of a

prince
1*.

tear, but

one sinner greatly

destroys good.
lO'.

2.

3.

Also

Dead flies corrupt the perfumer s ointment

More valued is a little wisdom than the ji^reat ,i^lo7y of folly.
The heart of a wise man is for his rii^ht hand.
But the heart of a fool is for his left.

when a fool walks

of every one, he
II

is

a fool.

in the

way

his heart

is

lacking and he says

ECCLESIASTES

62

9^ Come

eat thy bread

Siegfried to find the

ever,

with

hand

seems unnecessary.

The sudden

joy\.

transition leads

of another author here.

That, how-

Qoheleth, Hke other men, could come

under the influence of various moods or various systems of thought.

Each could possess him

will

end

in turn

Life has no outlook,

the other.
all,

problems are insoluble, death

its

but enjoy sensation and the sunshine while

this is his philosophy, cf. 2^* y^-

how many

realizes

without preventing the return of

different

22

and

or of hospitality,

La.

2'2

Gn.

cf.

thought apparently
left this

14'

27=8 Dt. 3328

is,

of subsistence

S. 1620 25-8

God, by the constitution

man

Bread

like Qoheleth.

Neh.

Already God has accepted thy works].

4'5-i7.

Tobit

book

These are often taken as the means

li'ine].

lasts,

it

a modern

moods he can

conceptions and

entertain, he finds fewer authors in a

.

When

^is gia^

5^

The

of the world, has

and this is evidence that

As Hubert Grimme pointed

as the only source of enjoyment,

such a course

is

acceptable to Him.

out {Orient. Literaturzeitnng,

VHI,

col.

ingly paralleled in a fragment of the

Meissner
1902, Heft

in

432^.), vvs. 7-9 are strikepic, published by

Gilgamesh

the Mitteiliingen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft,

The

I.

passage

(col.

HI, 3^.) reads:

Since the gods created man,

Death they ordained for man,
Life in their hands they hold,
Thou, O Gilgamesh, fill indeed thy
Day and night be thou joyful.

belly,

Daily ordain gladness,

night rage and make merry.
Let thy garments be bright,
Thy head purify, wash with water;
Desire thy children, which thy hand possesses,

Day and

wife enjoy in thy bosom.

Peaceably thy work (?)....

The argument

here

is

so closely parallel to that of Qoheleth that

one can scarcely doubt but that he was influenced by the passage.

The Gilgamesh

epic can have been influenced neither

nor Greek thought.

pessimism and brightness which we

find in

Qoheleth,

Semitic, and, to the Semitic mind, congruous.

Introduction, 6 (2).

by Stoic

This passage shows that the combination

is

of

thoroughly

See further above,

PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
Let

8.
'
'

163

"White" corresponds

garments be white].

thy

[Ch.Q'-IO^

to

Bright colors and white were the

bright " of the Babylonian epic.

colors for the clothing of courts,

cf.

Est.

8'*,

Horace

the Gilgamesh fragment above).

Rome

that white garments were also in

file repot ia, natales, aliosve

and

of festivals (see

{Sat. II, 2"-')

shows

the attire for enjoyment

dienon

Festos albatus celebrct.

(Clothed in white he celebrates banquets,

Birthdays or any other festal days.)

The Talmud

Oil

in the

{Sabbat Ji

Babylonian

of joy,

14a) lays a similar stress on white garments.

This takes the place

.for thy head].

cf.

Ps. 235 45^

and opposed

Wisd.

in

Interpreters have

lovest].

"thy head purify

of

Among the Hebrews oil was also a symbol

104'* Pr. 27 Am. 6.
The verse is quoted
2^-\
9. Enjoy life with a woman whom thou

epic.

noticed the absence of the definite

"woman" and have drawn various inferences from

Gins, saw in it a command to embrace whatever woman
it.
pleased one, and so gain the "delights of the sons of men" alluded
article before

to in 2

The analogy

view which Plumtre opposes.

of the

Babylonian, which seems to be freely reproduced here, tends to

confirm Ginsburg's view (see

was quoted and opposed

in

note).

crit.

Wisd.

understood of voluptuousness

{cf.

The author

8*.

of

Wisdom

seems to have been

it

Wisd. 3'M')-

passage presents no contradiction of ch.

5'

Moreover, the passage

\ where

726-28.

Viewed

// is

thus, the

thy

lot], cf.

was, however, a fierce opponent

and possibly found in his

meaning than Qoheleth intended. 10. All
do].
This context refers to methods of en-

of Qoheleth (see above, Introd. 12),

words a more

sinister

hand

finds to

that thy

joyment.
ability,

Do

i4-" Ez. 32'*

to the

with thy might], earnestly, or to the extent of thy

Gn.

cf.

32^

For there is no work

and the Babylonian poem

31".

Underworld."

This

place where dust

last describes
is

Light they do not see,

it

in Sheol],

of "Ishtar's

cf.

Is.

Descent

as:

their food, their sustenance, clay,

in

darkness they dwell.

a covering of wings;

Its clothing, like birds', is

Over door and

For the

full

poem,

40S ff., or KB., VI,

bolt dust

is

spread.

and Assyr. Lit., Aldine ed., p.

Dhorme, Choix de textes religieux,

see Babylonian
p.

80^., or

ECCLESIASTES

64
326^.

p.

11.
In

subject.

Again I

vs.

This introduces a new phase of the

saw].

Qoheleth declared that righteous and wise are

same fate as the wicked. He has proved it for the

and now turns to take it up for the wise. Under the
The
sun], in this writer a frequent synonym of ''in this world."
Here are examples of the fact that the rerace is not to the swift\
subject to the
righteous,

of this life are not given in

wards

Plumtre believes that

Greek
done

had been introduced

exercises

into Jerusalem.

the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes,

in

Mac.

accordance with ability or merit.

this illustration indicates a late date,

i'^

Mac.

He

4^-'^.

forgets,

174-164 B.C.

Three terms are used

the wise].

(r/.

however, that there were

occasions in every age for competition in running,

No bread for

when

This was

cf.

2 S.

18'

'J.

to describe intel-

and "those who have knowlTime], a reference to 3'-. The seasons appointed by
edge."
God roll over humanity relentlessly, among them the time of death.
Chance] is here "evil chance" or "misfortune." It is not quite
the thought of 2'^ ^^ y^ and 9^, for a different Hebrew word is used
lectual power, "wise," "intelligent,"

(see crit. note), but

time].

"Time"

is

it

borders closely upon

here ambiguous,

it

probable that the time of death

just as

14.

"vanity"

men

Hit. thought the siege of

(Sidetes),

was meant;
Ant.

(Jos.

not his

uses, see Ct. 2^- Ez,

meant.

13.

" Wisdom

in

it,

and

Various conjectures have been

(Polybius, V, 66)

VII

is

wisdom."

Knows

the time of mis-

in

a snare

30^

make

/ saw as wise].

"=" wise

act,"

pursuit."

small city and a few

great king].
city.

=" vain

of

12.

and birds taken

similes of fish caught in a net

"I noted as an instance

it.

may mean

For similar

fortune or the time of death.

The

it

there

came against

made concerning

it

this

Dor by Antiochus III in 218 B.C.

the siege of Dor by Antiochus

PI.,

xiii, 72);

Wr., the siege of Abel-Beth-

and Ha., the siege of Beth-sura by Antiochus V

(i Mac. 6=" 2 Mac. ly).
Ewald thought reference was made to
Athens and Themistocles, and Friedlander to the siege of Syracuse by the Romans in 212 B.C. There is no certainty that any
of these conjectures is right, and the conjectures of PI. and Ha. are
ruled out by the dates, and that of Friedlander by the fact that
Syracuse was taken; but more can be said in favor of Abel-Beth-

Maacah

(2 S. 20'^

-22)

PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
Maacah than

of

any

of the others, for

[Ch.9'-10^

we do

woman" was changed

sentiment of vs.

see
note. 15. One found in
He delivered the by his wisdom].
critical

i/],for

PI.

city

Abel-Beth-Maacah

to

him an insuperable

20)

S.

(2

"poor wise man " instead

membered

Wr.

woman "

is

fancy

it,

N'o

16.

that

if

is

and consequently takes the preceding

city by his wisdom."

The wisdom of

is

actual,

though

See also

unknown,

to us

The

critical note.

9''-10^ are interpolations of the

The

verse

proverb.

man"
is,

of

the

as Sieg., Ha.

incident; here

toward words of

wisdom and

the loud pretense of sham.

little

wool."

any one.

PI. is

18.

reminded

Wisdom

of the

is better

One

sinner greatly de-

"Sinner" comes from a root which means "to

It is

the contrary of the

Perhaps Qoheleth thought

in Jos. 7.

section.

]3erceivcd, clearly a

proverb suggested by the anecdote

miss" or "go wrong," and probably

slips.

suggested

the

quiet are better than the cry of

with which the preceding section closed.

stroys good].

of

a strong contrast between the quiet strength

than implements of war],

to

meet an un-

glossator,

incident

and McN. have

English proverb, " Great cry and

moral

at-

15 he

writer has established his

Hokma

closing

Words of the wise heard in

a prince among fools],

of

vs.

fate.

by the "wise
17.

mean "he

In

assertion (9') that the wise as well as the righteous

worthy

holds

Such a view

stating the ordinary attitude of the world

wisdom.

McN.

vs. to

tributes to Qoheleth too exact a use of language.

was describing some

re-

})ublic

rendered as we have trans-

would have delivered the

he

man

and

is fickle,

despised and his words are not heard].

that this contradicts vs. 15

lated

strong, but the

strangely seems to

oljjection to the identification.

The popular

it."

admits that the parallel

particularly

is

"wise

of the

that poor man].

man

fitted better the

it

"there was found in

servants, then as now, were often unrewarded.

the poor

be-

believes the "wise

"poor man," because

to

the

Siege-works]. For the reasons of this rendering,

1 1

know why

was reheved

not

other sieges were raised, but Abel-Beth-Maacah

cause of the action of a wise woman.

165

Many

of

some

refers here to intellectual or

Hebrew

ideal of

"wisdom."
Achan

incident like that of

illustrations of the principle will readily occur

Often the

brilliant

plans of a leader, faithfully fob

ECCLESIASTES

66

lowed by many, have been brought to nothing by the stupid

competence of one man.

FHes

ointment].

would
of

East are a great pest, they penetrate every-

in oil, they

would

of course die,

and decaying

The proverb continues the idea

More valued is a little wisdom].

preceding utterance.

the reading adopted

If

part of the verse

is

The

and McN, as from

is

"Heart"

Perhaps, however, the text

verse

Hokma

of the

is

to be regarded with Sieg.

is

glossator.

2.

The

The heart of a
"inteUigence," "moral percep-

used for
it

includes all three.

Is for his right

tends toward the right or fortunate direction or issue.

i.e.,

"Right hand" has

moral meaning

this

Heart of a fool

ical note.

direction.

is

Perhaps

tion" or "will."

When

3.

His

out for a walk.

or right judgment.

jaundiced view
7.

not very

with the

another proverb introduced as a gloss.

wise man].

hand],

hand

the

is

right, a contrast

is

presented.

corrupt; see critical note.

verse

in-

flies corrupt the perfiimer^s

connection of this with the preceding aphorism

obvious.
first

Dead

10'.

spoil the ointment's odor.

the

The

in the

Entangled

where.

3ito 3':']

all

is

for his

in the

Talmud.

a fool walks in the way],

heart is lacking],

He

other

="glad

i.e.,

See

his

i.e.,

when he goes

sound

intelligence

says of everyone, he is a fool].

men

heart,"

In his

are wrong.

cf.

and

Est. 5^

It is the

opposite of

with this

last expression, that there is

>" :3^,

crit-

tends in the wrong

left], i.e.,

Pr. 26-^.

It is

cf.

i*^

3.D\ ch. 7^ i

K. 21^

probable, from the contrast

an element of "good conscience"

in the phrase.
v:n nN-i]=

9.

nariN

3413.

nirN

"enjoy life," cf. 2'. c-'n is left indefinite as in Ps.

nrN] seems like a translation of the Bab. mar-hi-tum,

"wife," perhaps from rlhu, "to love"

{cf.

MA.

588a).

The

line of

the Babylonian epic runs: mar-hi-tum li-ih-ta-ad-da-am i-na su-ni-ka,

"A

wife enjoy in thy loins,"

which favors Ginsburg's understanding

the passage. It does not indicate that

of

Qoh. was more sensual than other

Semites of antiquity, that with such frankness he alludes to such things.

"li^'N],

8'*.

If,

writer's

curs the

and
some have supposed, it refers back to nrN, Gn. 2" was in the
mind. That is not so probable. iS^n id'' Sd], where it ocsecond time, is omitted by &, and is with Eur., Sieg., McN. and

after I'^^n, probably refers to ''C as its antecedent, as in 5'^

as

be regarded as an accidental gloss. sin o]. Oriental MSS.

which might make it refer back to nu'N. Cf. on the point
K6. 35ob. 10. ^^'\ cf. on its use, Ju. 9" i S. lo^ 25*. inr3] (g read

Ha.

to

read

N"n ^d,

PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
but the reading

tHDo,

on

its

use as a

gards as

on

The

NH.

in

nsni]

7".

pac'ni

is

nxn-,

839).

inf. absol.

interpreters,

rn::], this

>*)'?]=

Ha.

Heb.

cf.

re-

text

saw,"

cf.

used instead of the

would emend

Sieg.

masc. form

used only

is

Wr. thought
but the fem. form is

2 S. iS^^ Je. 8^ 22'^.

cf.

form might indicate a

(see Ja.

the vs. as a whole,

an

'^"inco],

nc'N]

")'^n

a Heb. idiom for "again

is

So most

to -"iNnxi.

4'

usual form

that the masc.

used

On

11. nsni tiju-],

369r.

Ko. 2i8b.

on the analogy of
here.

DC*

cf.

Ben Sira 14" '2.

4' and also Ko.

finite verb, cf.

cf.

gloss.

of

construed with

best

is

Massoretic accents.

for metrical reasons.

gl.,

inoa

167

p^rn], on
metrical reasons regarded by Zap. as a
nnx
proper name,
Ko. 293c.

nry, contrary to the

n::3ni np"ii] is for

not so good,

is

[Ch. O'-IO^

late date,

"accident," occurs

BH.

in

only

K. 5'*, though found in NH. {cf. Ja. 1135). It may repIn i K. ^^^, >" is added to it
resent either a good or bad occurrence.
Here it has that meaning without
to express the meaning " misfortune."
here and in

>"^.

n-\|->"']

is

masc. to agree with

as a Pual part., the

"^

yjfl.

12.

0">C'|''v] is

generally taken

being omitted, and the vowel lengthened to comthe doubled consonant {cf.
Other examples are Srx Ex. 32,

pensate the absence of

Ges.*^-

Ko., Vol.

n'?v

n;^^

K.

= ^i3n

I,

p. 408).

Dr.

2'".

suggests

n>n mixn].

nc'N:).

succeeding n;n.

DTpu

52s and

Ju. 13^, and

as the original reading.

Sieg. regards

n>-\

'^iDnr^]

as a dittograph from the

Ha. regards the same n;n, as well as

'3

at the be-

ginning of the verse and Dvsro at the end, as glosses, which mar the
vs., but see above, Introd. 9.
With reference to
Rabbi Aqiba remarks {Ahoth, 3>5), "-"? nono n-^ixci p3->y3 jinj Son
:D>>nn Sd, i.e., "All is given on pledge, and a net is spread over all the liv13. nr], fem.
Put in the same gender as no^n, cf. 51*. n^nj
ing."
dv-i*^n'? nSnj
"Sn N-n], cf.
S
Jon. 33, and omrr'S rh^^^ Est. lo'.
14. r\yop n">j;], r*- or n.nin must be
correctly renders fieydXr] doKc? /xol.

metrical form of the

the vs.

supplied

in

thought.

king of Persia.

The

"^nj I'^r].

phraseology

Del. thinks this a reference to the

is

that used of Persian kings, but

lasted

on into the Greek period.

dently

means "siege-works," a meaning which

Two MSS. read omxD, and this reading

it

might be used by the writer to desig33D] means "surnate king David or any other powerful monarch.
round" as in 2 K. 6'% not "walk around" as in Jos. 6^ Dnixc] eviIt

BH.
2, V,
is

A.

it

has nowhere else

is

supported by

This reading we adopt with Winck., Dr. and

McN.

here impersonal, so Kn., Hit., Heil., Wild., and Sieg.,

3 23c.

Wr.'s contention that ^nj

the subject, does not

commend

itself.

i^^c

of the

It is

preceding

cf.

vs.

<S,

in

^,

15. N3(r]

Ko.
must be

also

not grammatically necessary,

and does not give good sense. i^D?^], sec on 4'3. Dale's contention
that it means a wage-worker and not a beggar does not seem well
founded, for it occurs in BH. only here, in the fol. vs. and in 4'3, but often
sin-a'7r;i],
in Aram., and in the Sin. Syr. of Lk. 16" is used of Lazarus.

ECCLESIASTES

68

as Del. observes, - of the Piel reverts to

its original -- on account of the

Another instance occurs in i29. Del. also notes
language this vi^ould have been taS?;-'. McN.

following Maqqef.
that

the earlier

in

would rendei

"would deliver" on the analogy

this

of Ex. p'*

and

3 13, taking the clause as an apodosis with protasis

suppressed.

contradiction which seems to

seem

me

to

language have been

we

720

and supply

IB

S.

to render this necessary, does not

din], as Del. says,

Perhaps

c-^n.

mediately precedes, but in

would follow

him

See above.

to exist.

The

find

"ins

used

is

it

din.

after

would

in the older

here because t^a im-

Zap., for metrical reasons,

16. nv^j] and cyn;:':]

D"in.

are participles of continuous or customary action,

Ha. regards

nma

the sentiment,

that

all

BS. (Heb.)

cf.

17. nnj:i], not

and

^jn]

comes

after

cf. Da. 97, rem. i.

nnoj] as glosses. On

1322"!.

("heard) in wisdom," but ("uttered) in wisdom," the

reference being to the speaker, so

Wr. and Wild.

D-iynt-j] is

erased

by Bick., who renders:

Der Weisen Wort ist ruhig

Die Thoren uberschrei'n es.

MT.

This

is

arbitrary.

DOiiO

is

understood

3o8c.

D^^-'Doa

a Graecism.

supported by

is

before

Sc*ir5]="an

language, would have been

all

the versions.

ripvir:].

i33b and Ko.

wrongly considered by some

in 4",

arch fool,"

Job

Cf. 2 S. 23^

as

cf.

Ges.'^-

and Pr. 3030. 18. 2ip], in the older

The word occurs in Zc. 14^ Ps. 55''
found in Aram., Dn. 721 and frequently
412*

r^izrhi:.

Job 3823. It is
Talmud, cf. Ja. 141 1. Cf. also the Syr. stem and As. garabu,
all with the same meaning.
The substitution of i-^p for ncn^n was
probably due to Aramaic influence. N^''n] is pointed like a "n'^ stem,
as in other parts of Q.
& read am, which better corresponds to ri:::;^.
6831 789 14^1

in the

This reading

is

favored by Kn., Del., Sieg., Winck. and Dr.

^^'}^],

Ko. 3i8e.
Ha. regards i-ip 'Sod neon] as a
genuine phrase of Q., and all the rest of the verse as a gloss. This is
arbitrary, and spoils a good proverb.
1. mo ^nnr] is taken by ( (unused

adverbially,

cf.

less that is corrupt,

as

McN.

bringing" or "poisonous

be DTiD

niD

0"'3UT,

can="dead
sing, with

flies,"
pi.

""San

thinks)

flies."

in

which

Ps.

suits

and by Del. and Wr. as= "death

last claims "dead flies" would
ii63 shows by analogy that this

The
18^

the

context

much

better.

subject has been explained in various ways.

r-'Nn-'],

AE.,

whom

Gins, and Del. follow, held that the vb. was sing, because Qoheleth
fly.
Winck., McN. and Dr. emend to )C'in3\ while
Ko. (349g) holds that the sing, nir makes the idea sing. Each of
these solutions is possible.
It is also possil)le that Qoheleth was careless
and wrote bad grammar. ""'i'-] is omitted by (6, &, 2, U, and should,
npn], on the meaning, cf.
as McN. and Dr. have seen, be erased.
Ex. 3088 372. Beginning with np^], the text is probably corrupt.

thought of each

ATTITUDE TOWARD RULERS

[Cu. 10'-"

169

was :n ^"730 11330 ncDn i2';n ipv

!0>*o r^3D ni -<i3r::i n-ono ->p\
omitted 2n, while MT. went a step

(S suggests that the original reading

was

This

transformed

&

in

read the same except that

further

the

sis to

and

half of the verse, the Rabbinic revisers present in

first

MT.

it

original reading of (S presented an antithe-

The

and omitted \

into

a thought

in

harmony with

the

2.
p. 150/., who has worked this out).
anatomical sense. He held the verse to

man

as a

half verse.

first

a^=" thought"

or "will"

&,

19

McN.,

was taken by Mich, in an

that wisdom is as rare

a"^]

mean

with the heart on the right side of the body.

Del. to take

(C/.

(cf.

It is better

and Ho.

ch. 7^

4'0-

with
V^']

taken by Del., Wr. and Wild, correctly to have a moral significance

kindred to that in the Talmud, where P" is used as a vb., which in
is

some forms means "to do the right thing," cf. Ja. 580b. There is no
need with PI. to call in Greek influence to explain the figure. '^Ncr]
is

similarly used with a moral significance -=" errors."

kindred Talmudic usage. 3. I^n S^Dro

for

from

emphasis
by Kn.,

path of

^87f.
It

non]

McN.,

Wr., with

takes a walk."

mon

-]^i2 ^ddc'd dji,

-|^in

Hit., Gins.,

life."
is

cf.

'\'^-^2

Cf. Ja.

dji]

3'. l"*"']

is

taken

less probability,

a temporal particle, cf. 8^ and Ko.

Wr., McN.), and not an adj. (Gins.).

-J'j]=->U'ND,

a verb

(so Del.,

taken by Del. and No. to

is

rightly

sense="when the fool

takes it to mean "the com-

in the literal

etc.,

occurs with 2^ eleven times outside of this passage,

icn]

1591b

inverted for

is

mean "he

cf.

Pr.

6" f.

(the fool) says to every

one by his actions that he is a fool." This gives to ir:N an unusual

meaning. This renders^3^] "to every one." It is better with McN.
to take S3':' = "concerning every one," and so give to ics its usual
meaning.
iQi

2".

Advice

concerning one's attitude toward rulers.

The genuine portions are 10'^

interpolated.)
10^.

a noun, not an adj.

'^pp],

If the

"^

He

^.

o.

(Largely
-">.

^.

But the nobles dwell in low estate.

I have seen slaves upon horses,
And princes, like slaves, walking on the ground.

and

rise

'^.

*.

''

against thee, do not leave thy place,

There is an evil that 1 have seen under
an unintentional error which proceeds from the ruler.

anger of the ruler

for soothing pacifies great sins.

the sun like

i^''

places the fool in high positions often,

He who digs a pit shall fall into it.

And he %vho breaks through a 7vall, a serpent shall bite
He 7vho quarries stones shall be hurt by them.
And he who cleaves wood shall be endangered thereby.
If the iron be dull.
do not sharpen

And he

its

edge.

Then he must strengthen his force ;

But the advantage of wisdom is to give

success.

him.

70

ECCLESIASTES
Iftke serpent

".

'2.

of enchantment.

But the lips of the fool shall devour him.

The beginning of the words of his mouth

^.

And the
The fool

".

bite for lack

Then there is no advantage to the charmer.

The words of the mouth of the wise are favor.

end of his speech

multiplies words:

[Man does not know

who can tell him ?]
The

'^

toil

is

is

folly.

wicked madness.

that which shall be,

and what

him

shall be after

offools shall 70cary him

not how to go to town.

Who knows
'^

Woe

'^

And whose princes

Happy art thou, O
And whose princes

to thee,

whose king is a child.

morning
land, whose king is well born,

land,

feast in the

feast at the (proper) time.

For strength, and not for drinking!

Through great idleness the beam-xuork

'**.

And through falling of hands

For laughter

".

2".

they

make

bread.

And 7oine to make life glad

And money answers both.
Do not even in thy thought
Nor

sinks,

the house drips.

curse the king,

bed-chamber curse a rich man

For the bird of heaven shall carry the voice.
And the owner of wings shall tell a thing.

is

in thy

10^ The section begins with genuine words of Qoheleth. It

the beginning of his advice concerning one's conduct before

The anger

rulers.

of the ruler], an oft recurring calamity under

Do

a despotic government.

by great
advice

not leave thy place],

Soothing pacifies great

thy post.

errors.

is

the

The cause

wisdom

is

of the

sins], pacifies the

here

})ut for

throw up

i.e.,

anger aroused

the effect.

Qoheleth 's

under man, but, as Genung says,

nevertheless has the virtue of the idea, ''Blessed are the

5.

There

is

an

evil],

a favorite expression of Qoheleth's,

Like an unintentional

error], as

Qoheleth here exhibits some of the pacifying

just advised.

He

detect a deeper note,

bow

spirit

error.

which he has

does not excite the anger of a despot by suggest-

Underneath

ing that his errors are intentional.

blot

cf. 5'^ 6'.

were an unintentional

if it

it

meek."

it is

to the despot, but the despot

is

on the government of the world.

not always right.

6.

we
One must

his expression

revealed in the word "evil."

This

He places the fool in

is

high

ATTITUDE TOWARD RULERS

positions],

[Ch. 10'--"

171

another example of the evils of despotic government.

Plumtre thinks

it

a reference to Agathoclea and her brother,

who

were favorites of Ptolemy Philopator (B.C. 222-205), (Justin,

XXX,

i);

Haupt, of the

officers

appointed by Antiochus IV and

who betrayed Jewish interests (i Mac. 79 9" 2 Mac.

-^Q doubt, many examples of this fault could be found

his successors,
48.

19. 25)_

13.

in every period of Oriental

government, but the date of the book

makes Plumtre's view probable. Often],

The nobles], litthe Hebrew, see crit. note.

(see Introduction, 13)

is

a free rendering of

"the rich,"

erally

i.e.,

men

who were regarded

of ancestral wealth,

and the holders of offices.

another example of the way a despot often

as the natural associates of kings,

7. Slaves

upon

horses],

reverses the natural positions of his subjects.

tells

Justin (XLI, 3)

how, among the Parthians, one could distinguish freemen

from slaves by the

ran on

latter

former rode on horses, and the

fact that the

An

foot.

instance of the exercise of such arbitrary

power in later times is found in the decree of the Fatimite Caliph

Hakim, that Christians and Jews should not ride horses, but only
mules or asses (see Chronicle of Bar Hebraius, p. 215). As
Siegfried points out, the mention of horses here
date, as in early Israel kings
cf.

Ju. 5'" 10^ 2 S.

K.

i8'J I

Such a

to that of Pr. 19'".

i'8

is

an index

and princes rode on

Zc. 99.

result of

The

of late

asses or mules,

sentiment corresponds

tyranny reminds Del. (Hohes-

imd Koheleth, 222) of the career of the Persian Bagoas, in the

mind of Graetz it points to the reign of Herod {cf. Jos. Ant. xvi,
7 and 10), but almost any period of Oriental history must have

lied

afforded such examples.

8.

fried
It

He who digs a pit

This

it].

is

clearly, as Sieg-

seen, a proverb introduced

by a

glossator.

has no connection with the preceding, and occurs in varying

forms
that a
cf.

shall fall into

and McNeile have

Ps.

in Pr.

7'

digs a pit for another shall

He who

57" BS. 2729.

garden or a house.

quarries stones].

As

This
Sieg.

is

of the first half

fall

into

it

is

himself,

breaks through a wall], to rob a

serpent shall bite him].

tine often lurk in the crannies of

preceding.

The thought

26" and BS. 27".

man who

a wall,

cf.

Am.

Serpents in Pales5'9.

9.

He who

a proverb which has no reference to the

and McN. have

seen,

it is

a gloss introduced

ECCLESIASTES

172
by the

Hokma

glossator.

Plumtre, in order to find a connection

with the preceding, makes the "stones" the stones of landmarks,

as he had made the ''wall" of the preceding verse, but this arbitrarily

reads a meaning into

It is clearly

it.

common

proverbial

saying on the danger of the homely occupations of quarrying and

wood-cutting.

It is

perhaps the same proverb which underlies

Oxyrhynchus papyrus,

the saying attributed to Jesus in the

Raise the stone and there thou shalt find me,

Cleave the wood and there

am

I.

and Hunt's Sayings of our Lord, 1897,

(See Grcnfell

which follows,
This

wood].

illustrates the value of

it

may

For an

thereby].

be fire-wood,

cf.

Lv.

verse.

And

10.

195.

//

The "he"

he do not sharpen].

to refer to the

is

wood-chopper of the preceding

This gnomic saying was probably introduced by the hand

which introduced the preceding.

force].

Dt.

K. 6^ where RV. translates

the iron he dull], the axe be dull, cf 2

no doubt intended

cleaves

Shall be endangered

i^ 4'2.

illustration of the danger, cf.

''iron" by "axe-head."

mate

its

He who

wisdom.

The

p. 12.)

proverb was probably introduced here because, with

He must

Then he must strengthen

his

accomplish by brute strength what he might

have done more easily by the exercise of intelligence.

vantage of wisdom

is to give success].

The adWisdom, by enabling a man

properly to prepare bis tools, helps to ensure a successful issue to

his

For the basis

work.

this rendering, see critical note.

of

This

11. // the serpent bite for lack of enchantment].

proverb, introduced by the

Hokma

bearing on wisdom, or the use of wisdom.

it

was suggested by the serpents mentioned

advantage

to the

serpent's bite,
of

no value

is

uncommon

Ps. 58* BS. 12''.

As

Hit., Gins.,

charm,

in

owner.

The proverb

the

East, as in

has a

in vs. 8.

llicre is no

order to protect from a

bites.

If

strikes the

useless in producing results.

in

it

Plumtre thinks that

Success depends upon foresight.

that of vs. 10.

not

must be exercised before he

to its

comes afterward
is

charmer].

another

is

glossator, because

it is

it

is

Wisdom

that

Snake-charming

ancient Israel,

12. The words of the mouth of

not,

same note as

cf.

Je. 8'^

the wise are favor].

and Zo. have noted, they obtain favor

{cf.

Pr. 22").

This proverbial gloss begins by praising the results of effectual

ATTITUDE TOWARD RULERS

wisdom.

The

the antithesis.
fool.

13.

173

teaches positively what the preceding vs.

It

negatively.

[Cn. 10^-"

The

wisdom

Ineffectual
vs.

equal to

is

Him], the

folly.

another proverbial gloss, which interrupts

is

The beginning of

Qoheleth's reflections on rulers.

the words.]

''Beginning" contrasts with "end" in the next clause.

pression

The proverbs

wicked madness].

ishness, that

There

which begins as mere

word employed by him

is

Of

continue to treat of him.

progression even in fool-

is

may end

folly

is

mad-

in criminal

talk

is

critical note.

14*.

a characteristic of

The
folly.

a fragment of another proverb which was introduced by the

Hokma

The

glossator.

and evidently
14**.

ambiguous, see

Empty

fool multiplies words].

it,

Man

rest of the verse

the concluding

does not

know

that

member
which

has no connection with

of the parallelism

shall be].

McN.

is

is lost.

right in

seeing in this a genuine fragment of the thought of Qoheleth,

so like 6'2
here, for

7'^
it

and 8^

He

is

also right in regarding

the

future; but

know why an

lution of

Ginsburg and Delitzsch are then puzzled

McNeile already presented

The

to town].

toil

mean

most unknown of sub-

equivalent to "although"

glossator clumsily brought disjecta

15.

it is

as out of place

interrupts the reflections on the evils of despotic gov-

that the fool talks a great deal about the

jects

it

Rashi, Ginsburg and Wright take the verse to

ernment.

to

ex-

Possibly Qoheleth meant simply grievous madness, for the

ness.

This

The

kindred to the Enghsh "from beginning to end."

is

his month], the fool's.

Folly

taught

This presents

lips of the fool shall destroy him].

is

far

is

omitted.

more probable.

The soSome

membra together here.

who knows not how

of fools shall weary him,

Another proverbial gloss which

is

very obscure.

burg rendered "because he does not know," and took

it

to

to

go

Gins-

mean

that in his doings as well as in his sayings the folly of the fool manifests itself.

the

Ewald thought it a reference to bad government, in which

toil of fools (i.e.,

who

did not

heathen rulers) wearied the poor countryman

know how

followed, thought

it

to

go to the

city.

Graetz,

a reference to the Essenes,

who

whom Renan
lived

by them-

and avoided cities (Jos. Ant. xviii, i^"). Wildeboer thinks

the meaning to be "he who asks the fool the way to the city will
be disappointed," and similarly Genung, "one cannot make out of
selves,

ECCLESIASTES

174
a fool's voluble talk the

way

town."

to the nearest

These

varieties

The

of opinion serve to illustrate the difficulty of the passage.

rendering adopted above makes

The

the most ignorant.

it

mean

the folly of fools wearies

expression, "does not

know

the

way to
know

town," was no doubt proverbial Hke the English, "He doesn't

enough

to

come

whom

one

in

when

it

which

rains,"

is

frequently applied to

the speaker wishes to stigmatize as especially stupid.

Perhaps the mutilation of the preceding proverb has made this more

For other ways

obscure.

Woe

16.

to thee,

of rendering parts of

O land].

remarks of Qoheleth upon

original

rulers,

has interrupted by his interpolations, are

king

is

This

child].

it,

see critical note.

The

This verse should follow io\

which the glossator

now resumed.

Whose

an expression which was probably called

is

by some bitter experience in Qoheleth's own time. Hitzig

and Genung think of Ptolemy Epiphanes, who came to the throne
of Egypt in 205 B.C., at the age of five years.
The word used
forth

mean child (see critical note), but was apSolomon at his accession (i K. 3-). It primarily, however, has that meaning as in i S. 3', etc., and no doubt has it here.
Haupt thinks it refers to Alexander Balas. See above, on 4^^^.
does not necessarily

pHed

to

The

considerations there adduced lead us to agree with Hitzig.

Whose princes feast in the morning], an act which both Hebrew
and Roman condemned. Cf. Is. 5". Cicero, Phil, ii, 41, says.

Ah
i,

hora

tertia

bibehatiir, liidehatur,

vomebatiir.

Juvenal, Satire,

49, 50:

Exul ab

octava

Man us

hihit ct fniitur dis

Iratis.

Catullus,

Carmen,

xlvii, 5, 6:

Vos

De

That
it is

it

lauta sumtnose

was not common

to feast in the

morning. Acts

argued that the Apostles cannot be drunk because

the third hour, shows.

is

cotjvivift

die facitis.

king

is

2^'",

it

where
is

only

This implication that the "youth" who

given to revelry, strengthens, in Haupt's opinion, the

view that the writer has Alexander Balas in mind, for Justin says
of him,

qnem

insperatcc opes

et

alienee felicitatis

ornamenta velnt

captiim inter scortorum greges desidem in regia tenahant.

It

could,

ATTITUDE TOWARD RULERS

[Ch.

lO'-^"

however, as well apply to courtiers of Ptolemy Epiphanes.

Happy
regime

art thou
is

whose king

not only negatively condemned, but by

an ideal government
a

well born].

is

compHment

"Well born"

pictured.

is

king

to the able

17.

The

prevailing

way

of contrast

used here as

is

Qoheleth's mind.

in

75

It

does not

him who is condemned.

Perhaps Qoheleth is paying a comphment to Antiochus III, who
gained Palestine in 198 B.C., and was enthusiastically received by
necessarily imply

an ignoble birth

See Jos. Ant.

reminds us

of ch. 3' -^

strength

and

and not "heroes

y. Feast at the (proper) time]. This

where everything is said to have its time.

the Jews.

For

for

xii,

not for drinking], that they

may

be real heroes,

for mingling strong drink," such as are described

in Is. 5".

18.

Through

Ha. and

McN.

great

beam-work

idleness the

have seen,

As

sinks].

Sieg.,

proverb introduced as a

this is a

Doubtless, the glossator intended to hint by

when

that

it

gloss.

the

princes of a state gave themselves to revelry, the structure of gov-

ernment would

"Beam-work"
made of stone

into ruin.

fall

"roof," for Palestinian houses are

tain

any wood

nym

at all,

for idleness,

it

cf.

is

in the roof.

same Hokma

glossator, but

bread].
it

bread" means
life glad].

Many commentators

Ps. 104'^

As Delitzsch

and drinking not

Money answers

It is

this glossator.

cf.

of Qoheleth's works, for

Ez. 4'^

have seen

And wine

noted, however, the thought

rather similar to vs. 17;

Money

is

he

"Make

vs.

to

make

in this the influence of

to gain strength, but for sport

both].

It

"They

the feasting princes of vs. 16.

immediately after that

to prepare a meal,

that of the psalm.

attributes this to the

does not seem like a proverb.

make })read," seems to refer back to

The })hrase is probably not a part
it

they con-

drips], the roof leaks.

McNeile

probably comes, however, from the hand of

would have introduced

if

Falling of hands], a syno-

The house

lo^

Pr.

19. For laughter they make

equivalent to

is

and,

is

not like

they use eating

and

revelry.

squandered to secure both.

The

glossator probably intended to suggest that the feasting of the

princes of vs. i6 dissipated public funds.

20.
of

Do not even in thy thought curse the king]. The genuine words
He counsels caution and self-

Qoheleth reappear once more.

ECCLESIASTES

T76
control as in vvs. 4,

His thought

5.

is

"treason

minded
is

of the proverb ''walls

taken for granted, as in

The bird of heaven].

have ears."

vs. 6, that the

As

One

re-

is

Curse a rich man].

wealthy are natural

English saying, "a

in the

Nor

will out."

in thy bed-chamber], in thy most private moments.

It

rulers.

bird told

little

me";

the mysterious paths by which secrets travel, are attributed

to the

agency of

birds.

nn]= "anger" sometimes,

104.

regularly used of anger,

is

"place"

"post,"

in the sense of

5DB.

Ju. 8^

cf.

ii^o Ez. 3818

cf. 2 S.

c/.

S.

25^

Is.

and Ps.

20".

njn]^

fr.

nS;]
ir2ipc]=
68.

Zc.

t,t,^^

3i,

78=1

mj=" leave,"

"soothing."

means "healing." McN. rightly renders it

BDB.'s "composure" (p. 951b) does not suit so well.

The

used in Ju. 8^ of assuaging anger.

cf.

629a.

root

is

"relaxes,"

s'D"ic]

71^

cf.

ii^.

nu'N

\"'''Ni],

5.

is

n''j:']="

quiets" or

implied before it.^~r] was

by the older grammarians " Kaf veritatis." It is in reality = " as,"

Neh. 72 and Ges.^- ii8x. -r] is omitted by C5, but as Eur. ob-

called
cf.

serves, this

probably accidental.

is

Its

be more likely due to accident than

omission in one authority would

its

insertion in all the others, to

njrj']= "unintentional error,"

Lv.
Nu.
instead of nNS- another example of a
verb,

as often means "set," "place,"

Qoheleth as

design.

cf.

fern, part.,

"'""'.

68.^.7p],

Est.

6.

Ra., Gins., Del.,

many

of

read

to

Job

5".

^^d.
D"'3"i]

them."

'cnr;]= "exalted
is

by

it

is

and

Sdd,

better with Eur.

positions" or "posts," cf

an appositive to D''cnr:="high positions

rendered freely above to preserve more nearly

It is

the metrical form.

nx'*],

Dt. 17''

cf.

and Wr. read

explained the abst^. as used for the concrete, but

Is. 24^

treated

They, no doubt, had an

'A, 2, all read "-dd.

unpointed text before them.

and Dr.

15^5.

^"1J],

A,

(S, g>,

5'^

n"''

D"'"i^r;']

was thought by Houb. and Spohn not

to

form a good contrast, they accordingly emended the text; but, as explained
above, it fits both the literary form and the historical fact. Gins, and
Del.

compare

7. y-\nri
8.

h-;] is

I'C-iJ],

vy>^'

"liberal" in Job 36'^ and

in the sense of

equal, as Del. noted, to

an Aramaic loan word,

cf.

Pr. 22>< for the

Heb.

Pr. 26"; in Targ. to

nnv^'.

241^

Is.

the Targ. on 2 S. 181^ writes

stones,

cf.

Pr. 24".

Ha.

It
'
it

Barth, Nominalbildung, 45n

The word

Noldeke, Mandcean Gram. 44.

32^.

Is.

"^.nn.

is

used

in

i,

and

the Targ. on

occurs in the same form in Targ. on

and

Je. 48"-

r^ip.

"^"'J]

"

is

it

is

written VD>d, while

not a hedge,

arbitrarily regards the

word as a

it is

gl.

built of

Not even

demands it. l^j] is used of the bite of a serpent,

Wr. and Wild, held that the imperfects here implied
simply possibility, but to render "may fall" and "may bite" would rob
his metrical theory

cf.

Gn. 49'^

the couplet of force.

9. j.''>Dr!]="to

break up" or "quarry,"

c/".

K.

ATTITUDE TOWARD RULERS

5DB.

5" and
455

S. 20',

652b.

but

77

frequently means "be grieved," as in Gn.

means "be pained," as in i S. 20" 2 S. 19', then
5DB. 780b. \yo<\ was a great perplexity to the
2>'>;:]

also

it

"be hurt,"

as here

commentators

[Ch. 10^-"

cf.

of the first half of the nineteenth century, but as Del.

NH. word= " be

It also
in danger" {cf. Berakoth, i^).
no doubt an Aramaism, cf. 5DB. 698 and J a.
10. This is, as Wr. observed, linguistically the most diflficult verse
991b.
nnj^] occurs here as Piel
the only instance in BH., it
in the book.

pointed out,

it is

occurs in Aram, and

is

is

in Je. 31"-

found as Kal

^o

Ez.

The Kal

182.

common

is

In Ez.
'^^5.

read

(&

2i2 it is also

Cf.

Sdj,

used for the "edge" of a

'7^P r-.:'nj]="

polished bronze," Ez.

svi^ord.

Dn.

i^

in

NH.,

D"'jD]="face"
BDB. 8i6a.

Pilpel

but that gives no sense.

or "forepart," here used instead of id or ^d for "edge,"
Ja. 1321b.

cf.

cf.

of

^p'^p],

io.

"polished

naj^. D''S''n]="to make mighty (one's)

is a "sharpened edge."
power," see Job 21^ and cf. i Ch. y^- 7. u and <". ncDn n>t:'Dn], should
probably with Winck., Ha. and Dr. be transposed, as we have done
above in translating. McN. follows (^, & and B in reading "^^^^^

edge"

This has better textual authority, but gives

"the successful man."

doubtful sense.
to

make

Is. 26i

Hiph.

is

-^'.:''on],

the metre

Inf., cf.

more symmetrical.

BDB.

of a whispered prayer, elsewhere in

utterances which

charm a

serpent,

cf.

Zap. omits h-dh,

506b.

11. {:'nS]="to whisper,"

BH.

used in

used of the whispered

is

The

Je. 8'^ Is. 3^ Ps. 58^.

root

has the same meaning in the Talmud, cf Ja. 704 (i.e., J.Ar.), and in
Ni'^s] is used before nouns in the sense of "for lack of," "without"
Syr.

and

kindred meanings.

in

Cf. Is. 55'-

Job

7VMSn]="lord of the tongue," was taken by

15'^

Hit.,

and K6. 402r. S>'3

on the analogy of S^a

1^3= "bird," to mean "a human being," but o^rnSo SipS ';vt'> in
Ps. 58* shows that in "charming" stress was laid on the use of language,

and

this,

taken in connection with the context here, makes it clear that

and Wr. were justified in rendering it "enchanter," "wiz-

Gins., Del.

ard."

12.

tn],

cf Ps. 453 Pr. 22".

The

metaphorical statement makes

-irior], instead of DTicr, is poetical and late,

the sentence emphatic.
59S Ct. 43- " 513.
njpSan], fern, imperf., the subj.
cf. Is. 59' Ps. 453

is

PiPDt:'.

Qo.

The

suffix

refers

In 3" he has trsn and in 78

cf Gn. 133 (RJE.) and Ho.

-\}1,

S^D3.

to

or

wrong

some synonym
in

thinking

it

of

it

i^.

^n>D] in

as in

Is. 2913

may have

n^in n;7n

(512),

may

where

13. nSnn] occurs only here in

n'?nn

13b

is,

however, good BH.,

used by metonomy for

Ps. 49'^

Gins, and Sieg. are

before

it.

niSSin],

cf on

i''.

only the force which

it

is

"l^-t

necessary to supply

expression for the sake of variety.

suggests,

n^tt>N-).

it

30"

n;n], as Del.

has in n>n >^n

means "disagreeable"

also stand for ethical evil as in Dt.

Q. varied the

(6^)

or "serious,"

2 S. 141^ Is.

and

but

5" Am.

it

5'<.

14. n\-i^t:*]. The versions, except 2J, read nvTj, but this was probably because the passage was obscure, and a contrast of tenses seemed to help
12

ECCLESIASTES

78
Analogy

it.

MT. 15.

of other passages in Q.,

where the sentiment occurs, supports

which is without parallel.

ijyJT] seems to take Soy as a fem.,

This has caused scholars much discussion. The true solution has, however, been found by Albrecht {ZAW., XVI, 113), who emends the verb
to i:p"i\
":-

This

happens

ward

Deut.

in

O-iN in vs.

14?

i:".

It

refer to

it

'':^"'D3n,

and Wr.

So, Hit., Gins,

Ko. (348v).

So,

a sing, to a

Does

pi.,

back to

refer

it

seems better to make

It

suffix

as so often

point for-

it

"\C'n] is taken by Kn. and Gins, and Gr. = " beseems better with Heil. to m.ake it a rel. pro. referring to

a colloquial expression, like

"1''>~Sn],

for "i^vn Sn.

pi. thinks that

English "to town,"

the

a boyhood near Jerusalem.

points" to

it

probably, however, a proverbial expression, with no local reference.

16.
6^;

Does

to the relative.

cause."

It is

The

supported by Ko. (249m) and Sieg.

is

ambiguous.

is

""n],

form used

late

sometimes

''i.

as in Ez.

in the
2'.

Talm,

BH.

In

usually

as in

Is.

would

in

"'IN,

"^p IdSdc'], as Del. observes,

was held by Dod., Van der P.,

Spohn and Gr. to= "slave." Gr. believed it to be a reference to Herod
the Great, who is called in the Talm. {Baba Batra, 3b, and Ketuhoth, 24)
"the slave of the Hasmonaeans." If slave had been intended, probably
"^y; would have been used.
"*>: is not necessarily a child; it is used
of Solomon at his accession (i K. 3^) and of Ziba, who had sons and

earlier

Heb. be hdSd

slaves (2 S.
cf.

Ex.

2*

feast, cf. Is.

135-

5'^.

-\]!:]

but nevertheless

19'^),

Ju.

n;j nu'N.

S. 4^'.

17.

is

varies

1"'?>'n]

mean

used to

often

'^3N'']="eat,"

"child,"

but here in the sense of

from the ordinary pointing

"l^.i^'N.

Ko. (3 2 if) says the variation is because it is used here as an inter2"'-<in p], an Aramaism = "'"(n -\2 = " freeman" {cf. S. A. Cook,
jection.
Glos. of Aram. Inscr., 56).
Driver {Introd. 5i9ni) says D^nn is an
Aram, word used in northern Israel, but never applied to the nobles

of

Judah except

than Je.'s time.

in Je. 272 39^,

on

n-(UJ3],

"drinking-bout."

It is

passages which are not in (S and are later

3, cf. Ges.'^-

a.X. in

18. D\nSs;], dual of nSx>:.

Ko. (275c) take the dual form as

"'nt:'']="

In the

5DB.

Del., Wr.,

intensive.

and McN. emend

tween the two emendations.

drinking" or

AE., Hit., Ew., Heil., Gins, and Zo. take

the dual to refer to a pair of hands.

after Pr. 31", Sieg.

1191.

BH.

Bick.

(p.

782a) and

emends

to niSxj?,

t^M. Dr. hesitates bewe have followed Del., Wr.,

to o^^^

text,

BDB. and Ko. The last cites as parallel Dv^ycn Ju. 3* 'o and DinnD Je.
50^'.
To these might, perhaps, be added opnif = " midday," though Ges.*^(88c) casts doubt on the reality of such duals, and

one of the emendations.

"ID^],

Niph. of

"l^::.

it

The

may be

elsewhere in BH.,Ps. io6"in Kal,and Job242<inHoph.

in

Aram.,

is

a.X.

BDB.

Syr.,

and Ar.

The word

900a.

Baer,

is

p.

It is to

usually

better to adopt

verb occurs but twice

Thestemoccurs

be regarded as an Aramaism.
nnp,

cf.

Gn.

198

68, observes that the o

and

is

Ct. i'%

n:?i^pr']

cf.

also

here pointed with

FINAL ADVICE
Daghesh
104'.

to distinguish the

ni'^cc>] is

hand

like

ci^

l'?n"|],

r|''-i

= "to

in

BH., Job

it is

the latter

it

cf.

noun from the

part,

5DB.

It is

1050b.

It is the

jrfji, Je. 47'.

1620

In Aram,

also a.X.,

[Ch. ll'-12s

and

Ps. iig^s,

where

which occurs
t^^^

Pr. lo^.

occurs but twice besides

It

used figuratively for weeping.

it is

Targ. to Pr.

in Ps.

used for slackness of

opposite of n>r:n

drip" and so "to leak."

found

179

and

Talm. In
and Wr.
on*? D''U7]="to prepare a meal" {cj. Ez.
observe, ^ denotes purpose.
4>), as DnS '^DN means "to eat a meal" {cf. Gn. 315^ Ex. i8>2 Je. 4i).
in the

more often

is

I'?!, cj.

ncu'""]

is

difficult.

and emend

to nou'V,

Ja. 402a.

parallel to

it

McN.

It is better, as

making

iq'^

also in the

19. pinrS], as Del.

has proposed, to follow (6

pinu**^,

p|Do,-i],

silver stood for

money throughout the ancient world, except in Egypt in

of its history.
The ordinary man saw no gold. nj;""i]. As

early periods

Del. and Wr.

observe, there
no reason with Gins,
regard
as a Hiph.
Money
can procure (answer)
both,"
the thought.
For
the sense
= we quidem,cf. Ko. 34iu.
of "both," see on
Sx
to

is

to

2".

"

this

Vrn].

is

20.

this in

Oj]

;;id],

"knowledge" is here used for "mind" or "thought." It is a late Aramaized form occurring elsewhere in BH. only in 2 Ch. ii"- " '^ and Dn.
I*- ".
It occurs in the Targ. on Je. 3" Ps. 34' and Pr. i^.
In Aram.
it frequently appears ynjc; cf. Dn. 2" 431- 33 ^12 and Targ. to Job 333.
n^D] is in Q. definite without the art., cf. 58 S^-* 914 and Ko. 294d.
na3-.i'D mnn], cf. 2 K. (y'K"r\ t^y;] is not individualized, cf Ko. 254f.

D^DJo

Dn.

syn. for a bird,

S;-j],

8- 20.

T'J J is

should appear here

tain,

though Baer

T'J!

is

a puzzle.

and Dr. does not

by

followed

(p.
')

cf.

1J3 Vya, Pr.

one of the few jussives

i'^.

Cf. also

a^np

Why

in the book.

Ko. (i9ia) says the reading is uncerProbably this is right,

hesitate to read '^^i\

i\Jni,

in

Ex.

however (53n), declares

Ges.*^-,

193.

Ex. 193 to be an error.

This

is

probably correct.

ll'-128. Qoheleth's final advice.

*.

Cast thy bread on the face of the waters,

For in many days thou shalt find it.
Give a portion to seven and also to eight,

For thou knowest not what

3.

If

evil shall

be on the earth.

the clouds are filled with rain,

They empty it over the earth

If wood fall southward or northward,
The place where wood falls there it
;

*.

wind-observer

will

shall be.

not sow,

And a cloud-watcher will not reap.

*.

in

68) adduces a parallel to i\Jl (the jussive with cere

in

both here and

11'.

S>"d,

a jussive

As thou knowest
Nor the bones in

not what the path of the wind

the

womb

So thou mayest not know

Who makes the whole.

of a pregnant

the

work

ot

is.

woman,

Goa,

ECCLESIASTES

l8o
*,

In the

And

morning sow thy

evening

till

seed,

hand,

rest not thy

For thou knowest not which

Or both alike shall be good.

shall succeed, this or that.

The light is sweet, and it is good for the eyes to see the sun.
For
man shall live many years and rejoice in them all, yet let him remember the days of darkness, for they will be many. All that is coming
^

if

is

vanity.
9.

Rejoice,

young man,

in thy youth,

And let thy heart cheer thee

And walk in the ways of thy

in the

days of thy prime.

heart and the sight of thy eyes,

BUT KNOW THAT FOR ALL THESE THLNGS GOD WILL BRING THEE
INTO JUDGMENT.
".

Put away vexation from thy heart

misery from thy flesh,
For youth and prime are vanity.

And remove

12'.

BUT REMEMBER THY CREATOR IN THE DAYS OF THY PRIME.

While the

evil

Nor approach

days come not,

the years of which thou shalt say

have in them no pleasure;

While the sun be not darkened.
Nor the light and moon and stars.
I

*.

Nor
s.

*.

the clouds return after rain,

In the day

And
And
And
And

the

s.

the ladies

And

And
And

look out of the windows are darkened,

the sound of the mill

is

low.

shall rise at the voice of the bird.

all

the daughters of song are prostrate,

is

terror

afraid of a height.
is

on the road.

the almond-tree blooms,

the grasshopper

is

the caper-berry

the

While

Nor
Nor
Nor

who

he

For the
,

bend themselves,

the doors on the street are shut

Also he

And
And
And
And

the keepers of the house shall tremble

of valor

the grinding-maids cease because they are few.

When
And
And

when

men

man

is

burdensome.

made

ineffectual,

goes to his eternal house.

mourners go around the

the silver cord

is

street;

not severed,

the golden bowl broken,

the water-jar be shattered at the spring,
the wheel broken at the cistern,
the dust shall return to the earth as
the spirit shall return unto

Vanity of vanities, says Qoheleth,

it

was,

God who gave

all is vanity.

it.

FINAL ADVICE
11 1-12" contains Qoheleth's
consideration of

This he utters

final advice.

Chasid

of the

to interpreters,

kindliness

makes
11'.

{ii'^^

and

and

12'='),

industry,

in full

discourse

is

two glosses from the

which have given much trouble

He

flows on uninterruptedly.

it

The

that he has said before.

all

often enigmatical, but with the exception of

hand

i8i

[Ch. 11'-12''

combined with

urges prudent

j)leasure, before old

age

impossible.

all

This

Cast thy bread on the waters].

expression, but

what does the

pretations have been suggested,

is

evidently a figurative

mean?

figure
(i)

It

At

least four inter-

has been taken by Geier,

Mich., Dod., Mendelssohn, Hit., Del., Wild., Ha. and

"Commit your goods

apply to trading.

until long

your returns

Bauer took

voyages are over."

to refer to agriculture,

it

to the sea

Van

(2)

McN.

and wait

to

for

der P. and

meaning "Sow thy seed on

moist places near water, and thou wilt obtain a rich harvest."
(3) Graetz,

in

same way, takes "bread" as equivalent to

it of the "seed" of human Hfe, and so finds

the

"seed," but interprets

in the verse

maxim

bordering on the licentious.

(4)

It is

taken

and Marsh, as an exhortation

Of these interpretations the second and third are
to liberality.
undoubtedly wrong, for "bread" never means "seed." The first
seems, on the whole, less probable than the fourth, for "bread"

by Kn., Gins., Zo., Wr., No.,

does not
nation

is

Sieg.

mean "merchandise."

In favor of the fourth expla-

an Arabic proverb, which Heiligstedt, Ginsburg, Plumtre

and Wright quote from Diaz' Denkw'urdigkeiten von Asien. The

proverb forms the culmination of a story which relates how Mo-

hammed, son

of

Hassan, had been daily

tewekkel,

was thus

in the

habit of throwing

of Caliph Muwho had escaped drowning by climbing upon a rock,

preserved, and how Mohammed saw in it the proof of

loaves into a river,

how

the

life

of

an adopted son

had learned as a boy, "Do good, cast

upon the waters, and one day thou shalt be rewarded."
The story suggests that this proverb may be an echo of Qoheleth himself.
One may compare another Arabic saying (see
the truth of a proverb he

thy bread

Jewett's "Arabic Proverbs,"

JAOS., XV,

'Ihc generous
If this

man

is

be the meaning of the verse,

p.

68):

always lucky.
its

thought

is

kindred to the

ECCLESiASTES

82

"Make

exhortation of Jesus,
the

mammon

seven and also

Lk.

i6.

2.

Give a portion

There has naturally been given

to eight].

same

verse the

by means

to yourselves friends

of unrighteousness,"

variety of interpretations as to vs.

it

refer to merchandise,

According to

ality.

and

which may be overtaken by

is

ships, because he does not

According to

disaster.

know

(2), the giver

advised to give to seven or eight people, because he does not

know what
Cf. Lk.

may

evil

lb!),

frequent in

BH.

he

may need

as friends.

According to the meaning which we found

second of these interpretations seems most

Such an arrangement

probable.

whom

overtake him or

last clause.

in the first verse, the

is

refer to liber-

it

advises the merchant to divide

(i), the verse

between seven or eight

his venture

which makes

(i) that

which makes

(2) that

inter-

The two

preter explaining the vs. as completing his view of that.

most popular explanations, however, are

to

to this

each

i,

of

Thus

of

numbers

in

a literary figure

''once" and "twice" occur in Job

T,y*

and "thrice" Job ^t,^% "two" and "three"

Pr. ^qh. is.
Is. 17% "three" and "four" Am. i^- e. a. n. u 21Ex. 205 34% "four" and "five" Is. 17% "seven" and "eight"
Mi. 55. Such figures are vivid ways of conveying the idea of "a
few," or "some" or "many."
Ps.

62^^ "twice"

'

3.
2,

This verse

since

of fate.

is

loosely connected with the closing

shows man's powerlessness

it

Human
If

helplessness

man

is

it

})owerless to prevent

The

illustrated

of vs.

by two examples,

other

Nature goes on

it.

man

cannot

alter.

in

accordance

This

is

one ex-

is,

If wood falls southward or northward,

The place where wood falls there it shall

"wood"

The word

here rendered

"tree."

has both meanings.

It

words

presence of the laws

over the earth,

with inflexible laws, which

ample.

is

in the

the clouds arc filled with rain,

They empty
i.e.,

21

meant, the illustration as

be.

has usually been rendered

we understand that a tree is

McNeile has noticed is a weak one. Man
If

cannot prevent the rain, but, though a tree felled by a tempest

be unable to move

meaning, the

itself,

man

can move

illustration is inapt,

and

it.

If

this

the verse forms

may

were the

an

anti-

FINAL ADVICE.

by means

a rod or

of

has accordingly

mean, "

If

a stick

is

such as that to which Ho. 4" alludes,

staff,

much

commend

to

tossed

up

is

4.

comes to

it

when

cut, will not get

complish nothing."

cites

12^^

S.

is

One who

probably
waits

till

of his seed.

will lose his

opportunity and ac-

vSiegfried objects that this verse

guide his

he has no control

One who wants to be sure that his

wet. The thought of the verse is, " If

been written in Palestine, because

and he

would then

man may

no wind to disturb the even scattering

one waits for ideal conditions, he

as

it

could not have

never rains there in harvest-

The passage

proof.

in vSamuel,

it

never rained in harvest, but that rain

sufficiently rare at that

time to make people think that when

however, proves, not that

was

rest,

wind-observer will not sow\

cloud-watcher will not reap].

time,

half verse

This meaning gives a climax and

over the result."

correct.

The

it.

in the air, that

action by the direction in which

grain,

183

McNeile's suggestion that the clause refers to divination

climax.

there

ll'-128

[Ch.

was sent as a punishment

it

came,

it

was regarded as out

it

of place,

for wickedness.

In later times

though not impossible,

see Pr. 261.

Seasons vary greatly, but in years of exceptionally heavy rains

often happens that rain continues to

with the cutting of the earlier-ripening grain.

feres

Year's Wandering in Bible Lands, 185

Arch.,

Druze

Supplement to Vol. X,
at

Home, 1907,

out that

God.

man

passage

last

does

resemblance

it

inter-

Cf. Barton,

Bacon, Amer. Jour, of

and Ewing, Arab and

34

ff.,

ff.

and 10

ff.

is].

5.

Thou

knoioest

Qoheleth

wind " reminds one

of Jn.

3**.

This

perhaps a reminiscence of Qoheleth, though the

is
is

and

now passes on to point

not know and cannot know the ways and works

" path of the

The

p.

p. 127, cf. p. 2

not what the path of the 7vind

of

well into April,

fall

too vague to

the bones in the

make

the reminiscence certain.

The mystery

womb].

Nor

of birth filled also a Psalmist

probably of the Maccabaean period with awe,

cf.

Ps. 13913-18.

So thou mayest not know the work of God]. Man's inability to

penetrate the works of God is a favorite topic with this writer {cf.
3"

8^' 9^2^.

Qoheleth

is,

idea of God's goodness

however, a theistic agnostic, though

is

not exalted

cording to Delitzsch, this does not

such

things

as

have been

{cf.

mean

mentioned.

3".

The whole].

" the universe," but

The phrase

might

his

Acall

b^

ECCLESIASTES

184

rendered ''who makes both," i.e., the way of the wind and the bones

womb,

in the

cf. critical

note on 2".

In the morning sow thy

6.

It is clear

seed].

mean?

but what does the figure

figurative,

that the verse

received widely different interpretations,

Like verse

it

is

has

Graetz, following

(i)

a Jewish Midrash and a Talmudic passage (Yebamoth, 62b), takes

it

to

mean "Beget

the

meaning

Indeed,

it is

He is

mean

to old age,

this verse that

There

whether

he obtains

is

no reason, however,
Qoheleth was not

noted above.

averse to such pleasures of sense

in fihh.

from

in this sense in either vs.

for vs.

"seed"

for taking

and even

children in youth

wedlock."

in or out of

2^ g^), but

{cf.

thoroughly healthy-minded.

(2)

he never revels

Plumtre takes

it

sow the seed of good and kindly deeds, and

await the harvest which is hidden from him. This, it is true,
would harmonize with the meaning which we have found in vs. i,
to

that one

to

is

but the context indicates that the writer has

from that

mean

topic.

Most recent

(3)

that from youth

perform the

full

round

till

the evening of

which come

to take the losses

in

one

life,

of life's tasks, that he

cause of the uncertainties which were

is

now passed away

interpreters rightly take

is

is

it

to

manfully to

not to hesitate be-

and that he

set forth in vs. 5,

a philosophical

Thou

spirit.

knowest not which shall succeed]. Try your hand at every right task,
for you cannot tell in

observes, the verse

7.

Light

evidence of Q.'s sturdy sense and manliness.

is sweet].

The

mood

pessimistic

passed away from Qoheleth

He

AsGenung

advance which will bring success.

is

when he wrote

of ch. 4',
9',

which had

has not returned.

recognizes in this verse the primal delight of mere living.

man

S. If a

the sun

is

live

many

years

and

sweet, but Qoheleth

is

dread of death, as Horace was

member],

is

oppressed by
(cf.

used of future things,

upon."

"reflect

which

if

The days of

Life

rejoice].

Odes,
is

is

good

its

4^^;

I,

to behold

brevity

IV,

and the

7').

Re-

equivalent to "ponder,"

darkness],

i.e.,

the days in Sheol,

several times described as the land of darkness,

cf.

Ps.

88'2 1433

future

Job io2' "_ All that is coming is vauity], the whole

the days in Sheol is an unsubstantial reality. No positive

joy can be counted on there. 9^ Rejoice,

youth].

As a

result of the brevity of life

and

young man, in thy

the darkness of the

FINAL ADVICE

185

[Ch. ll'-123

Qoheleth urges young men to make the most of youth and

It is a natural argument which has occurred
prime.
manhood's
of
Herodotus (2') tells how the Egyptians at their
to others also.
feasts had the image of a dead body in a cofhn carried about and
future,

shown
this,

to

each of the company

who was

then drink and enjoy yourself, for

That

this."

shown

it

had

on

in the notes

ify

thy desires.

to

receive,

This verse

so
is

also

"Look on

will

be like

been used by the Babylonians has been

g^.

From

addressed thus,

when dead you

Walk in

these

self-denial

is

come

the

ways of thy

all

the pleasures

self-destruction.

controverted in Wisdom,

2.

9^.

Cf.

Grat-

heart].

man
i

is

Cor.

But know

ever
1532.

that for

This is so out
things God will bring thee into judgment].
harmony with the context, but so in accord with the Chasid point
of view, and especially with y, which we have already recognized
as a Chasid gloss, that there is no doubt but that McNeile is right
in regarding this phrase here as the work of the Chasid glossator.
10. Put away vexation from thy heart]. Take the easiest course
both mentally and physically. For youth and prime are vanity].

all these

of

The vs. is a restatement of the

flee.
we are right in seeing in 12'" another Chasid
argument to make the most of swiftly passing youth is

Youth and
thought of
gloss, the

the prime quickly

vs. 9a.

If

continued in 12"' -^

Remember now thy creator in the days of thy prime]. This

McNeile has pointed out an insertion of the Chasid glossator.

12^*.
is

as

As Cheyne has suggested,

it

contains exhortation based on psy-

chological principles, for as age advances

ber one's creator unless

to point out

how

it

it is

less

has been done in youtli.

unlike Qoheleth

it is.

For

easy to rememIt is

needless

efforts to bring

it

into

harmony with his prevailing thought, see critical note.

1^ While the evil days come not]. This is the continuation ii'",
from which it has been severed by the gloss inserted in 12". Qoheleth urged:
Put away vexation from thy heart
misery from thy flesh,
For youth and prime are vanity,
While the evil days come not, etc.

And remove

^^The

evil

mentioned

days" do not
in ii",

refer to the

days of darkness

but to the period of old age which he

in

Sheol

now

goes

ECCLESIASTES

86

on

They

to describe.

because

meaning
Vvs.

are "evil" in the sense of "miserable"

than youth and prime.

less full of pleasure

2-6 have been

the passage

seven divisions,

All have agreed that

variously interpreted.

(i

The

These opinions may be grouped

details.

The

Tobia ben

(3)

night.

and

Eliezer,

of

many modern

verses represent under the figure of a storm an

old man's approaching death.

tre.

figures referring to

This was the view of early Jewish commen-

tators beginning with

(2)

The approach

So, Umbreit,

of death

is

Ginsburg and Plum-

here pictured under the

Thus, Michaelis,Spohn,Nachtigal and Delitzsch.

shall thinks

in

verses are believed to describe the failing

an old man's physical powers, the various

anatomical

ones.

the

is

allegorical, but as to the details of the allegory there

is

are wide differences of opinion.

of

This

of / have no pleasure in them.

fall

(4)

of

Mar-

the closing of a house at the approach of a sirocco.

it

The passage is a
when the master has
(5)

to be explained

picture of the

literal

gloom

So Taylor.

just died.

(6)

in

a household

The

verses are

by the "seven days of death," or days of cold

wintry weather, which immediately precede a Palestinian spring-

These days are thus named because

time.

dangerous

to

aged and sickly persons.

and Wright.

stein

(7)

The

is

explanations

This

in

the view of McNeile.

is

It

seeks to avoid, by the exercise of a

to

which excessive zeal

p. 77 j/.,

little ])lain

path.

and

This may be taken

in

two ways:

it

light

and moon and

may

either refer to

failing eye-sight, so that the lights of all sorts

may

that such allusions

as kennings.

While the sun be not darkened, nor the

2.

and

points out that in Icelandic poetry the parts of the body

known

stars].

led,

Green, Expositor (1895),

are often alluded to under similar figures,

are

The
first.

sense, the vagaries

anatomical identification has

so doing strikes the right

in

The

accord with the richness of

but a slight modification of the

is

for

are peculiarly

the view of Wetz-

not followed throughout.

metaphors change and intermingle

last of these

tliey
is

verses are in general a picture of old

age, but one line of thought

an Oriental imagination.

This

become dim, or

refer to the fact that, as age advances, the brightness

enjoyment) of

life

becomes

less.

The

(i.e.,

it

the

context both before and

FINAL ADVICE

The speaker

after the phrase favors the latter view.

no pleasure

says, "

them," because the brightness of his joy

in

The Talmud

ing.

187

[Ch. ll'-12

head, "hght"

is

have

decreas-

(Sabbath, 152a) explained the ''sun" as fore-

"moon"

as nose,

them

and "stars" as cheeks.

as soul,

thus, "the sun

the sunshine of childhood

Haupt
when everything seems bright and happy, the moon is symbolical
of the more tempered light of boyhood and early manhood, while
the stars indicate the sporadic moments of happiness in mature
explains

The anatomical

age."

application

is

so far-fetched as to be ab-

is

surd, Haupt's explanation seems too esoteric to be probable, and

it has the disadvantage of leaving "light" (which Haupt does not

Earlier interpreters explained

erase from the text) unexplained.

"light" to be "twihght" or

this

none of the orbs of

were

light

however, unnecessary.

are,

brightness of advancing

To

"dawn"

The

life.

a period of

light

when

Such detailed explanations

visible.

poet

is

describing the lessening

Its characteristic

is

fading

light.

express his thought, he has with Oriental richness of imagi-

nation and carelessness

and the various orbs

in exact use of

of

light

metaphor mingled "light"

one

in

When clouds follow

The frequency

gloomy storms happily

gloom

of

Vaihinger thought

of age.

it

For

figure.

return after rain].

the clouds

rain they cut off brightness.

figures the increasing

referred to winter, as the rainy

time or time of gloom, Palestine having but two seasons, winter

and summer. In Palestine the "winter

opposed to our "springtime of life."
In

3.

From

the

day when], a

fuller

way

of life"

of saying

"when,"

a general description of the darkening of

vancing age,

tlie

poet

now

might well be

life's

cf.

Ct. 8.

joys in ad-

passes on to picture the decay of the

body under the picture of a house. The figure is loosely used,

perhaps with no thought that all its details were to be literally
applied to the

members of the body, though the figure itself is, as

and forcible. Whether the house is portrayed

a whole, appropriate

as undergoing the changes described, because of an approaching

storm, or because night has come,

who

is

open

favor the storm, find an argument for

the obscuring of

all

to discussion.
it

in the

the heavenly bodies in vs.

wise to press the figure too

far, either

2.

Those

"clouds" and
It is really

un-

as a description of the decay

ECCLESIASTES

88

of the body, or the closing of a house.

in

terms of the

latter, the

In speaking of the former

poet has mingled the features of the two in

and suggestive imagery, which, though poetically vague

in details, does not mislead.
The keepers of the house shall
The "keepers" correspond, as Ginsburg saw, to the metremble].
pleasing

nials or

When we come

guards of a palace.

to applications to

more difficulty. Rashi thought

it meant "ribs" and 'loins," Plumtre the "legs," Delitzsch the
"arms," Haupt the "hands." The last is probably right. The
men of valor bend themselves]. In the figure, as Ginsburg saw,
definite parts of the body, there

"men

is

of valor" are the superiors of the house, each palace con-

and

taining masters

In applying the figure to the body,

servants.

The Targum and Plumtre

there are again differences.

"arms," Ra., Rashbam, AE., Knobel,

the

Wright and McNeile

Htzsch,

Haupt

of the

ence

probably to the

is

It is

women
who

ladies

{cf.

Is.

472

Job

shall cease because they

figures represent the

two

classes of

just as the

Are darkened],

that

The doors on

is,

two

Odyssey

in

a house

Wr. and

more

Sieg. the

closely;

lips,

of the ears,
suffer

and

their sight.

The Talmud,

Dod., Ros., Kn., Ew., Hit., Vaih., Zo.,

which,

when

the teeth

are

gone, shut

Kimchi, Grotius and Cleric thought of the

of the eyes,

Haupt

of the

man

from retention {ischuria) and

is

literal

could not go out;

Lewis of the eyes and

anus and bladder, the

probable that the reference

and

represented.

the pores of the skin were referred to,

shutting of the street door, so that the old

Hengstenberg

ladies

In applying this part of

the figure, there are again diversities of opinion.

the

The

5281.

men were

classes of

the eyes lose their lustre

Rashbam thought
Targum the feet, AE.,

usually done

2o'^- '").

figure, cf. Ju.

women

the street are shut].

Ra. and

is

The
These are with much una-

24^'

For the

nimity taken to be the eyes.

4.

Mt.

31'"

look out of the windows].

serving maids

refer-

generally agreed that this refers to the teeth, which

are called "maids," because grinding in the East

by

The

See the description of the feet of old

legs.

The grinding maids

4^.

De-

of the "legs," "knees," or "feet,"

"bones," especially the spinal column.

me:i in 3 Mac.
are few].

think of

Hitzig, Zockler,

ears,

man

intestinal

Wildeboer

beginning to

stenosis.

to the lips, the figure of a

It

is

door being

FINAL ADVICE

[Ch. ll'-12s

elsewhere applied to them (see Mi.

7* Ps. 141^).

of the mill is low].

189

When

the

sound

Again there are differences of opinion.

The

Talmud, Ra., Rashbam and AE. and Haupt hold it to refer to

the impaired digestion; the Targum, to the appetite; Grotius,
Doderlein, Knobel and Hitzig to the voice of age, which is broken
and quavering; Zockler and Delitzsch to the rustle of the toothless
mouth.

The

last

is,

perhaps, right.

And

he shall rise at the voice

This phrase has been variously translated, and even

of the bird].

more variously interpreted. Kn., Wr., Wild, and Ha. think that
means that the old man awakes early just as the birds begin to
twitter, and so refers to the loss of sleep in old age; Ew., Hit., Heil.,
Zo., Del. and PI. hold it to refer to the childish treble of age.
Probably the first of these interpretations is the right one. The
daughters of song are prostrate].
Kn. and Heil. thought that this
refers to the failure of the old man's singing voice, which is lost,
though Kn. held that possibly it might refer to the notes of birds,
it

man could not hear. Del., who is followed by Wr.,

McN. and Ha., interprets it by 2 S. 19", where the aged
Barzillai can no longer hear the voice of singing men and singing
which the old

Wild.,

women, and so takes the line to refer to the deafness of age. With
and Ko. seem to agree, for they show that "daughters
of song" mean the various notes of music, these all seem low to
the old man.
The line accordingly refers to deafness.
this Ges.*^-

5. Also he is afraid of a height].

The

figure of the

house

is

now

dropped, and four additional statements of growing incapacity are

added.

Interpreters generally agree that the reference here

to the shortness of breath

ascent of a height

which comes

difficult.

in old age,

For the rendering "he fears" instead

And terror

of

"they fear," see

is

almost a synonym of the previous clause.

terrors,

critical note.

because the old man's limbs are

And the almond-tree blooms].

Marsh., Gen., and Ha.,
of old age.
it

it is

stiff

is

on the

and

road].

walk

which makes the

of

his breath short.

According to Kn., Ew., Zo., Wr.,

The almond-tree blooms in January, and at the

The blooms are pink at the base, but soon
tips,

This

is full

a poetical reference to the white hair

has no leaves.

white at the

is

and makes the

time
turn

giving the tree a beautiful white appearance,

landscape

in

January and

February most

ECCLESIASTES

go

DB.,

attractive (see Post, in Hastings'

natural symbol of the gray-haired

I,

man.

This, then,

67a).

is

used allegorically

It is

by Philo, Life of Moses, 3". Probably this is the correct interpretation, though others are urged by some.
Since the Hebrew word
for almond-tree

and
take

that

is

to

it

derived from a stem which

is

the use made of

mean

it

means

waken,"
and Plumtre

''to

in Jer. i"ff,Hengstenberg

De

that "sleeplessness flourishes."

Jong, Wilde-

boer and McNeile render the verb "despised," and take

to the old

man's faihng appetite, because "the almond

This view

(see critical note).

hopper

is

burdensome].

by some.

Delitzsch

is

is

it

to refer

rejected"

The

not so probable.

The rendering "grasshopper"

is

grass-

disputed

and Wildeboer, following the Talmud, render

"hips" and the verb "drag themselves along," thinking the

phrase a reference to an old man's walk. Kn. rendered "breath,"
it

making

it

Graetz thought

refer to labored breathings.

it

a poetical

Moore (JBL., X, 64) thinks that a melon

instead of a grasshopper was intended.
Of the interpreters who
translate "grasshopper," Heiligstedt understands it to mean that
the old man is too weak to cook and masticate the grasshopper for
reference to coitus, while

food

(r/.

Mt. y), Zockler that the old man's form is emaciated

a grasshopper, Plumtre that the grasshopper is an

like that of

emblem

of smallness (Is. 40" Nu. 13"), so that the smallest thing

becomes burdensome; Wetzstein and Wright, that the grasshopper

springs

up

in the

days when spring begins,

days of death (see above, after

refer to the halting

Biblical analogy

halts along.
tre

and take

to regard

ample

of

it,

walk of age

vs. i),

the

old

man

would lead one

like

as he does, as a Greek symbol,

Greek influence

to agree with

smallest weight

is

a burden, which the old

made

caper-berry is

ineffectual].

used to excite sexual appetite.

and

The passage

here.

The
it,

to

is

Plum-

no reason

so to find an ex-

then means that the

man

drags along.

The

caper-berry was a plant

There can be

here used refers to

it

a grasshopper

as a symbol of smallness, though there

it

Hebrew word

just after the seven

i.e.,

and Genung takes

since

it

little

is

doubt that the

the singular of the

word which designates the same product in the Talmud (see

Moore, JBL., X, 55 ff., and Ja. 5b). Most interpreters rightly
take

it

to

mean

that stimulants to appetite are rendered ineffectual

FINAL ADVICE
by the

191

Graetz, however, takes ''caper-

power.

failing of vital

[Cii. ll>-12s

berry" as a figure for the glans penis, but, as Renan remarks,

Qoheleth

Wetzstein and Haupt, taking a hint

never obscene.

is

from 2, connect the word rendered " caper-berry " with the Hebrew
root for "poor," and think it a figurative expression for the soul.

Haupt renders
"inert

lies

the

word

the chrysalis,

for

"grasshopper" "chrysalis," making

the soul emerges."

till

The man goes

fectual," see critical note.

Here
is

Coranic usage cited in

crit.

6.

While]

is

Tobit

cf.

note.

According to Hebrew custom,

it

inef-

his eternal hotise].

to

Am.

cf.

itself.

3"

ii'",

91*

5'* Je.

a repetition of the opening

connects the thought with

very im-

is

"Eternal house"
and the Talmudic and
Mourners go around the street].

the writer speaks of death

first

a reference to the tomb;

This

For the rendering "is made

probable, though beautiful.

word

-20.

of vs. ib,

urging the young

man

and

like

to enjoy

nor the golden howl

himself.

While the

silver cord is not severed,

broken].

This

a poetic picture of death, to which the thought

was led

last is

The imagery by which

in vs. 5b.

this is

several critics have seen (PL, No., Wr., Wild,

from Zc.

42

^,

where a golden bowl fed

Here, however, the golden bowl

common

to the Orient

The cord

silver cord.

(or

more

literally

be broken,
fit

emblem

is

{cf.

is

oil

to the seven lamps.

Pr. 25"), represented as hanging by a

lamp

falls,

the bowl

is

broken

crushed, the objection that a golden bowl cannot

oil lost

sudden dissolution

and the light goes out

body and the escape

of the

Probably Qoheleth used

the spirit.

as

is,

with that richness of imagery

is,

severed, the

without force), the

of the

expressed

and McN.), borrowed

this

freedom without thinking of special applications of

has been otherwise with his commentators.

of

imagery with poetic

details,

but

it

The Targum makes

the silver cord, the tongue; the golden bowl, the head; Del.

makes

them, respectively, the soul and the head; Haupt, the spinal column

and the
another

That

And the water-jar he shattered at the

common figure life is likened to a fountain
brain.

spring].
{cf.

By

Ps. 36).

now employed. The individual body is made the

women in the East still use in carrying water
" Ju. 7'" " 2); when the jar is broken it can
Gn. 24><

figure

is

water-jar, such as

home

{cf.

'^

contain no more water, and so the

life

ends.

While

this

meaning

ECCLESIASTES

192
is

some contend

clear,

that the bucket does not represent the whole

body, but some special organ, Del., Sieg. and Ha. think of the heart.

The wheel broken

the

same

at the cistern].

Some

figure.

drawing water.

This

another application of

is

up with a wheel to assist in

small and can be worked by

wells are fitted

Sometimes

this is

hand, as that seen to-day at ''Jacob's well," near Nablous, or on

one of the wells at Beersheba, sometimes large enough to be

worked by a camel or a donkey, like that pictured in Barton's

Yearns Wanderings in Bible Lands, p. 205.
When the wheel is
broken, the water can no longer be drawn. The "wheel" in this

again a metaphor for the whole body.

line is

make
ing

Some, however,

a special application of the "wheel," Del. and Sieg. regard-

it

Haupt thinks

as symbolizing the breathing process.

"breaking"

refers to paralysis of the heart.

the verse picture death as

coming suddenly

the jar shattered, or the wheel broken.

All the

the lamp

7.

The

its

symbols of
is

crushed,

dust shall return

as it was, and the spirit shall return to God who gave it\
As Tobia Ben Eleazar in the eleventh century and, in modern
times, Plumtre and Wildeboer have noted, this is a definite reference to Gn. 2^ Qoheleth pictures death as undoing what the
creative act of God had accomplished.
Siegfried holds that the
first clause cannot come from Q',
the pessimist,
for he believed
the spirit of a man to be no more immortal than that of a beast
(31
20); he therefore assigns 7a to Q^; 7b he denies to Q^ because
to the earth

9-

that writer did not trouble himself about the dead, but rejoiced
in life (5'^ 9*-

^-'^

ii^"),

and assigns

it

to

Q%

the Chasid glossator.

Such an analysis makes no allowance, however,

human

nature.

Oriental

is

No

man's thought

as clear-cut as Siegfried supposes.

his pessimistic

moods

in

for the

moods

especially the thought of

of

an

One may have

which he questions whether anybody

knows whether a man's spirit differs from a beast's; he may hold

that man's only good comes from enjoying the sunshine of this
physical existence, brief though it be, and still, holding Qoheleth's

God (see e.g., on 9'), write "the spirit shall return to God
who gave it." Even a pessimist may quote Scripture without readidea of

ing into

out of

it

all

the hopes of an optimist.

harmony with

Qoheleth's thought

the later development of

is

not

OT. Judaism on

FINAL ADVICE
this subject (see
ity
it

[Ch. ll'-12

dem Tode, 104 jf.)-

Schwally, Lehen nach

Van-

8.

concludes with the dirge with which

The book

of vanities].

193

Qoheleth's concluding sentence reiterates his opening

opened.

He has, from his point of view, proved his thesis and

by reiterating the sad words with which he began: All
Saith Qoheleth] is probably an insertion of the late
vanity.

declaration.
closes
is

editor,

who added

Sieg. arbitrarily denies the vs., as

11'.

The

and who

vvs. 9, 10,

he does those which follow, toQ.

11"''

appropriateness of the whole passage, with the exception of

too evident to need demonstration.

and i2itoQ.'s thought,

is

probably Sdn

supplied,

is

to be

cf.

on such rhetorical use of numbers,

the form of expression,
3.

praises Qoheleth.

Niph.,

"in'??".],

cf.

BDB. 324a. njicirS

cf.

i34s.

Ges.'*^-

p^^n],

2.

n;3f-],

dji

on

^>"^ ^^^'' ^-],

Ko. 41 4q.

cf.

BDB.

570a.

orj]

ace. of material (so Wild.), not with

to be taken with iNSr:> as

is

i|~'"''>"'

(Ha.).

mistake

D^^yn], the

accent of this word in the older printed Bibles, to which Del. called

in the

and
Ko. 33oky and 337g.
Nini], on the root, see

attention, has been corrected in the texts of Baer, Kittel (Driver),

Ginsburg.

am],

-Z'' Dipc],

The

root

(=z>7\>),

i,T>

while

Dypr:]=loco,

is nin,

found

is

Est. 4' S".

it

would emend

Sieg.

both the conditional sentences in this

protasis

and apodosis.

wouid emend

vs.

This points to

It will

the imperf.
ri''

4.

"<r:c'],

this part,

One

Nin.

to

employed

is

in

to
of

be noticed that

in

both

rather than Nin as the true

Del. notes that in the earlier language such

conditions would have employed the perfect in both clauses,

The

ryr\.

as an orthographic addition such

these emendations appears to be necessary.

reading of the final word.

in Arabic, Ges.^- (75s)

and

Bick.

cf.

used here as a synonym of

Wr. regarded

has caused trouble.

as in certain cases

i*.

DipD, Ez. 6'3

">t^N

cf.

above on 2^.

on

cf.

and nvn express the continuity

cf.

Dr. 12.

of the action

*he

watches" ... "he who habitually looks." 5. nu'NrJ

begins a correlative sentence as in Je. 19", cf. Ko. 37 if.
(S and & read

who

habitually

^i'i<2,

but that

is

a mistake. in'^dh

evidently

u^12t;d]

]\D22

is

an

abbreviated comparison =" as thou art ignorant of the formation of the

bones in the womb,"

32'.

etc.

BH., though found once

the

For a

HN^r^n], in the sense of

same usage, thus

woman"

{cf.

in the Mi9,\\na.

'^"

comparison, see Dt.

fully expressed

pregnant woman, occurs nowhere

I star

{Vehamolh,

kima wa////="Ishtar

Haupt, Nimrod Epos,

like

a pregnant

p. 139, line 117, variant).

In Latin

Plena was sometimes used in the same sense, see Ovid, Metam.
>nn
Zap., for metrical reasons, would erase the word as a gloss.

note the delicate use of the part, and imperf.

dost not

13

know ...

= " as

so thou mayest not know."

else in

Assyrian had

16').

x,

465.
J''"'^"],

thou continuously

CD^fyDJ,

40 MS.S. and

ECCLESIASTES

194
Ul

read

of

Am.

include

MSS.

all

as

time, but figuratively for youth.

Cf. also

79.

a
32a.

more

or

BDB.

vs.), cf.

Ch.

Is. 6525 2

Dn. 2^^,
7. pmn]

and then

01

Ezr.

513

on Gn.

33 620

2*^

13^

Daghesh

received

'^

pointed with

strued with ON, as in

312

"^

0"'J''>:^J,

and

Ko. 3i8e.

cf.

and

8'^,

p. 68.

but

iio3.

man

It

8.

satr-SD], Del.

i\-i;'^.

in the

etymology

9.

pointed with

S. 16")

Gn.

36

and

and gives the reason

Pr.

not here to be con-

is

an adv.

^??"?],

mn2]= "chosen one,"

it

should
life

for

See on
^x^rj

The

pleonastic

Has

not

it

regularly used for

104b.

in

it is

clearly here

and accordingly=" youth."

3'i3"'i
would have expressed the

called nina,
"i^S

expression

is

a sign of
is found

The ending m-

for the ordinary onin^.

12K

BDB.

nnSi], a late
BH., here, in vs. 10, and in Ps.
the Talm., cf. Ja. 578b.
Accordcf.

mean "childhood," but

Del. observes that

13"'0"'i],

in

compares the expression N^nSi

prime of manhood,

of the time of

thought.

and

""o]

= "for,"

is

occurs also several times in

its

employed

13^

24^^)

yap r6 0ws (Euripides,

i]8i>

forte implicitum, but in

form which occurs but three times

ing to

It

the present even to the future" {Sanhedrin, 27a), used for the

more frequent ndS

a young

cf.

applied to sleep.

is

it

here (as in

is

Baer,

t, cf.

only besides

(2^

held, but the ordinary light of day.

the preceding statement (so Hit. and Del.).

I '6

n^n],

an Aramaism, occurring

is

where

5",

almost identical with

is

as though

= "from

ni >^]

31'*.

and
as Kn.

is

used of material substances like honey (Ju. 14" Pr.

is

Iphig. in Aulis, 1219).

it

42".

lo^.

disjunctive question,

this

^ee,

]\je_

figuratively as here

expression

io2

some

^hnd] occurs only in late books, as

and on Job

not the "light of life"

"^ixn],

The

on

nr in nrn],

Job

cf.

Sn in Jos.

rjn^

T]'n>

usage confined to Q.

late

here a tempting emendation.

in

as

Ha., for metrical reasons, erases the words as a gloss.

Ko. 379b.
is

poetically to

2i;*3,

not

2->y':'i],

Ps. 10423), but rather "till evening,"

{cf.

two"

of

not so general as

is

Kn. thought

Q. does not advise working "in evening," for that was

the use of this verb in

this

pn nrpi nrs] reminds one

^:)

not used with

6. "^P^d] is

of (&.

"which

error.

n-^;'

resting-time
cf.

an

is

but the context shows that the thought

Amos.

that of

but that

o^!:2p3,

38,

lateness.
in

BH.

nnina],
only here

been approximated to the Aram. rnn3 =

Dalman, Aram.-Neuhehr. Worterbuch, 49b)? Perhaps it

nVn], the Piel is not uncommon, cf. Ps.
"'Nina], the Qr. and some 100 MSS. read ns-ica.
It is difficult
i3i.
^^"^^ occurs in 6^, and it may be
to decide between the two readings.
"youth"

(cf.

should be pointed nnina.

argued with Gins, that

it

conform

Dn.

I '5,

because

and

"'3">^.

to
it

On

it

maybe argued

."in"id

djjd],

has been changed to a plural here to

the other hand, the plural occurs in Ct.

is

see

on

i'^.

make

2>^

and

with Eur. that that was the original reading,

so natural that,

have thought of changing

10.

if

that

had stood

there,

no one would

it.

rij,n],

here not ethical, hut physical

evil,

hence

FINAL ADVICE

[Ch. lli-12

195

"misery" or "wretchedness." r^nnc'], not as Kn. and Hit. held from

dawn {cf. nntt'C=" morning," Ps. no'), but a NH. word, from "^ntr,
"be black." Such a root occurs in Job 3030 and in BS, 25'. It occurs
in the Talm. (cf. Ja. 1551), in Syr. with the meaning="coal," and in
This view is probably represented by (8, &,
As. as 5MrM="coal."
51, was held by Ra., Rashbam, and AE., and among recent interpreters
-\nz',

is

upheld by Gins., Del., Wr., Eur., Wild., Ha. and McN. nnnc' on
view="time of black hair," as opposed to ^:i''t', "the time of gray

this

Wild, compares the Ar.

hair" or "old age."

iiNin], many interpreters Kn.,

the last two radicals are reversed.

121.

held this to be a
it

as sing.,

keep the

still

takes

it

Hit., Gins., Del., PI.

who

Gr.,

is

and Wr.

Versions read

Sieg. so read

though

it,

The

sing.

followed by Bick., Che. and Haupt,

T^o^" cistern," and by comparison with Pr. 5'*

On this view the exhortation is "Do not

to

IN"(13

The

editions of the text.

pi. in their

which

in

i^.

majestatis like d-tiSn, D^chp, etc.

pi.

to be preferred.

emends

wz^=" youth,"

on

and Baer, Eur., Ges.^- (i24k) and

Dr. and Gins,

is

'^^n], cf.

to refer to one's wife.

The emendation, however,

neglect thy lawful wife."

reads into the

book a lower note, Davidson has observed (Eccl. in EB.), than any
which the book touches. The one passage (9^) which seems to conGr.'s
tradict Davidson's view, was influenced by the Babylonian epic.

commend

theory does not

2.

x^ nrN

i>'],

cf.

n*^

idiom of the Mishna,

itself.

The

ny, Pr. S^s.

N^tt'

cf.

-i;-,

phrase of Q. borders on the

Berakoth,

35.

Cf.

Ko. 3870.-3. >v]

= "tremble,"
Hb. 2^

It

references,

"shake," occurs but twice beside this in BH., Est. 5' and
For Talmudic
occurs frequently in Aram., cf. Dn. s'^ 627.

see

Ja.

388a.

^imynn],

on j^K
found

cf.

word occurring nowhere else in BH.

99), in the Aram, of Ezr. 4"- 24 5*.

It is

a pure Aram,

Sian],

in the

Mishna

{Botah,

For Talmudic references, see Ja.

157.
Cf. also S. A. Cook, Glos. of Aram. Inscr., p. 29, and G. A.
vjd>t], Bick. and Sieg. erase withCooke, North Sent. Inscr., p. 335.
out sufficient reason.

force, cf Ges.^- 5 2k.

The

Piel occurs only here, but with

4. Sotto],

the

inf.

with

3, is

an intransitive

taken by Gins, and

Wr. as temporal, but Ko. (403a) regards it as causal. Either gives a

D'>p"'i],
meaning.
a jussive form without a jussive force, cf.
Sip'^], ^ is temporal="at the time of the bird's voice,"
Ges.^- 72t.
"^S^^], the particular for the general, cf. Ko. 254^
cf. Ko. 33 if.
good

^^'yn P^J3],

probably the "notes of song."

figurative uses of

p and

P'or

many examples

i28vand Ko. 3o6m.

P3, see Ges.'^-

of the

nj)]

5.

Kn. rewn^^], the pi. is unexpected.

a noun, cf. i S. 16^ (so Del.).
garded it as an example of the ease with which the Heb. passes from
Dr. and AIcN. suggest that the i is a dittograph of
the sing, to the pi.
is

the following

- a probable explanation.

duplicated from the stem

PPr\.

The

D\"'nr'ni],

formation

is

this

noun

similar to

is

re-

d"'D>d>'

ECCLESIASTES

196

Vnj=" reject," does

the stem

"NJ''i],

"SnSn = palm-branches,

piSdSd = baskets,

eyelids.

o-^rprp^ scales.

the opinion

not, in

of

most

in-

a satisfactory meaning. Ki. regarded the n as quiescent

Del. held it to be an orthographic variation for
69).

terpreters, give

(see

Baer, p.

yy\ as osp
he

is

op

for

is

Ho. 10" and

in

reading

and

in this

Dr. would correct the

Kn. connected with the Ar. hagaba, " to breathe,"

hagabat= caput femoris,

^^^],

toV^'"'-

vn-\ for c^n Pr. 1323,

BDB., 665a.

followed by Ges.'^- 73g and

Del. and Wild., following the Talm., with the Ar.

hip; Moore (JBL., X, 64) connects with Ar. hagb, a " kind of
melon," but most interpreters take it for grasshopper, as in Is. 40".

or

necessary.

MSS. read Sdpdm.

The simplest is to

Hophal, as

BDB.

28

':'3rD^i],

Moore

above.

(p.

Cf.

830b), Dr. and

"">5

objects that

Dr.

some emendation is
and make it a

nfjm],

follow the Versions,

in

McN.

BH.

is

This has been done

do.

always used of making cov-

enants or judgments ineffectual, and never, in a physical sense; he would

accordingly follow 'A and take
Q., however, earlier usage

it

from the root

may have been

berry," the sing, of r^r>3N, which occurs in the

(see e.g., Ma^aseroth, 4).

a description of the

fruit,

"poor" and understand

exception of S,

as an epithet of rsj.

it

like

n.ji'>pNn]=" caper-

Mishna and Talmud

So Moore, JBL., X, 55jf. and Ja. 5b. For

Wetz. and Ha. point nji"i:3N =
see Moore.

support "caper-berry."

01,

In a late writer,

h-^d.

violated.

Vrss., with the possible

oSiy

n'-D],

Sanhedrin,

cf.

where a cemetery is T'^'^V ^''^ and dar ul-huldi, Qur'an, 41^8.

D-iioiDn] might be men as in Am. 5'8, or women as in Je. 9i-2o.

19a,

6.

nS TiN

-li'],

cf.

on

priyX the Kt. = ''he put far away."

12'.

pnn% the

Qr. = "to close up," or "bind," neither of which gives a satisfactory

meaning.

&, U, S, read

(&,

which

pnr.,

is

adopted by Ges., Ew., Eur.,

Wild, and McN., and has been adopted in the rendering given
above.
V^~\ ace. to Del., a metaplastic form of the imperf. of 1^"^=
Sieg.,

"break"

emend

{cf.

to

Ges.^- 67q, 67t and

x^"ni.

would make

it

-^j], the

mean

5DB. 954b).

Sieg.,

very word used in Zc. 4^

fountain

{cf.

thi Jos. 15*' Ju.

but later interpreters have rightly rejected

this.

Wild, and

i'^,

"^^J,

McN.

Gins, and Zo.

^.

and

a fem.

Sj Ct. 4>2),
sing.,

with

>'"t3c]="a fountain opened the desert"

BH., only
found
35^ and
rare word occurring, besides
a jussive form, according
also
J.Ar.,
Ja. 725a.
pi. in O"-", cf.

Ko. 252k.

in

in

in

Del.

is

it

Ges.*^-

imperf.

in Is.

7.

cf.

suited to nS tj'n

ij?

49*''.

It is

^r^i],

to

of vs. 6 as a subjunctive, according to

io9k and Ko. 366u it does not differ in force from the ordinary
nnn] = u*0J or ncrj, cf. Gn. 2' Is. 42* Job 2,2>^. Sn
^;-] in

late writing are

this also.

used interchangeably.

8. a^S^n S^n], cf.

on

i^.

Vs. 6 furnished an example of

nSnpn

nns] some would

emend

but probably that passage should be emended

to nSnp

nnnN

after

'j^,

to this.

On

n'?np

see on

i'.

QOHELETH

PRAISE OF
129
to

12.

added a Chasid's

is

123.

last gloss (12'^

'^).

^fj^ besides that Qoheleth was wise, he

knowledge, and tested and examined and arranged

".

197

A late editor's praise of Qoheleth, and of Hebrew Wisdom,

which

The

still

taught the people

many proverbs.

'".

Qohe-

find pleasant words, but he wrote uprightly words of truth.

words of the wise are as goads, and as driven nails are the members

sought

leth

129-'*

[Ch.

to

i^.
^^^^ besides these, my
of collections; they are given by one shepherd,
making
many
books
no end, and much study
there
is
son, he warned.
Of

is

a weariness of the flesh.

^\

End

of discourse.

All has been heard.

FEAR GOD AND KEEP HIS COMMANDMENTS, FOR THIS IS EVERY MAN.
FOR EVERY WORK GOD WILL BRING INTO THE JUDGMENT CONCERNING
EVERY SECRET THING, WHETHER GOOD OR BAD.
><.

12 ^ Besides
is

was wise]. This praise

and sounds as many

that Qoheleth

unlike anything in the book,

from Doderlein down, have noted,

like

language in which this editorial addition

is

Slill

And

through his wise writings.

many

book

reference to our

to

whom

tested

of Proverbs,

find pleasant words].

He

This

Qohelcth-Solomon.

He

editor's

For a

He

is

of

the

Plumtre

have a

the editor
like

sting.
is

a
to

Qoheleth sought

composition a pleas-

also a part of the editor's testimony

claims that Qoheleth sought to give

But he wrote uprightly words

Perhaps

in the

above translation, see

11. Tlie words of the wise are as goads].

to

10.

never sacrificed matter to form.

justification

is

which the editor attributed

apology for some of the statements

to activity.

than

critical notes)

and examined and arranged

tried to give his

literary finish to his compositions.

of truth].

possible,

taught the people knowledge],

he identified with Solomon.

ing or elegant form.

to

if

Probably, as Hitzig and Wildeboer say, this

proverbs].

Qoheleth,

The

a later editor.

written differs,

even more widely from Biblical Hebrew (see

the language of Qoheleth.

Qoheleth

of

interpreters,

recalls that the

^6- driven nails].

They

words

is

the

book before

us.

this

critical note.

prick

and stimulate

of Pericles

were said

It is difficult to tell

whether

thinking of the appearance of written words in a row,

a row of driven nails, as Delitzsch suggests, or whether he

is

thinking of the permanent effect of a written word embodied in a

collection in

word.

The

comparison with the goad-like

latter

seems the more probable.

effect of

a spoken

Haupt contends

that

ECCLESIASTES

198

is between disjointed sayings, such as the book

and more connected thought such as is contained in
Qoheleth's book a less probable view. Members of collections].

the contrast here

of Proverbs,

Utterances that have been embodied in a collection of sayings.

and

the translation

They

For

for different renderings, see the crit. note.

Haupt,

are given by one shepherd].

gards these words as a gloss, but there

is

for metrical reasons, re-

no proof that the editor

attempted to write poetry, and the words seem a natural part of his

The "one shepherd " was thought by

thought.

to Qoheleth,

makes

it

and by Delitzsch and McNeile

an assertion that

God

On

ably so here.

may

the wise

(Ps. 23' 80'

this

cf. Is.

in the

40" Ez.

OT.

usually

is

prob-

S3^^)) ^.nd is

view the editor means to say, the words of

be uttered by different men, but they

Krochmal, who

from God.

95%

This

book (or

As Knobel, Ginsburg, Plumtre,

Wright and Wildeboerhave seen, "Shepherd"

of

Solomon.

the contents of the preceding

all

books) come really from Solomon.

an epithet

Heiligstedt to refer
to

the last three verses of the

is

come

all

followed by Graetz, thought that

book applied not

to

Qoheleth alone, but

were the closing words of the whole Hagiographa, dating from the
council of Jabne, A.D. 90.
to include the

allusion

is

book

made

of

Job

If this

were

in the

true,

"words

one would be tempted

warned].
lections of

preceding

Wisdom

This

13.

12.

My

son\ a

Hterature, see Pr.

i*"-

common

'

'^

2' 3'-

address to a
"

^i

41.

Be

refers, as the following clause proves, to other col-

books than "the words of the wise," described

vs.

And

Besides these inspired words of the wise, just re-

ferred to in the preceding vs.

pupil in the

Krochmal's

here, but external evidence proves

view to be impossible, see above. Introduction, ii,

besides these].

which

of the wise," to

in the

Interpreters differ as to whether the editor

warning against heathen writings

was

(so Plumtre), or against rival

Jewish writings, such as Ecclesiasticus (so Wright), or the Wis-

dom

of

Solomon.

If

our view of the history of Qoheleth's writing

be true (see above, Introduction, 7, 11), references to BS. and

Wisdom would be here impossible. Of making many books there
is

no end]; a continuation of the warning against other

Possibly the writer

posed

was thinking

this hyperbolical

of heathen libraries

statement.

Much

literature.

when he com-

study is a weariness

QOHELETH

PRAISE OF
This

of the flesh].
in

The

i'.

199

perhaps, suggested by Qoheleth's

is,

would deter

editor

[Ch. 12^'2

own words

from unorthodox or

his pupil

heathen literature by the thought of the weariness of study.

13^ End

of discourse], the end of the book.

All has been heard].

These words probably formed the conclusion

the editor's

of

work, and once formed the end of the book.

13^ Fear God and

Chasid glossator's
vious insertions,

for

cf.

way

metaphorical

keep his commandments].

final addition.

This

8 ii'"^.

of saying, "this

note.

14.

ing every

With

For every work God

For

in."

will bring into the

The Massorets thought

the ending too harsh,

peated

make

to

it,

the

book

They made similar repetitions

Minor Prophets and Lamentations.
129. nn'^]

was taken by

Heil., Zo.

or "it remains'* (to speak of).

2i5

^16

it,

in

closes.

and accordingly remore pleasant

and Dale

The word

end

of Isaiah,

mean "as

to the rest,"

at the

to

however, an adv. as

is,

in

means "excessively," here, "besides,"

This approaches the Mishnic meaning of "additional,"

In those passages

5DB.

cf.

left

close with a

thought.
the

judgment concern-

judgment the book, as the Chasid

vs. 13 after

destined

is

parallels, see crit.

This echoes the words of the Chasid

secret thing].

this note of

his pre-

A Hebrew

every tnan].

is

what every man

is

and should be wholly absorbed

These begin the

harmony with

It is in

452b.

it

given to a kindred form, see Ja. 605a.

ipS]

Piel with causative force

nnS="to learn," cf. BDZJ. It takes two objects, cf. Ko. 327r. D;r,].
fm] was connected by the Ver<&, A, read o^xn, which Gr. preferred.
of

sions with ]iJ<="ear," either as

BH.

noun

It is in reality the

or verb.

only

= "to

weigh" {cf. Ar. wazan), from which comes

D"'JTN)2= "scales."
Here it seems to mean "weigh" in the sense of
";?n]="to search out,"
"test" {cf. Ges."- p. 23a and 5DB. 24b).
occurs in Piel only here. Zap. would erase it on metrical grounds as a
glis used by Q. only in the sense of "making straight the
ii?.0]
survival in

of irN

crooked,"

cf.

the Targ.

and Tal.

i'^

Here

7".

{cf.

it

means "set

Ja. 1692).

in order,"

"arranged," as

in

This difference from the usage of

is from a later editor.

word with nouns, see Ko. 3i8e. <6 takes
10. Yon n3i]=" words of pleasure," i.e., that

Qoheleth confirms our suspicion that the verse

it

n3">n],

on the use of

with the following

give pleasure.

Ha.

vs.
is

this

right in thinking that

Marsh. 's rendering, "words of

fact,"

it

refers to elegance of form.

on the ground that

"matter," "business," overlooks the fact that

Vcn=" pleasure."

^"i-"^?'"]

(ft=Kai

-yeypaix^vov,

in this

Vcri in

Q.=

very chap. (12')

supports

this

reading.

CCLESiASTES

200
Ginsburg held that the

pass, part.,

"writing" as in

in the sense of

when

follows a finite vb., has the

it

Del., PI., Wr., held to the text, taking

distinction of that vb. implied.

Ch. 30% but

it

makes a harsh and

this

awkward sentence. Hit. emended to 3^rr, and thought the inf. abs.
was used like inf. const, after c'pn; Bick. and Sieg. emend to=aTiDSi,
making it parallel to NXrS in form as Hit. did in thought. McN.
emends to 3in>i, taking it as "writing." &, Ul, 'A, "B, read aTir (hist,
inf.) or, as 5 MSS. read, 3nD, to one of which we should, with Dr., emend
the text.

Wr. and Wild, have

as

"lu*"'],

Ges.^- ii8m.

pdn],

seen,

meaning

for the

cf.

curs only once besides in BH., that in

an adverbial ace,

is

Ps.

13 2I'.

13^',

S.

cf.

niji-ii]

11.

oc-

a hopelessly corrupt

Budde, SBOT., and Smith, Inter. Crit. Com.). As this

last occurrence may be due to late editing in S., and as the word is fairly
common in Aram. {cf. J a. 320b), and the formation is an Aram, one,
It is from
the word is probably an Aram, loan word (see BDB. 201b).
passage

(cf.

3m= " to

nc^D, from ncS, is often

train " {cf. Ar. dariha, Eth. darhaya).
nncr::] is spelled elsewhere nncor:, c/. Je. 10*
Heb. for "goad."
Ch. 39 and oncDoIs. 41^ i Ch. 22', sing. "i?:pp, see Sabbath, 6'", Kelim,

used
2

in

12S and the references

word, but inasmuch as

>'VJj],

is

it

found

in Je.

usually "plant," as of trees,

as here of nails.
(of collections),"

14" and Ne.

bel

Wild, regards

in Ja. 809a.

''7>2],

"sa

Aram, loan

can hardly

be.

out="a

participant of," as in Gn.

As. has the same use of the word, cf.

"^"'"'A'ssur^'= " participator in the covenant and oath

Ko. 3o6g.

elsewhere only in Ne.

it

as an

but in Dn. ii of tent-pegs,

of Assyria," Sennacherib, Taylor, Cyl. II. 70.

passages

it

Is.^ that

not "masters (of assemblies)," nor "masters

but as Del. pointed

6'*, cf.

adi u mantit

etc.,

and

12^5

and

Ch.

26^5

n^

'^''fipN],

a late word found

and there masc.

In those

refers to collections of people; here, according to Heil., Del.,

Wr., Gen., Ha. and McN., to a collection of sayings or a written work.

Sieg.

still

holds to the older and less probable view that

assembly of people.
of

p= English:

12.

"in addition to these."

= plus quant. .iiu'>],

Ko. 233d.

adv. as in vs.

i.i"'],

(&

"endless," like

with

its

object,

apparently read
S.lj;

r^^ in

is

mtr-yS.

9,

an

refers to

it

but here with the addition

According to Ko. (3o8f)

it

the subject of the sentence,

xp px]
jnS]=with
is

an adj.=

virtually

Dt. 32*, so Del.

is
cf.

n^nn, to "de-

vote oneself to prolonged study," is a.X.

Analogy is found only in the
Ar. lahiga= " be devoted (or attached) to a thing."
Cf. No., ad. loc. and

BDB.

S29b.

13a.

-(an l^o]

curs in a few late writings

sense of
4- *

7",

"i?

{cf.

and

without the

BDB.

art.

with

an Aramaism.

693a), but

for post-Biblical

Cf.

piDfi r\\0.

which

the

r^\D

oc-

and Qoheleth in the

the regular word in J.Ar. {cf. Dn.

is

references, Ja. 968a).

The

use of

shows that we cannot here translate "the end

clusion) of the matter."

P1DD,

is

Jo. (22"), Chronicles

It is

editor

probably a technical expression

marked

the

end

of

his

im

(or con-

work.

like I'D

This

PRAISE OF

QOHELETH

[Ch.

^01

12^-'^

makes the impression that wlien these words were penned, the
Chasid's gloss had not been added, and these words formed the conGr. and Sieg. hold that
clusion of Qohelcth.
Cf. Ko. 277v.^crj].

expression

(6 read >?r,

and

Sieg.

would so emend the

text,

but Eur. points out

be an itacism for d/coyerai, so that no other reading is

>crj is taken by Gins., Del., Wr., Marsh.,
necessarily pre-supposed.
and McN. as perf. Niph., Karnes being due to the Athnah. Wild,

that &Kove

may

and Ha., among recent interpreters, still regard it as an imperf. first pers.
There is an evident reference to this final word of Qo.'s
cohortative.
This quotation
editor in BS. 43^': ^^n Nin n3i spi '\o^: nV hSnd ii>'.
confirms our view that when it was made the Chasid gl. had not yet
been added.
13>.

"this
ra-^j

D-iNH ^3
is

ht],

as Del., No.,

every man."

As

Wr. and McN. have

Del. pointed out,

ic>'="thy people are a

it

is

free-will offering,"

seen, can only

mean

a bold metaphor like

Ps.

n^ijp >jn

iio^,

nnpc = " f ate are the children of

"I am prayer," Ps. ioqS and
men," Qo. 3i9._mNn Sd can only mean "every man," cf. 3" 518 72.
^^orca],
14. aoroD N3^] are the very words used by the Chasid in ii'.
D-tNn >j3

without the

article, as

Gins, saw,

judgment concerning every

Cf, Je. 235. aSy.i],

McN.

is

further defined by

secret thing."

observes, has

'J

Sd *?>=" the

(So Del., Wr. and

Daghesh

McN.)

in S to insure the pro-

nunciation of the quiescent guttural; it occurs, however, in

2n], cf. Ko. 37 ir.
On dn
without Daghesh.

K.

io

INDEXES.

INDEXES.

HEBREW INDEX.

I.

13N, 104.

PDN, 200.

':'3N,i42.

^JN, 86,

"^yn,

131, 132, 177,

njV2N, 52, 196.

omDvS-, 121.

''Sya,

DIN,

Pi2pN, 200.

Sx3, 143.

148, 167.

;^^,

200.

nOO JHN, 33, 131.

IN, 92.

Vp2, 104.

"I1N,

nn

T3,

194.

93-

?^<,

nn^

m,

T\N, 142.

D"'::"'

Tx,

1->N,

-?3, 53, 94-

^38,

-irN Vr3, 158.

150, 166, 178.

ins,, 93, 118.

nS ^rN, 145.

THN, 89,

nrnS

-a

nu-vN, 178.

THN, 144.

v'^3, 89.

-^rN, 107.

n2J, 142.

nosHN, 147.

nnns,

D\-13J,

142.

-3, 125,

"nnN, 76, 122.

^N, 52,

HT

N,

178.

194.

106, 145.

Khn hj
?^N,

]-'n,

132,

'

143,

130.

"^^^ ^78.
T1J, 176.

r?ij, 52, 176.

73-

t'H2, 168.

iS^N, 118.

VP

131,

178, 196.
'^2,

1>N, 94.

?^N,

194.

ni2-^3, 89.

145.

^-'^53,89,ii7>i37,

32.

199-

75.

200.

nr r>N, 53.

lirni '^DN, 132.

-luo Sdn, 117,
i^N, 135-

\U'N3, 141, 152, 160,

n'?J,

^n3, 152.

DJ,

118,

^><

2', 179-

n>iiD, 168.

DNDJ, 158.

"\in3,

>JN DJ, 93.

194.

pn-jj, 161.

P, 89.

^03, 195.

nnp, 142.

n>a, 196.

n'^iy

122,

145, 169-

N13, 113, 201.

TN-^13, 195.

196.

93,

j?nj,

106.

aS Sn, 141.
]^^, 155-

^'V

':,

nnxn

179,

200.

88, 92, 152.

178.

-^2n, 75,

oSa, 88.

Sn, 125.

D1PD Sn, 73.

O^-^D Sn, 160.

142.

nan, 75, 145.

N^3, 177.

^'fjn 'nai,

pSi, 177.

199.

ona-i, 137.

-\"'C'n

nua, 195.

n ^31,

tDN, 88, III, 148.

amn

p, 178.

aS or ''mai, 86.

-S nCN, 158, 169, 196.

PO

DN, 134.

'J3,

^^

90.

205

152.

137-

135,

INDEX

206
^^^

nr,

179-

n;;Dn, ii6.

nn,

53, 96, 167.

n?

87.

niJ3-n, 52, 200.

nr,

i'^^

135.

DIN VdHT, 201.

11-',

JI'iT,

112/.

-?,
i><

76.

103.

IDT,

crpv,

onsn, 113, 135.

inNH, 118.

p2n, 104, 117.

nS;, 121,

mn,

TiflDini ^nSijn, 86.

Nin, 32, 87, 96, 106, 141,

i^''"'''%

JO r^n, 97.

niShn, 54, 87.

a>->in,

52, 178.

10% 178.
^ID^ 106.

n*jn, 168.

"0% 105-

N:on,

90,

75.

106,

107,

117, 177.
^n^^^, 85.
"jrn nS-'H, 32.

^^^,33,93,145, 158,179n^rDH, 177.

1^^, 73, 135, 136, 155-

rcj iSn, 33, 168.

SSn, 88, 142.

onSnon,

112.

^n,

135, 166.

D^-in,

D1p>, 195.

asn, 145, 147, 151.

\p\ 168.

naon, 177.

Nn% 195.

Di^n, 125.

'^'\

>'i ^^n,

NAif% 151

118.

in apodosis, 158.

I'NJ'i,

196.

'^anoii, 196.

134.

200.

P, 177-

irT",

94, 199, 200.

^D'?,

V^^\

134.

118.

-p,

van, 103, 125, 131.

^h

75, 87, 135, 201

143,

151,

152,

inN3, 194.

'^^f^, 53-

yvi<D, 17, 152, 158,

n^rn,

^33, 52, 75, 93ID,

D>nnnn, 195.

HD,

:3v^,

^: 52, 132.

naia, 135, 141.

^rND

:3ii3,

196.

DDnnr, 151.

3v^, 89, 96, 121, 131, 143.

nrx

160,

193-

52, 53, 149.

nij3rn, 148/.

156,

158, 160, 193, 194.

npn, 199.

n3>

niD o^iT, 168.

54, 72, 105, 132.

rnon, 86.

n3nr>i, 155.
n.nri, 106.

J/:

"IT"',

ot:T^i, 33, 138.

nN-\"i

75, 134-

pSn, 113, 193.

D-'jsn,

a^nnn, 145.

oho PN Ni% 33.

>V>n, 177.

jnn, 104.
"jc^n,

145.

NX>, 53, 145.

141.

^DH, 169.

njin, 86, 90, 168, 199.

^D"',

rD>, 169.

125.

141.

N>n, 17, 133, 148, 166.

52, 53, 194-

155-

97.

t:-in,

1,

1^^*^%

V^n

n^in, 141.

^'^

103, 121.

n';;"'.,

nVin, 132.

95, 193.

141.

179.

N-jm, 168.
na'in, 97.

166.

167.

13Si3>:o>, 194.

2C'\ 141.

3jn, 196.

Sjn, 52, 72, 158.

"'Pn,

142.

'?':'^r^\

-V, 94.

mn,

nan>, 145.

11% 166.
>n% 134, 146.

195-

v^y,

179-

-^'V.,

>J% 178.

53-

an-T, 74.

169.

Vi<\ 95.

y^3% 168.

nr IN nr, 194.

113,

CX

166/.
^D,

106, 156.

Q3^D, 121, 156, 158.

"3,

33, 93, 145, 158, 169,

179.

INDEX
Q-^H ^3, 133.

SSmD, 88.

-V

d-'dSh::,

n?:y ^2, 132.

Ni3">C,

176.
200.

Pi"ict;'c,

n-ino, 119.

155-

?3,

rnn, 167.

122.

DHD, 92.

n^'^ Sd, 194.

=^-T

207

33ro, 179.

DJD, 90.

NS1D, 150.

D^DJD, 179.

D>Nai::, 155.

rS-^T, 119.

na? 0^*^03, 124.

o^S^DDa Srir, 168.

-^mn, 112.

nnSrc, 152.
ycrn, 75.

nDDnr;, 142.

:odb'd,

'^, 53, 131-

nru'D, 141.

103, 131.

87, 96, 133, 142.

DJ'D,

130, 201.

^X3, 143, 156.

-p,

h'^'x^j^, 53,

169.

^rj, 177.

iniro, 95, 117, 131.

DONo::, 96.

"^lonc-D,

130, 178.

JiPD,

njPO, 142.

160/.

pins, 194.

D"'n'^Nn n>::, 96.

iJJ,

167.

199/.

2S
-S, 161, 169, 179.
2S, 86, 87, 169.

mj, 142, 176.

n'^o, 156.

I'^u, 121.

nxSc, 193.

^nrj, 121.

IN^D, 125.

210 3S, 166.

toSo,

nconj, 142.

167.

laS, 148.

^nj, 74.

iSd, 152, 178, 179.

jnV, 200.

'''^p

Snj

125.

Nilpn'r,

pnj, 135, 168.

D^DDJ, 52, 133, 134.

njo, 86.

rnV, 177.

nDJ, 134.
irjcVo, 76.

103 /.

HDJ, 88.

P, 75> 96, 142.

n-i^^, 103.

>DJ, 176.

yjo, 92.

ncS, 94.

dS;*;.,

^>J, 178.

PDD, 121, 167.

loS, 199.

nr>'J, 155.
>3D0,

np^i', 143-

89, 133, 137.

U-DJ,

njjjr, 86.

177.
tayo,

195.

JPC,

HNC, 134.

33 52, 133ntrj?c, 117, 156 '"

DDWC,

Nxn, 167.

143.
142.

C'"'NC,

D-'iis?:,

ynn, 94.

^><^'^,

DU'Orj, 168.
iPj,

oipc, 74, 135, 192.

cHp DlpO, 155.

HD, 113, 142, 193.

'^'^pC,

OIN HD, 92.

^?i7P, 32, 90. 93, 112.

.-i->|-ip,

75.

147/.

86, 97, 124, T42.

153-

53, 136, 194.

nj^t::, 52, 90, 130.

33.

yorj 201.

Pi^J,

ptD, 52, 179.

?T2,

irj, 176.

149, 167.

nsix::, 167.

-W

ntij, 107.

Ssy^jD, 156.

n>ni:> n?:,

135, 156.

r^j, 196.

IpnS, 17, 86.

yDC'

201.

TDO, 176.

pc^'S, 132.

TIB'S,

103^, 200.

r^:,

moS?:, 121.

^iS 155nj?t3^,

nrnj, 177.

-jSc,

167.
hn^t'^ S, ^^n, 85.

mj?:n^, 86.

179.

jnj, 89.

74, 118, 160.

n':'^,

32D, 05, 167.

n'^jD, 90.

145.

"^30,

178.

D^ono, 176.

196.

331D, 74.
n">D,

n^l
i

105, 200.
n'lC',

200.

INDEX

2o8
ona^D, 196.

3"ito

DniD, 121.

O^TSy,

on-iD, 142.

o^n'^xj;,

^DO, 95, 169, 176, 196.

PC7, 142.

niSoD, 53, 89.

D"';?u7^,

n,

32, 106.

r.ir>',

141-

^33

90.

>,

'"^y

178.

160.

94-

i'-^,

npi, 132, 177, 193, 194/.

nin, 53, 85.

116.

PD, 52, 177.

nicT, 145.

rvpn, 96.

1DD, 104.

Dn>U7, 176.

rxi, 196.
"ip"^,

144.

nj7,

t3J?,

158.

PC, 167.

15;*,

131/.

^0,

nu-N

n;',

njfj,

nS

-^u^n

89.
^^;,

53, 195.

pn->, 196.

135, 152, 177.

92.

a^jfl,

';tz',

^'^>s, 135, 146.

Pr^''i'\

DT^O, 32, 52, 89.

D>B',

my, 86, 143.

V^i3,

117.

145-

>,

151.

D"'JO T>,

104.

167, 178.

H', 86, 106, III.

':'N

^;, 196.

'^i*^^-^',
S3, 87.
Sncu', 169.

2J-^S, 33, 52, 154.

n:Dt:*,

?isx, 74.

"?' 53, 72/., 96,

is?, 195.

D"'j::np,
'^^^IP,

^M<'C\ 167.

105.

ah'y,

72, 105.

^?P, 177-

93, 122.

92, 122.

"^^y, 73.
n-in>',

73.

^yy, 33, 133, 179r-3>,

52, 85.

3x>',

177-

nNir, 73.

n^r, 52, 94, 116

167.

r^top,

DJr, 87.
HNJ,-!,

117.

njjr, 176.

njp, 90.
2-^p, 52,

HN^,

87,

pi>3r, 152.
88,

DO-i, 176.

93, 105, 106, 116, 155,

^J-^,

17, 124.

200.

I"'"^,

107.

onS ncy, 179.

nn, 85, 176, IOC.

iniiry,

np^'\,

93.

miuh nnr, 91 j^
1>pnnr, 137.

nnnr,

195.

Sc^r, 119.

^'^\ 134-

nvi'v, 200.

116,

134, 142, 167, 176.

a>jc-Nn, 76.

32, 33, 75, 85. 88,

113,

ns^, 167, 176.

3-\;,
^'I'V,

nyiw', 193.

124, 168.

D^Ci7, 193.

194.

VNr, 92.
^y Snu-, 142.

^V, 142.
cip, 195.

D>',

177, 178, 194-

76.

67/., 148, 196.

d"??.,

75/.

106,

112, 119, 134, 169, 176,

-^nninS;.^ 52, 143.

o^'2'^>,

177.

143.

^shy, 125.
nc;; S*, 52, 132.

92, 179.

mnsr,
^i-,

nn3nS>', III.

-r

179III.

nrc, 52, 151.

O'i'V, 194n^>',

134.

177.

1U*, 179.

"'J"^>,

104.

?r->, III.

^y;, 131 ff.

168.

pn-\, 196.

Pts^J^S 52, 53,

151-

to^Vr, 152.

I'-r, 104.
DC-, 74,

III, 134, 141.

nsr. III.
nji?:;:^

193.

ycr, 75, 168, 20I.

INDEX
^r^', 193-

'^cr, 195.

rtu-, 134.

'^"''^c-S

nju*

209
ncn, 131,
niji:j?n,

53, 179-

n:u- (verb),

91.

icr, 104, 196.

(noun), 134.

151/.

nir, 85.

Ipr, 17, 52, 86, 143, 199-

jr, 32, 118, 122.

r^np, 176.

n^"5P, 52, 137-

r"i2-i D':u-,

ircrn rn-, 32, 73.

scirr, 145.

134.

INDEX OF PERSONS.

IT.

AroKA,

Cornill, H., 22jf., 44, 59, 61.

27.

Adam, James,

Cowley, A. E., 7.
Cox, Samuel, 22.

42.

Albert, Georg, 42.

Albrecht, K., 155, 178.
Alexander Balas, 30, 61, 119^., 174.

Dathe,

Alexander Jann^eus, 3, 29.

Alexander the Great, 43, 59.
Antiochus III, 61 jf., 120^., 164.
Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), 29, 61.
Antiochus V, 164.
Antiochus VII, 164.
Aqiba, Rabbi, 5, 17, 167

Davidson, A. B.,

Dillmann, A.,
I

Bacon, B. W., 183.

Baer, S., 8, and Comm. passim.
3.

2, 53, 59
passim.
Bennett, W. H., 22.
Berger, S., 15.

and Comm.

?/".,

E., R., 63, 121.

Bickell, G., 22, 25^., 32,

and Comm.

passim.
Bloch, J. S., 3.
Bomberg, Daniel, 2.
Breasted, J. H., 151.
Briggs, C. A., 6, 7, 22^., and
passim.
Burkitt, F.

C,

9, 11.

Caird, Edward,

Collitz,

of Alexandria,

Hermann,

Comm.

9.

Dupuis,

C,

and Comm.

21,

8, 22, 51,

and Comm.

J., 42.

J. G., 21, 23.

Elcazar ben Azariah,

Epicurus, 38 jf.

5.

32.

Euringer, Sebastian, 14, and

passim.
Euripides, 34.
Ewald, H., 22, 51, and
passim.
Ewing, William, 183.

Comm.
Comm.

42.

Field, F., ii, 13.

Frederick William IV, 83.

Catullus, 174.
Cheyne, T. K., 22, 185.
Ciasca, A., 13.
Cicero, 114, 174.

Clement

Doderlein, J.
passim.
Driver, S. R.,
passim.

Eshmunazer,

Comm.

and Comm.

22, 59,

Dillon, E. J., 22, 26, 27.

ElCHHORN,

Bevan,

and Comm. pas

passim.
De Jong, P., 190.
Delitzsch, Franz, 22, and
passim.
Desvoeux, A. V., 50.
De Wette, W. M. L., 22.
Dhorme, Paul, 163.

Aquila, 11, 17.

Aristophanes, 74.
Aures, A., 42.

Ben Buta,
Ben Sira,

J. A., 21,

sim.

Frey, J., 109.

Friedlander, M., 34, 164.
7.

Gamaliel, 3.
Genung, J.

89.

Cook, S. A., 178, 195.

Cooke, G. A., 32, 86,
14

195.

Comm.

F.,

passim.

22,

31,

61,

and

INDEX

2IO
Ginsburg, C. D.,

17, 22 jf., 32,

6, 8,

and Comm. passim.

Kittel, R., 8, 50.

Kleinert, P., 23/.,

Knobel,

Gottheil, R. J. H., 15.

Graetz, H., 9, 22, 24

ff.,

2,3,

and

Comm. passim.
Gregory, C. R., 10, 27.
Gregory bar Hebraeus, 171.
Gregory of Nyssa, 20.

August,

32/.
and

22,

Kuenen,

A., 22, 59.

Leclerc,

v., 42.

Grenfell, B. P., 27, 172.

Grimme, Hubert, 39, 162.

Levy, Alfred, 15.

Lidzbarski, Mark., 7.
Louis XIV, 85.
Lowth, Bishop, 15, 50.

Grotius, Hugo, 21, 22.

Lucretius, 108.

Guyan, M.,

Luther, Martin,

Gregory Thaumaturgus,

42.

Harxack, Adolf,
Harris, J. R.,
Haupt, Paul,

34

McFadyen,

13, 20.

5,

22

49

27

/f.,

jf.,

29

jf.,

and

Comm.

and

Comm.

jf.,

A.,

Heiligstedt,

22,

passim.

Hengstenberg, E. W.,

22,

and Comm.

passim.
Heraclitus, 34, loi.
Herder, J. G., 23.

Hermas, 7.
Herod the Great,

3,

178.

Herodotus, 43, 127.

Hillel, 5, 6.

Hilprecht, H. V., 42.

F., 22, 61 ff.,
passim.

Hitzig,

Hommel,

and Comm.

F., 68.

Horace, 81, 112, 127, 163, 184.

Hunt, A.

S., 27, 172.

Ibn Ezra,

27,

and Comm. passim.

4,

ff.,

6,

17,

18^

22/., 30^., 32/., 41/., 53/-, 59^

65, and Comm. passim.

Marcus

passim.

21.

J. E., 22.

McNeile, A. H.,

5.

44,

ff.,

20.

Comm.

passim.

Aurelius, 36, 99, loi.

Margouliouth, D. S., 22, 53,

Marshall, J. T., 22.
Martin, T. H., 42.
Mazarin, Jules, 82.
Meissner, Bruno, 39.
Mendelssohn, Moses, 181.
Middledorpf, H., 14.

Montfaufon, B., 11,

Moore, G. F., 194.
MiiUer, W. M., 43.

59, 67.

13.

Nachtigal, J. C. C, 186.
Nathan, Rabbi, 115.
Nathan ben Jehiel, 16.
Noldeke, T., 2, 53, 59.
Noyes, G. R., 22.
Origen,

7, 13.

Ovid, 103, 144.

Jahn, H.,

21.

Jerome, 15, and Comm. passim.

Jesus, son of Sirach, see Ben Sira.
Jewett, J. R., 98, 181.

Johanan ben Joshua,

John Hyrcanus, 151.
Jose, Rabbi,

5.

5.

Peake, A.

3, 40.

S., 22, 59.

Pericles, 197.
Pfleiderer, Otto, 24,
Philo Judaeus, 5, 40.
Plato, 42.

Plumtre, E. H.,

Joseph, son of Tobias, 63.

Judah, Rabbi, 5.

Judas Maccabaeus, 151

Justin, 120, 174.

Justin Martyr,
Juvenal, 174.

Paul, Saint,

7, 40.

4,

2,2,,

34, loi.

22/.,

24, 32/.,,

34/.
Poly bins, 122.

Ptolemy IV (Philopator), 61, 120.

Ptolemy V (Epiphanes), 61, 120 ffy
122, 174.

Ptolemy IX (Euergetes

II), 60.

Pyrrho, 43.

Kautzsch,

E., 60.

Kennicott, Benjamin,
King, L. W., 135.

8.

Rashbam
Meir),

(Rabbi
20.

Samuel

ben

INDEX
Rashi (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac),

Toy, C. H.,

60.

Thomas, 22 ff., 24, 32

2)4 jf., 59, and Comm. passim.

Tyler,

20.

Reinsch, Leo, 68.

Renan,

211

E.,

22,

passim.
Ryle, H. E.,

2, 6.

34,

Umbreit,

Sabatier, Peter,

ff.^

Comm.

and

W. C,

F.

Vaihinger,
14.

J.

C,

73, 186.

22,

and

Comm.

passim.
Van der Palm, J. G., 25, and Comm.
passim.
Vincent, A. J., 42.
Vlock, W., 22, and Comm. passim.

Samuel of Vitry, i.
Sanday, Wm., 60.
Sayce, A. H., 7.
Schechter, S., 53.
Schiirer, E., 11, 12, 13.

Schwally, F., 104, no, 130, 193.

Wage, Henry,

Scrivener, F. H, A., 10.

Wallace,

Sellin, E., 34.

Shammai,

Wangemann,

5, 6.

Siegfried, C., 22/., 24, 28/.,

32/.

34 ff., 44#-, and Comm. passim

Simeon, Rabbi, 5.
Simeon ben Onias, 60.
Simeon ben Shetach, 3.
Smith, V. A., 27.
Smith, W., 12.
Smith, W. R., i, 6.
Solomon, 19, 21, 46, 47, 58, and

Comm. passim.
Sophocles, 114, 129, 137.
Spohn, G.

Swete, H. B.,

Symmachus,
Tabnith,

Dr.,

22,

and

Comm.

passim.

Weber,

no.

F.,

Wetzstein, J. G., 186.

Wildeboer, D. G., 6, 22 /"., 32 ff.y
and Comm. passim.
Winckler, Hugo, 22, 61, 119, and
Comm. passim.
Wright, C. H. H., 3, 22/., 32/., 59.
and Comm. passim.
Wright, Wm., 68.

Xenophox,

L., 21, 186.

Xenophanes

Strack, H., 22, 68.

12.

J., 42.

127.
of Colophon, 43,

10, 11.
12,

and

Comm.

passim.

F., 23.

Zapletal,

32.

Tannery, Paul,

Yeard,

Taylor,' C, 11, 53.

TertuUian, 7.
Themistocles, 164.
Theodotian, 11, and
Theognis, 114.

Tobia ben Eleazar,

v., 29, 49.f-,

and

Comm.

passim.

42.

R, 35/., 43/Zeno, the Stoic, 41.

Zirkel, G., 22 /., 32 ff., and
passim.
Zeller,

Comm.

passiin.

Zockler, Otto,
passim.

20, 67, 186.

III.

Abortion, advantages

22

ff.,

Comm.

and Comm.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
of

130.

Abstract nouns, 53.

Additions, Editor's, 46, 197.
Advice, Qoheleth's, i79#.
Arabic Version, 15.
Aramaic words in Qoh., 52.

an,

126,

Babylonian Influence on Qoheleth, 40 Jf.

on Epicurus, 41 Jf.
Books, when they supplanted

rolls,

27.

Buddhism, supposed influence

(Joh., 27, 42.

on

212

INDEX

Canonicity of Ec, 2ff.

Chasid glossator, 45 ff.
Confusion of verb N"'' and
of N""? and ';'";, 53.
Coptic Version,

Old Age like a Storm, 186/.

Oppression, 124^.
~"*^,

53.

Parks, 80 jf.

13.

Coran {QuWan),

Participial constructions, 53.

80, 197.

Date of Ec, 58/.

Despotic government, 12^ ff., 148^.
Dislocations, theories of, 25 jf.
Documentary theory of Ec, 28

EccLESiASTES, the name,

Ecclesiasticus

i, 6"] ff.

Fate,

of

mals, lO"] ff.

Proverbs, variety

35, 109, 112, 136.

39, 129,

and 162.
Greek influence on Qoh., 23 jf.

in

32 /.

I,

same

Sadducees,

198.

Hendiadys,

MSS. of, 10.

Shams in religion, 122

95.
editor, 44 ff., 197 jf.

Sheol, 161, 163.

Stoic influence in

Inhumanity, Man's, 113/.

in, i22jf.

as godlessness,

^.

Ec, 34^.

Syncope, 53.
Syntax, late developments, 53.

Integrity of Ec, 43 jf.

Interpretation, history of, 18 ff.
Ishtar^s Descent, 163.

Syriac Versions, i^ff.

Syro-Hexaplar Version,

Advantages

of,

T.^LMUD, 16 ff.
efi"orts for,

Latin, Old, Version, 14/.

Latin Vulgate, 15.
Linguistic character of Qoh.,

Manuscripts, Hebrew,
of Septuagint,
Megilloth, iff.
Metrical theories of

155

ff.

Targum, 15/., 19.

of Ec,
ff.

Text

'J

recensions
52.

yff.

loj/".

Ec,

4.

29,

49^.

of, 17.

Thought, outline
Title of Ec, 67/.

of Qoh.'s, 46

Verbal Adjectives,
Versions,

Midrashim, 19.
Midrash Yalkut, 85.
Mishna, Eccl. in, ^ff.

Testament,

14.

126,

127.

Knowledge, Qoh.'s

New

/.,

6, 65.

Septuagint, 8jf.

Kingship,

138

Rulers, advice concerning, 169^.

Helplessness of man, 97,^.

Hokma

jf.,

152/.

Qoh., 53.

Hagiography,

37

Religion, Sincerity
Riches, 124 ff.
Righteousness,

philosophical, 34 jf.

idiom

of,

169/.

GiLGAMESH Epic and Ec,

linguistic,

of

Polyglots, 15.
Popularity, transitory, iigff.
Praise of Qohelcth, Editor's, 197.
Private life of Qoh., 64.

Proof of man's equality with ani-

143/".

of,

6.

41/.

and Ec, 53 jf.

Extremes, uselessness

Pharisees,

Philosophy, Greek, 2,4

ff.
of life, Qoheleth's, 161/.
Platonic number, Bab. origin

jf.

End, humanity's, 158^.

Epicurean influence on Ec, 38 jf.
Experiments of Qoh. in character
Solomon, ']6ff.

Persian words in Qoh., 52.

Personal pronouns in Ec, 53.
Peshitta Version, 13 jf.

/T.

53.

?>ff.

Vows, 122^.
Vulgate, Latin, 15.

Waw Consecutive, 53, 87,

116, 118.
57/".

Wisdom,

relation to

Women,

Qoh.'s judgment

Ec,

of, 146.

Barton, G. A.
Eccliastes.

BS
^91*
.16

V.17