Theoretical

approaches to
explaining L1
learning.

Behaviourism
(Skinner, 1957)

Innatism

(Chomsky, 1957, 1959, 1965;

Lenneberg, 1967)

Interactionism

(Piaget, 1952; Vygotsky, 1978)

Mid 20th C
HABIT FORMATION - learners'
responses to external stimuli are
positively reinforced
STIMULUS - RESPONSE REWARD/(PUNISHMENT)
Audiolingualism + Behaviourismsentence pattern through drills
Accuracy (over fluency); often used as
a measure of progress
Intolerance of error = bad habit
formation
De-contextualised language
Little communicative function
All
languages
share
certain
fundamental principles
Chomsky - genetically "programmed"
with an innate language learning
faculty
LAD
(LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
DEVICE)
Abstract
principles
of
biological
mechanism
Adjusted for individual languages
According to PARAMETERS
Accounts for L1 acquisition
Idealised description of competence
Role in L2 acquisition is much less
clear
Language acquisition during Critical
Period (Lenneberg)
Language used = Knowledge acquired
through physical interaction (Piaget)
Thought = Internalized speech,
emerged in social interaction
(Vygotsky)
Importance of child-directed speech

Theoretical
approaches to
explaining L2
learning.

Second
Language
Acquisition
(SLA)

Emerging in the wake of the failure of

BEHAVIOURISM
Based on linguistics, psychology,
neurology and sociology
Data = OUTPUT learners produce,
INPUT they are exposed to + physical,
psychological, contextual factors
Theories fall into three broad groups:
1. Universal Grammar (this is not a
theory though)
2. Cognitive Learning Theory
3. Sociocultural Learning Theory

BUT see also theories based on L2 errors

Contrastive
Analysis
Hypothesis

Language development = habit

formation leading to positive or negative
transfer (from L1)

UG same in L2 or altered by other

language acquisition

The order in which grammar items are

thought to be acquired
Irrespective of the learners first
language/
age/order in which they are taught
Natural Order is;
1. -ing/plural -s/verb to be
2. auxiliary be / articles the/a/as
3. irregular past

(Lado, 1957)

Universal
Grammar
(White, 2003)

Natural Order
/ Order of
Acquisition /
Order of
Development
(SLA)

1970s

Krashens
Hypotheses

Cognitive Theories
(De Keyser, 1998; Pienemann,
1999; Ellis, 2002; Bates &
MacWhinney, 1981 )

4. regular past / third person sing -s /

5. possessive -s
Prompted Krashens NATURAL
ORDER HYPOTHESIS
Rules of language acquired in particular
order regardless of the order in which
they are taught
Krashen ACQUISITION = nonconscious and "natural" process of
internalising the rules of a language
1. LEARNING = conscious, usually
classroom, study, including
attending to rules of grammar
2. Natural Order Hypothesis
acquire rules of language in a
predictable order
3. Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
acquisition using language/
learning knowing about language
4. Monitor Hypothesis the acquired
system is able to produce
spontaneous speech, the learned
system is used to check what is
being spoken.
5. Input Hypothesis Must be
comprehensible in order to learn
6. Affective Filter Hypothesisnegative emotional response to
environment impedes learning
No special language module
Same learning processes
Importance of learning context & use of
prior language knowledge
Information Processing approaches:
SLA = building up of knowledge called
on automatically
Attention
Limited Processing Capacity
Practice; Declarative Knowledge;
Procedural Knowledge; Automaticity
Restructuring
Transfer-appropriate processing
The noticing hypothesis
Usage-Based approaches:
Linguistic experiences = frequency of
items in input + frequency of items
occurring together (NOT rule)
Saliency (cues)
The Interaction Hypothesis

Sociocultural Theory
(Vygotsky, 1990; Lentof, 2001)

Learning = social process

Social interaction the learner is assisted
from dependency towards autonomy
All learning = MEDIATED through
social and cultural activity
Scaffolding peer interaction with a
more capable other
Through shared activity the learner is
able to function independently - from
other regulation to self-regulation
ZPD - difference between what a
learner can do without help and what
he or she can do with help