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Shono and Inuzuka - Representation of a diffracted wave field by the band-limite

d angular spectrum, J.Opt.Soc.Am 68, n.11, 1978
- in Weyl's expression inhomogeneous waves are usually neglected [3]
- validity of this approximation estimated analitically [4] and numerically [5]
- alternative expression given by Wittaker as superposition of only homogeneous
plane waves [6]
- contribution of inhomogeneous waves = contribution of homogeneous waves propag
ating back ward from a source [7]
- Field in space is given by superimposing plane waves with an angular spectrum
of the emitter [8, pag.61]
- Amplitude distribution of the PWs is equal to the angular spectrum at infinite
distance and approx equal in the far field
- angular spectrum contributing to observation point is limited in narrow region
depending on the distance from the object
- significant contributions to the integral about the angular spectrum arise fro
m the vicinity of stationary phase points [9]
- all other contributions are neglected due to distructive interference
- determine spectral bandwidth
- spherical wave exactly represented with the superposition of a part of homogen
eous plane waves
- approximation to circular-plane-wave expansion [10]
- obtain spectral bandwidth as a function of distance from the object and apertu
re size
- start from Weyl's expansion, theta integrated over a complex domain C
- divide C into C1 (real axis) and C2 (imaginary axis): C1 gives homogeneous wav
es, C2 gives inhomogeneous waves
- Fresnel zone construction
- contribution of homogeneous PWs is Uh = U1/2-1/(ikr)
- contribution of inhomogeneous PWs is Ui = 1/(ikr)
- field is U = U1/2 = half the contribution due to the first zone -> minimum num
ber of PWs without phase jumps
- if r >> lambda -> theta1 approx sqrt(lambda/r)
- only PWs of which the poles are involved in the solid angle subtended at the s
ource by the first Fresnel'2 zone make an effective contribution
- 1st representation of spherical wave: PW having infinitely extended wave front
s but propagating into a restricted spatial angle
- 2nd representation of spherical wave: PW having suitably extended spatial wave
fronts and propagating to all directions -> CPW
- CPW is invariant under rotation of coordinates != from conventional angular sp
ectrum and Weyl's expression
- CPW is a good approximation if r is larger than a few wavelengths
[3] G.C.Sherman, Diffracted wave field expressible by plane-wave expansion conta
ining only homogeneous waves, J.Opt.Soc.Am., 59, 697-711, 1969
[4] G.C.Sherman and J.J.Stamnes and A.J.Devaney and E.Lalor, Contribution of the
inhomogeneous waves in angular-spectrum representations, Opt.Commun., 8, 271-27
4, 1973
[5] W.H.Carter, Band-limited angular-spectrum approximation to a spherical scala
r wave field, J.Opt.Soc.Am., 65, 1054-1058, 1975
[6] E.T.Whittaker, On the partial differential equations of mathematical physics
, Math.Ann. 57, 333-355, 1902
[7] G.C.Sherman and A.J.Devaney and L.Mandel, Plane Wave expansions of the optic
al field, Opt.Commun. 6, 115-118, 1972
[8] J.V.Goodman, Introduction to Fourier Optics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968
[9] H.M.Nussenzweig, Diffraction theory in the k-representation, An.Acad.Bras.Ci
enc. 31, 515-521, 1959
[10] Y.Shono, Reconstructed images from volume holograms in the Fraunhofer appro

ximations: Analysis by a new spherical-wave expansion, J.Opt.Soc.Am. 66, 564-574

, 1976
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Lalor - Conditions of validity of the Angular Spectrum of Plane Waves, J.Opt.Soc
.Am. 58, n.9, 1968
- Specify conditions on the field which guarantee the existence of angular spect
rum representation
- L2 = space of square integrable function, i.e. function which are integrable i
f we consider their absolute value squared
- Plancheral theorem: if f(x,y) is in L2, there exist its Fourier transform f(p,
q) in L2
- consider scalar wavefield U(x,y,z) which satisfies 3 conditions
a) is solution to Helmholtz equation when z>0
b) boundary values U(x,y,0) = f(x,y)
i) f(x,y) is sectionally continuous in the xy plane
ii) f(x,y) is continuous and has continuous derivatives outside
a circle of radius R0 s.t. abs(f)<B/r, abs(f_x)<B/R, abs(f_y)<B/R
B is independent on x and y, R = sqrt(x^2+y^2)
iii) f in L2
c) U is regular for z>0 and satisfies
i) for R>R0, z>0 there exist a constant C s.t. U and U_R satisfy
abs(U)<C/R and abs(U_R)<C/R
ii) in a solid sector -pi/2+delta < theta < pi/2-delta of R>R0,
z>0 there exist a constant D(theta) s.t. abs(U_R - ikU) < D/R^2
- if conditions a,b,c are satisfied, U is expressed by Rayleigh integral formula
tion (pressure->pressure)
- terms in the integrand are in L2
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Y. Hsu and K.T.Wong and L.Yeh - Mismatch of Near-Field Bearing-Range Spatal Geom
etry in Source-Localization by a Uniform Linear Array, IEEE Trans. on Antennas a
nd Propagation, vol.59, n.10, 2011
- many near-field source-localization algorithms simplify the exact spatial geom
etry to speed up the signal processing involved
- e.g. Fresnel approximation is adopted -> 2nd order Taylor-series approximation
- approximation introduces a systemic error in the algorithm's modeling -> syste
matic non-random bias added to random estimation errors
- propose explicit formulas of the degrading effects in 3d source localization
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L.J.Ziomek - Three Necessary Conditions for the Validity of the Fresnel Phase Ap
proximation for the Near-Field Beam Pattern of an Aperture - IEEE J. of Oceanic
Engineering, vol.18, n.1, 1993
- Fresnel diffraction integral is defined as near-field directivity function of
an array
- perform 2nd order binomial expansion of the range term in the phase factor of
free field Green's function
- derive region of validity for the Fresnel approximation
-

binomial expansion of the range term

use first expansion term to approximate the amplitude term
use first 2 terms to approximate the phase
first necessary condition: 72<phi<108 = paraxial ray assumption
second recessary condition: r>1.356R

- far field criterion: r>pi R^2/lambda>1.356R

- near field criterion: 1.356 R < r < pi R^2/lambda (third necessary condition)
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A.J.Devaney and G.C.Sherman - Plane-Wave Reprsentations for Scalar Wave Fields SIAM Review vol.15, n.4, Oct. 1973
- fields that satisfy the homogeneous wave equation are represented by integral
expansions of monochromatic plane waves all propagating with same speed
i) each expansion term is a solution to wave equation -> can be dealt wi
th individually as physical entity
ii) simple form (in contrast to spherical, cylindrical functions), diffe
ring each other only by change in temporal frequency and direction of propagatio
n
iii) solution for 1 PW leads to solution for all PWs
iv) in certain regions of the space-time domain, PW expansion can be inv
erted to determine PW amplitudes for knowledge of the field
- PW representations related to 4d Fourier transform -> superposition of functio
n exp(i(vec(k) vec(r) -omega t))
i) 4D-FT is a four-fold integral over kx, ky, kz, omega -> exp function
is not in general a solution to homogeneous wave equation with fixed wave speed
ii) PW expansions are three-fold integrals with kx, ky, kz, omega constr
ained by a dispersion relation -> exp function is a solution to hom. wave eq. wi
th fixed wave speed
iii) 4D-T can be used to represent arbitrary L2 function, while PW expan
sions can represent a more restricted class of functions
- Whittaker: field that satisfies hom. wave eq. with speed c in space-time regio
n D can be represented in D as 3-fold integral
i) PW of the form F(k,alpha,beta)exp(ik(xsin(alpha)cos(beta)+ysin(alpha)
sin(beta)+zcos(alpha)-ct)), omega in (-inf,inf), alpha in [0,pi], beta in [-pi,p
i]
ii) valid if field can be expanded in 4D Traylor series convergent in D
iii) does not provide method to determine PW amplitudes
iv) highly restrictive condition, e.g. monocromatic spherical wave in re
gion D which does not contain the center of the wave can't be expanded for all t
imes in Whittaker form
v) contains only homogeneous PWs travelling in all directions
- Weyl: spherical wave can be expanded in PW form over a different domain of int
egration
i) alpha integration over a complex contour: portion of the real axis th
en toward -i inf
ii) exp(ik(xsin(alpha)cos(beta)+ysin(alpha)sin(beta)+zcos(alpha)-ct)) st
ill satisfies the hom. wave eq. when alpha is complex, but it is no longer const
ant on plane surfaces
iii) phase and amplitude are constant on different planes -> inhomogeneo
us plane waves
iv) spherical wave expanded as superposition of homogeneous and inhomoge
neous plane waves -> angular spectrum
v) contains homogeneous PWs traveling only into one half-space
- Employ 4D-FT to obtain 2 3D integral expansions
a) PW amplitude varies with time
b) PW amplitude varies with position
- Assumptions:
i) Source bounded to a region of space time: t in [0,T], r>=R
ii) Cauchy conditions: field V(r,t) = 0 at t=0; time derivative V_t(r,t)
= 0 at t=0
iii) Field continuous and with continuous first partial derivatives
- Under assumptions i,ii,iii the wave eq has unique solution obtained via Green
function techniques -> retarded Green function (2.4)

- V = int_(over source spatial region) int_(when source is active) sourc

e function * retarded Green function (2.5)
- 4D-FT (better: Laplace transform) of retarded Green function: int_(line distan
t eps above real omega axis) int_(wavenumbers) function with pole in k=omega/c (
2.6)
- function with pole in k=omega/c is equal to 4D-FT of source function *
function with pole in k=omega/c (2.7)
- 4D-FT of source function computed over the region in the space-time do
main where the source is active (2.8)
- a) omega integration
- lead to expansion of V in terms of homogeneous PWs with time-dependent
amplitude (2.12)
- in general does not satisfy hom. wave eq. even in regions of space whe
re the source is inactive
- expansion can be found employing Duhamel's principle [19, par. 11.2]
- transform from Cartesian to spherical polar coordinates of the integra
tion variables
- V = real part of int_(positive real frequencies) int_(azimuth)
int_(elevation) source function * exp (2.13)
- frequency and directions of propagation of the PWs are the var
iables of integration
- b) integration over one Cartesian component
- leads to expansion in terms of monocromatic PWs with variable amplitud
es
- in general does not satisfy hom. wave eq. because PW amplitude depends
on z (spatially dependent)
- phase of PWs is real only over part of the domain of integration
i) homogeneous waves: purely oscillatory, constant modulus
ii= inhomogeneous waves: propagate in directions perpendicular t
o z axis and have modulus which depends exponentially on z
- transform to spherical polar coordinates of the integration variables
- V = real part of int_(homogeneous waves) + real part of int_(i
nhomogeneous waves) (2.24)
- frequency and direction of propagation are variables of integr
ation
- Expansion a) reduces to Whittaker valid over all space for times after the sou
rce has ceased to radiate; b) reduces to Weyl valid for all times in half spaces
that do not include the source
- PW amplitudes are determined in terms of the source
- Relationship between the 2 expansions in regions where both are valid:
- if the source has ceased to radiate and considering only the half-spac
e where there are no sources, inhomog. waves in Weyl are equal to a superpositio
n of homog. waves in Whittaker
a) source has ceased to radiate
- V = real part of int_(wavenumbers) 4D-FT of source function * exp / k
(3.2)
- PW amplitude independent on observation point -> Whittaker exp
ansion valid for all points in space and for times t >= T
- transform to spherical coordinates to get integration variables as fre
quency and directions of propagation -> (3.3)
b) half-space with no sources
- V = real part of int_(real omega) \int_(kx, ky) exp * mod 4D-FT of sou
rce function / gamma (3.5)
- PW amplitude independent of observation point -> Weyl expansio
n
- transform to spherical polar coordinates -> (3.6)
- Whittaker representation includes homog. PWs which are not present in the Weyl
representation: only PWs propagating into half space z>0 occur in Weyl, Pws pro
pagating in all directions occur in Whittaker

- Compare (3.3) and (3.6): PW amplitudes are identical, integration contour dif
fers
- in common domain of validity t>=T and abs(z)>R superposition of inhomo
g. PWs in Weyl is equivalent to superposition of homog. PWs in Whittaker propaga
ting in half-space not containing observation point
- inhomog. PWs decay exponentially with abs(z) -> superposition gives de
creasing contribution as abs(z) increases
- if t>=T and abs(z)>=R superposition of homog. PWs towards source give
decreasing contribution to the total field as abs(z) increases
- Extend Whittaker expansion in restricted regions of space during times while s
ource is radiating
- Obtain PW amplitudes in terms of source function and time intervals of validit
y
- Fields with which we are dealing are not, in general, analytic -> need not adm
it Taylor series expansions in domains of interest
- Start with retarded Green function representation for the field (2.5)
- V = int_(source spatial region) retarded source function / distance (4
.1)
- a source confined in r<=R produces effects on observation point r only
in the time interval t-(r+R)/c <= t' <= t-(r-R)/c
- consider the region (4.7) t in [0, t0+(r0-R)/c], r in [r0,inf] (r0>R a
nd t0 arbitrary), define function which is equal to the source in the time inter
val t' in [0,t0] -> (4.3)
- source function rho bounded in space-time produces same effect
of alternative source bounded only in time
- V = int_(space-time region where source is active) source function * r
etarded Green's function - int_(space-time region where source is active) source
function * advanced Green function -> (4.8)
- 4D-FT of advanced Green function -> (4.9) -> (4.10) V = int_(contour C
) int_(wavenumbers) source function in [0,t0] / poles * exp
- (4.11) V = real part of int_(wavenumbers) source function in [0,t0] at
omega=ck * exp / k, hold at all observation points that satisfy (4.7)
- transform to spherical polar coordinates in integration variables -> (
4.12)
- (4.11) and (4.12) can be used to represent the field at any observatio
n point outside the spatial region occupied by the source, valid at all space-ti
me points that satisfy (4.7)
- Field admits a PW espansion of Whittaker type in some region about every space
-time point that lies outside the space-time region occupied by the source
- in restricted space-time domains some PW do not contribute to the field -> exp
licit expressions to determine which PW can be ignored
- inhomogeneous PW in Weyl expansion and homog. PWs propagating towards the sour
ce in Whittaker do not contribute to the field in certain unbounded regions of s
pace-time (as abs(z) increases and as t increases)
[19] P.M.Morse and H.Feshback, Methods of Mathematical Physics, vols I and II, M
cGraw-Hill, New York, 1953
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M.Nieto-Vesperinas - Incoming and Outgoing Components of Source-Free Wavefields,
Opt.Comm. 67, n.6, 1988
- source free fields are expressed by Whittaker representation
- Whittaker representation can be generalized for outgoing radiating sources and
scattered fields [3,4] (Weyl representation)
- equating Whittaker with Weyl in common domain of validity we obtain that homog
. PWs in Whittaker propagating towards the source contribute equally to inhomog.

PWs in Weyl
- focus on the contribution of incoming fields (bandlimited to homog. components
), extend angular spectrum representation in complex alpha-plane for incoming fi
elds
- a source free-field represented by Whittaker expansion can be considered as st
anding field = superposition of incoming and outcoming each with Weyl representa
tion
- Source free field Usf satisfies Helmholtz eq. (1)
- represented everywhere in terms of angular spectrum by means of Whitta
ker expansion (2)
- Outgoing field Ud generated by source distribution rho satisfies inhomogeneous
Helmholtz eq. (5)
- expressed by integral (6)
- Outgoing spherical wave expressed in Weyl form (7)
- polar angle alpha is compex and takes values on the contours D+ and D- Weyl representation for the outgoing field generated by rho -> (8), wh
ose angular spectrum is given by (9)
- PW amplitude defined by (9) is valid everywhere in the complex alpha-p
lane
- values of Ud are obtained in R+ or in R- by taking boundary va
lues of A along the contours D+ or D- Incoming field satisfy (5) but are subjectied to boundary condition of behavin
g as a convergent spherical wave at inf -> rho given by (4) represents a sink an
d not a source
- Uc given by (10)
- Weyl representation of incoming spherical wave in (11) proven in Appen
dix, different contours of integration C+ and C- angular spectrum for incoming fields due to sink rho is given in (12),
A is given in (9)
- In both cases, A is the 3D-FT of the distribution rho
- if rho is real, Uc = hermitian(Ud)
- inhomogeneous components contribution of contours C+ and C- are the sa
me of thos of D+ and D- Given rho, one obtains A from (9) and from A one can construct
- Usf through Whittaker representation (2) everywhere
- Ud choosing contours D through Weyl representation (8) in R+
- Uc choosing contours C thorugh Weyl representation (12) in R- Inspecting the alpha-contours of integration in (2), (8), (12) we have Usf=(1/
2i)(Ud-Uc) (13)
- the integration along the complex alpha-part of the contours cancels
- A source free field is the standing field obtained by the difference between a
n outgoing field and an incoming field
- each of these fields are generated from the corresponding boundary val
ues of the same angular spectrum
- Contribution of the homogeneous waves of Whittaker propagating into z<L is equ
al to the contribution of inhomogeneous waves of Weyl
- incoming field vanishes in R+
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T.B.Hansen - Exact Plane-Wave Expansion With Directional Spectrum - IEEE Trans.
on Antennas and Propagation, vol.62, n.8, 2014