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Bernoulli Equation
Hazen-Williams Equation
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Moody Diagram
Hydrant Flow Equation
Water Tank Hydraulics
Booster Pump Hydraulics
Pump Curves
Fire Sprinkler K-Factors
Hydraulic Simulation Models
Hydraulic Calculations and Fire Sprinkler Design
Computers as Hydraulic Models
Glossary
where:
z1 & z2 are the elevations at locations 1 and 2, also called the elevation head (ft).
r1 & r2 are the pressures at locations 1 and 2 (lbs/ft2).
g is the specific density of water (62.4 lbs/ft3. )
n1 & n2 are the velocities at locations 1 and 2 (ft/sec).
g is the constant of gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec2. )
hL is the Darcy-Weisbach estimate of headloss due to friction (ft).
Bernoulli was a friend and intellectual rival of legendary physicist Sir Isaac Newton. J.L. Lagrange (1736-1813) was the first to present the
modern form of the equation in his book Mechanique Analytique published in 1788. Lagrange also listed the assumptions required for the Bernoulli
equation to work. The Bernoulli equation assumes that the fluid and device meet 4 Lagrangian assumptions:
1. The fluid is incompressible
2. The fluid is inviscid
3. The flow is steady
4. The flow is along a streamline
Most liquids meet the incompressible assumption and many gases can even be treated as incompressible if their density varies only slightly along
a streamline from point 1 to point 2. The steady flow requirement is usually not too hard to achieve for situations typically analyzed by the Bernoulli
equation. Steady flow means that the flow rate (i.e. discharge) does not vary with time. The inviscid fluid requirement implies that the fluid has no
viscosity. All fluids have viscosity although viscous effects are negligible over short distances. The Bernoulli equation is important because it
incorporates the major parameteric components used to describe and analyze the flow of any fluid through pipes or conduits under pressure.
In the Bernoulli equation, fluid flow occurs in response to differences in pressure between two points in a flow stream. Since our experience and
intuition often confirms that water tends to flow downhill, the difference in elevation z (ft), between two points in the flow stream is the first component.
The fluid column pressure r (lbs/ft2) is the second component. It is divided by the specific weight of the fluid g (62.4 lbs/ft3), to make it consistent with
the linear units used in expressing the elevation component. The sum of the two is referred to as the piezometric head or the hydraulic grade line. The
third component in the Bernoulli equation is velocity pressure n 2/2g. The sum of the three components, the total head available to the fluid, is called
the energy grade line. There is also a head loss component hL which appears on the right side of the equation.
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C
140
130
100
110
130
60
120
130
130
140
150
140
120
100
100
130
110
The lower the C-factor, the higher the headloss due to pipe friction. The C-factor tends to decrease over time due to pitting and tuberculation on
the internal surface of the pipe. The Hazen-Williams equation is the most widely used method for estimating headloss due to friction in pipes.
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The Moody Diagram is a graphical plot of laminar and turbulent flow in pipes as described by the Colebrook-White
equation. The one depicted here is a family of curves drawn on logarithmically scaled axes. The right vertical axis is
relative roughness(e/D) or the ratio of absolute roughness(Sq-ft/sec) to pipe internal diameter(ft). The Reynolds
Number(R) is on the horizontal axis. The Moody f is on the left vertical axis.
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Pump Curves
Pump curves are graphical plots of pump pressure (TOTAL HEAD IN PSI
on the vertical axis) in relation to pump flow (FLOW IN GPM on the
horizontal axis). The pump churn pressure or shut-off is the point on the
pump curve where it intercepts the vertical axis. At churn pressure the pump
flow is 0 gpm. The rated pressure and rated flow are points on the pump
curve established by the manufacturer at a given motor speed (rpm), impeller
size (inches) and suction pressure (psi). With the impeller fully submerged,
the Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHr) is the suction pressure
required for the pump to perform as depicted by the pump curve. Pump
curves are reliable indicators of pump performance if the NPSHa measured
in the field meets or exceeds the NPSHr. If the NPSHa drops below the
NPSHr, pump performance is degraded and in extreme cases can lead to
cavitation and pump failure. Under field conditions, the available suction
pressure or Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHa) is affected by
pressure losses due to friction, hose demands, backflow preventers and
elevation changes in the piping connecting the water supply source to the
suction side of the pump. The lower the NPSHa, the greater the required
pump rated pressure and vice versa. The easiest way to increase NPSHa is
to increase the pipe size on the suction side of the pump.
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Glossary
Static Pressure (psi) - measured by a pressure gage installed on a hydrant during a hydrant flow test.
Residual Pressure (psi) - measured by a pressure gage on a hydrant flowing full. When the hydrant is flowed the gage registers a drop in
pressure. Sometimes multiple hydrants on the same water main must be flowed in order to register an appreciable drop in gage pressure.
Flow (gpm) - measured by a pitot gage held in the center of the flow stream of a hydrant flowing full. Static, Residual and Flow are usually
measured as part of a hydrant flow test conducted by fire departments and water utilities. The resulting curve usually plots as a flow of zero gpm
at a positive value of Static pressure and slopes downward to the right.
Density (gpm/sq ft) - a design criterion for flow required in the most demanding part of the fire sprinkler system.
Area Per Sprinkler (sq ft) - a design criterion for the maximum area covered by a single sprinkler in the design area.
Design Flow (gpm) - the flow obtained by multiplying Density by the Area Per Sprinkler.
Design Area (sq ft) - the total area covered by sprinklers that must be included in the hydraulic calculation. The hydraulic calculation must
include all sprinklers located in the design area.
K-Factor - a dimensionless number (no units) expressing a sprinkler flow coefficient. The flow from a given sprinkler can be determined by
multiplying the K-Factor by the square root of the pressure at the sprinkler.
Starting Pressure (psi) - obtained by solving for pressure based on design flow and K-Factor. It is the pressure expected at the most remote
sprinkler based on a given design flow and sprinkler K-Factor.
Required Pressure (psi) - the total pressure required to operate the sprinkler system so that it equals the starting pressure, and required flow, at
the most remote sprinkler.
Available Pressure (psi) - the total pressure on the water supply curve corresponding to the required sprinkler flow at the most remote sprinkler.
The difference between Available Pressure (AP) and Required Pressure (RP) is commonly referred to as the "pressure cushion". When RP
exceeds AP we have a negative pressure cushion.
Vapor Pressure (psi) - varies with water temperature e.g. at 60F the saturation vapor pressure of water is 0.26 psi. It is estimated using the
Goff-Gratch equation for saturation vapor pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure (psi) - the pressure exerted by the overlying column of air varies with altitude e.g. at sea level, 0' ASL, the atmospheric
pressure is 14.7 psi.
Reynolds Number - a dimensionless indicator of turbulence related to pipe diameter, flow velocity and kinematic viscosity.
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