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Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Springs
Outline
Spring characteristic
Types of spring (Italian: molla, German: feder)
Spring systems
Usage of springs
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Torsion bar
Leaf spring
Belleville
spring
Compression spring
Volute spring
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Spring Rate
It is the relation between force and displacement (or momentrotation)
The characteristic parameter is the elastic constant or spring
stiffness k:
F (M)
f ()
k (kT)
F=kf
M = kT
Force (Moment)
Displacement (or deflection) (Rotation)
Stiffness (Stiffness)
(N) (N m)
(m) (rad)
(N/m) (N m/rad)
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Spring Rate
Different Characteristics
The characteristic can be of type:
Linear
Hardening
Softening
hardening
F (M)
linear
softening
f ( )
Torsion Springs
Torsion Bar
max =
=
Mt
Fr
= 3
wt d 16
Support, to
remove
bending
clamp
M tl
Frl
=
GI p G d 4 32
32 Fr l
d 4G
F Gd 4
E
, G=
k= =
2
2(1 + )
f 32r l
f = r =
Mt
rigid
arm
l
f
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Torsion Springs
Torsion Bar
Torsion load (torque) is applied by means of a spline
A wide fillet radius is necessary to avoid stress concentration
in the diameter variation
Torsion bar with splines at
the ends (type used in
automotive suspensions)
Spline
Wide fillet radius
Spline
Torsion Springs
Torsion Bar
Other solutions for the ends of torsion bars
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Helical Springs
Definitions
They can be considered as torsion bars
helically wound around a cylinder of
diameter D = 2 r
According to the direction of the load,
they are improperly called:
L0
Helical Springs
Loads Acting on the Wire
Load on the
wire
M
N
F
Definitions
Leq =
C=
N
D
N DN equivalent length
cos
D
d
D
D
F
2
2
V = F cos F
D
M = F sin 0
2
N = F sin 0
T = F cos
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Helical Springs
Formulas
Corrections to the torsion bar formulas:
Fr
8 FD
8 FC
= KW
= KW
3
3
d 16
d
d 2
max = KW
f = KW '
Fr 2 Leq
d G 32
4
= KW '
8 FD 3 N
8 FC 3 N
= KW '
4
Gd
Gd
For 6 C 12:
4c 1 0.615
+
(Wahl factor)
KW ' = 1
C
4c 4
For C < 6 the spring is too rigid and the material overstressed
For C > 12 the spring is too compliant and the material poorly
used
KW =
Helical Springs
Formulas
KW =
4c 1 0.615
+
C
4c 4
(Wahl factor)
KW ' = 1
1.8
1.7
1.6
Kw
Kw
Kw, Kw
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
2
10
C=D/d
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Helical Springs
Meaning of Correction Factors
Torsion
Torsion bar,
bar, with
with straight
straight axis
axis
max,tors =
4c 1 F ( D / 2 )
4c 4 d 3 16
max,tors = 1.23
F
0.615 F (D / 2 )
=
2
d 4
C d 3 16
Helical Springs
Effective Coils Number
For a given value of the stiffness k the required effective
number of coils N can be obtained from the force-deflection
relation:
8 FC 3 N F
f = KW '
=
Gd
k
k=
Gd
8 KW ' C 3 N
k=
Gd
8C 3 N
N=
Gd
8C 3 k
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Helical Springs
Spring Lengths
Helical Springs
Spring Lengths
The (linear) elastic spring action must hold even at the
maximum design load
To this aim, it is necessary not to bring the spring to its solid
height when all coils are packed together
This is obtained by assuring that a minimum clearance
remains between each couple of coils:
LF max LS + g res i
g res
d
4
Residual clearance
between active coils
Notice that when the length at maximum load LFmax and the
deflection fmax are defined, the free length L0 is determined
and, consequently, the pitch p
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Helical Springs
Length under the Action of the External Load
Fmax
Fs
i gres
LFmin
LFmax
Ls
Fmin
L0
Given d, i & k
nom = KW
8 FD
adm
d 3
adm = 0.5 Rm
d (mm)
Rm (MPa)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
10
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
nom = KW
adm = 0.9
8 FD
adm
d 3
R p 0.2
3
Material
Rm (MPa)
Rp0.2 (MPa)
A%
C40
C60
C70
C75
C90
C100
50Si7
55Si8
60SiCr8
50CrV4
52SiCrNi8
1200-1550
1250-1550
1300-1600
1350-1600
1350-1650
1350-1650
1300-1600
1400-1700
1500-1750
1400-1700
1600-1850
1050
1050
1050
1050
1100
1100
1150
1250
1350
1250
1350
8
6
5
5
4
4
7
5
5
6
5
Material
ASTM
No.
Exponent
m
Diameter (mm)
minimum
A,
Relative Cost of
m
wire
maximum MPa mm
Music wire
A228
0.145
0.1
6.5
2211
2.6
OQ&T wire
A229
0.187
0.5
12.7
1855
1.3
Hard-drawn wire
A227
0.190
0.7
12.7
1783
1.0
Chrome-vanadium wire
A232
0.168
0.8
11.1
2005
3.1
4.0
Chrome-silicon wire
A401
0.108
1.6
9.5
1974
A313
0.146
0.3
2.5
1867
0.263
2.5
2065
2911
Phosphor-bronze wire
B159
0.478
10
0.1
0.6
926
0.028
0.6
913
0.064
7.5
932
7.6-11.0
8.0
11
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
3500
3000
2500
A228
A229
2000
A227
1500
A232
A401
1000
A313
B159
500
0
0
5
10
Wire diameter, d (mm)
15
3000
2500
2000
Grade A
1500
Grade B
Grades C & D
1000
500
0
0
10
15
Wire diameter, d (mm)
20
25
12
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Elastic Limit,
Percent of Sut
Material
Tension
Torsion
65-75
45-60
60-70
45-55
85-90
45-50
Diameter
(mm)
<0.8
0.8-1.6
1.61-3
>3
<0.8
0.8-1.6
1.61-3
>3
E (GPa)
G (GPa)
82.7
81.7
81
80
80.7
80
79.3
78.6
77.2
77.2
77.2
77.2
77.2
69
75.8
77.2
77.2
79.3
41.4
44.8
50.3
77.2
88-93
65-75
85-93
65-75
203.4
200
196.5
193
198.6
197.9
197.2
196.5
196.5
203.4
203.4
203.4
203.4
65-75
75-80
65-70
65-75
72-76
75-180
70
75
65-70
45-55
55-60
42-55
45-55
50-55
45-50
50
50-55
40-45
193
208.4
200
200
206
103.4
117.2
131
213.7
Material
45
6070
50
6575
35
5565
Nonferrous alloys
35
5565
13
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
0.7
a / Rm
0.6
Cycles
0.54
0.5
103
104
105
106
0.39
0.4
0.3
0.29
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
m / Rm
a (MPa)
600
400
200
(345, 345)
(255,255)
Infinite life without
shot-peening
0
0
200
400
862
600
800
m (MPa)
965
1000
14
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
nom = KW F
With:
8D
adm
d 3
adm = bd 0 bt min
F = Fmax Fmin
8Fmin D
d 3
4C 1 0.615
+
Wahl factor
KW =
4C 4
C
0 Tabulated limit value
min = K s
bd , bt
Tabulated coefficients
KS = 1+
0.5 2C + 1
=
Shear - stress correction factor (10 - 4) Shigley
2C
C
nom = KW F
(MPa)
b
d (mm)
1-5
6
7
8
10
12
14
17
8D
adm
d 3
adm = bd 0 b min
Valve spring
steels
shot
peened
450
570
0.27
0.26
1
1
0.97
-
15
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
8D
adm
d 3
Tabulated limit value for pulsating fatigue (Fmin = 0)
nom = K w F
adm
F = Fmax Fmin
KW =
4C 1 0.615
+
C
4C 4
Wahl factor
Laminated steel
Rectified steel
120
110
100
90
80
adm (MPa)
320
290
260
230
200
d (mm)
10
20
30
40
50
Shot-peened
rectified steel
380
345
310
275
240
C2'
'
Fcrit = kycr = kL0C1 1 1 2 = kL0 K L
eff
Fcrit
C2'
'
ycr =
= L0C1 1 1 2 = L0 K L
k
eff
Where is:
L
effective slenderness ratio
eff = 0
D
1 +
E
=
C1' =
2(E G ) 1 + 2
2 (E G )
1 + 2
=2
2G + E
2 +
(10-10)
(10-11)
C2' =
16
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
F
C'
(10-10)
ycr = crit = L0C1' 1 1 22 = L0 K L
k
eff
End condition
Constant
0.5
0.707
Fcrit = kL0 K L
Practical values
L0 / D
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
17
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
m,spring = m
d
G
1 gk
=
(10-25)
2
2 W D N 8
To avoid this problem, the spring resonance frequency must
be more than 15-20 times the frequency of the load
f1,spring =
Helical Springs
Design Procedure
It is an iterative process
Usually, these data are known:
Tentative
choice
modifications
No
F Fmax
=
f
f max
verification
Ok
Stop
max = KW
8 Fmax D
8F C
= KW max2
3
d
d
18
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Helical Springs
Design Procedure
5) Perform static check:
Tentative
choice
modifications
verification
No
Gd
Ok
Spring Systems
Springs in Parallel
Springs in parallel have the same deflection:
F1 = k1 f1 , F2 = k 2 f 2
f = f1 = f 2 , F = F1 + F2
F = (k1 + k 2 ) f = kf
k = k1 + k 2
Equivalent stiffness
spring 1
spring 2
k = ki
i =1
19
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Spring Systems
Springs in Series
Springs in series have the same applied load:
F1 = k1 f1 , F2 = k 2 f 2
f = f1 + f 2 , F = F1 = F2
F
F F 1 1
f = 1 + 2 = + F =
k
k1 k1 k1 k 2
1 1 1
Equivalent stiffness
= +
k k1 k 2
spring 1
spring 2
1 m 1
=
k i =1 ki
Helical Springs
Extension Springs
The critical point is the hook (bending+torsion)
Small curvature radii bring high stress concentrations
Figure 10-6
Types of ends used
on extension springs
Figure 10-7
Ends for extension springs. (a) Usual design; stress at A is due to the
combined axial force and bending moment. (b) side view of part a, stress is
mostly torsion at B; (c) improved design; stress at A is due to combined axial
force and bending moment. (d) Side view of part c; stress at B is mostly torsion
20
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Helical Springs
Extension Springs
Extension spring are made with the coils in contact and preloaded during
construction. They require an initial force F0 before deformation occurs.
Usually F0 is chosen to have an internal stress of i 15 MPa:
Fi =
d 2
i =
d 3
8C
8D
L0 = ( N + 1)d + 2 0.8 Di
F=
Gdf
+ Fi
8C 3 N
Figure 10-7
(a) Geometry of the force F and
extension y curve of an extension
spring; (b) geometry of the
extension spring; and (c) torsional
stresses due to initial tension as a
function of spring index C in
helical extension springs.
p3
p2
p1
21
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Table 10-9
Torsion springs
Total Coils
Tolerance: Degrees*
Up to 3
Over 3 to 10
10
Over 10 to 20
15
Over 20 to 30
20
Over 30
25
32 M
32 Fl
= Ki / o
3
d
d 3
6M
6 Fl
= Ki / o 2 = Ki / o 2
bh
bh
2
4C C 1
4C 2 + C 1
Ki =
Ko =
4C (C 1)
4C (C + 1)
= Ki / o
k=
Fl
d 4E
64 DN a
N a = Nb +
l1 + l2
3D
22
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
0.78S ut
S y = 0.87 Sut
0.61S
ut
1 a
Fs =
2 Se
Sut
Table 10-10
Maximum recommended
bending stresses for
helical torsion springs in
cyclic applications as
percent of Sut
1 + 1 + 2 m S e
S
ut a
Fatigue
life,
cycles
(10-61)
Not shot-peened
Shot-peened
Not shot-peened
Shot-peened
105
53
62
55
64
106
50
60
53
62
Bending Springs
Cantilever Springs
Used when the elastic element must work in limited space
They behave as clamped plates, they are subjected to bending
According to the shape (rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal)
they can have good utilization factors
Material utilization factor of a spring is the ratio between the
energy stored in the spring and the theoretical (maximum)
amount of energy that can be stored in an equal volume of
material (subject to pure uniform tension)
23
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Utilization factor, m
1/3
>1/9
<1/3
1/9
1/2
<1/2
Bending Springs
Rectangular Cantilever Spring
Mf
wf
Mf
d =
EI
f = x
0
k=
b0 h 2 6
dx =
Fx
dx
EI
, I=
b0
dx
Fx
Fl
dx =
3EI
EI
3EI
l3
Fx
F
x
b0 h 3
12
24
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Bending Springs
Increasing Utilization of the Material
Stress is not uniform and equal to the
Fl
max ( x = l ) =
maximum value max:
b0 h 2 6
The spring utilization is not optimal
It would be convenient to use a spring said to have uniform
strength, that is with constant value of max along the axis:
Fx
max = 2 = constant
bh 6
This can be achieved by either:
1) Varying the thickness along the longitudinal axis
h2 x
(parabolic spring) while maintaining constant width
2) Varying the width along the longitudinal axis
b x
(triangular spring) and maintaining constant thickness
The second option is generally preferred due to simpler manufacturing
Bending Springs
Triangular Cantilever Spring
b = b0
x
l
Fx
Fl
=
= cost
2
x 2
b
h
6
0
b0 h 6
l
Fl 3
f =
2 EI
b h3
2 EI
k= 3 , I= 0
l
12
b0
dx
F
x
h
l
25
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Bending Springs
Triangular Cantilever Spring (constructed)
I ( x) =
b( x ) h 3
12
b( x ) = b0
x
l
1 M
12 Fl
Fx
=
=
=
= constant
r EI Eb x h 3 12 Eb0 h 3
0
l
Radius of curvature is
constant: deformed
shape follows an arc of
circumference
Bending Springs
Trapezoidal Cantilever Spring
3
3b0
=
2 + b0 ' b0 2b0 + b0 '
Fx
Fl
, max =
2
bh 6
b0 h 2 6
Fl
3EI
3EI
b h3
k= 3 , I= 0
l
12
f =
b0
2b0
9(b0 + b0 ')
dx
h
l
F
x
b0
26
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Bending Springs
The Leaf Spring
Can be considered deriving from a
couple of trapezoidal spring
It reduces the transverse space
with respect to the simple
trapezoidal shape
It is made of overlapping leafs of
different length and with the same
width b0
Each leaf can be seen as two joined
half-leafs symmetrical with respect
to the middle
Originally called laminated or
carriage spring (balestra =
crossbow)
f/2
h
e/2
d/2
c/2
b/2
a
b0
b0
c 2
a
d
c
b0
2l
a
Bending Springs
The Leaf Spring
Elliptic
shackle
tie hole or eye
axle
Semi-elliptic
rebound clip
- elliptic
- elliptic
Transverse
27
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Bending Springs
Leaf Spring Analysis
In a triangular cantilever spring the deformed shape is an arc of
circumference
in the leaf spring it is reasonable to assume that the leafs maintain the
same behavior, and same deformation
The total clamping moment is:
M = FL
In each leaf, the applied moment is:
M leaf =
M
n
n, number of leafs
b0 / n
M leaf
Wleaf
6( M n) 6 FL
=
(b0 n)h 2 b0 h 2
Bending Springs
Leaf Spring Design
As a first approximation the evaluation of the maximum
stress and deflection can be referred to the equivalent
trapezoidal spring (n, number of leafs):
b0 ' 1
b0 h 3
3
=
,
= b0 = nb0 ' , I =
2 + b0 ' b0
b0 n
12
f =
Fl 3
Fl
3EI
, max =
, k= 3
2
l
3EI
b0 h 6
28
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Bending Springs
Leaf Spring Design
Correction for reduction of stress and deflection due to the non-linearity
% reduction of
% reduction of f
14
12
b0'
=0
b0
Triangular
shape
10
6
4
= 0.2
14
= 0.4
= 0.6
= 0.8
b0'
=1
b0
12
Rectangular
shape
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
b0'
=0
b0
= 0.2
= 0.4
= 0.6
18
Triangular
shape
16
20
10
8
= 0.8
b0'
=1
b0
6
4
Fl
EI
2
0
0
0.2
0.4
Rectangular
shape
Fl 2
0.6 0.8 1 EI
Belleville Springs
(molle a tazza or molle Belleville)
Also known as coned-disc spring, conical spring washer, disc
spring, Belleville washers or cupped spring washer
d
t
h
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.41
1.6
2.00
2.50
2.83
3.50
1.4
F / F0
h/s
1.8
2.0
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Stiffness vary with displacement:
0.2
they are typical non-linear springs
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Stiffness value is taken as the value
f/h
at zero force
Since a single disc spring is often too stiff, it is possible to have
more compliance by linking springs in series or in parallel
29
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Belleville Springs
Usage in Series and in Parallel
Parallel = stiffer
Mixed = adaptive
Progressive
Coned-disc Springs
Clutch Discs and Other Applications
30
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Miscellaneous Springs
Spiral Springs
Loaded in bending; they are used in measurement devices
Usually with rectangular wire section and archimedean profile
5 turns spring, external
end hinged
5 turns spring
5 turns
5 turns
spring,
spring,
external
external
end
end
hinged
hinged
Dimensionless Stifness
5 turns spring,
external end hinged
Miscellaneous Springs
Spiral Springs
With a high number of turns (n > 4):
M = Pro or M = Pri
6M
external end clamped
bh 2
12 Pro
=
external end hinged
bh 2
M MI
k=
=
El
r2 r2
h+a
l= o i m=
2m
2
ro = ri + (h + a )n
ro
ri
a
h
n=2
31
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Miscellaneous Springs
Friction Springs
Made of a series of overlying thin rings of two types, alternated:
Internal, with external tapered surfaces (internal surface cylindrical)
External, with internal tapered surfaces (external surface cylindrical)
Miscellaneous Springs
Friction Springs
Due to the relative displacements between the ring surfaces, friction
occurs
The spring, once compressed (OA), does not return to its original shape
unless the force is reduced below a restore force FR (point B)
The area OAB represent dissipated energy
These springs are used in heavy duty situations under shock loading
Parallel and serial arrangements are also possible
A
Parallel arrangement
Serial arrangement
B
O
32
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Miscellaneous Springs
Pure Compression Springs
Exploiting the low elastic modulus of plastics it has been
possible to obtain pure compression springs
They are usually made of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPUR,
also used for gaskets, O-rings, etc.)
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
low temperature range (from -30C to +90C)
Miscellaneous Springs
Pure Compression Springs
Typical compression spring characteristics
Data can be obtained from the manufacturers catalogs
600
0.14
Stress (MPa)
Tensione
(MPa)
Load (N)
Forza
(N)
0.12
500
400
300
12.5 mm
19.0 mm
25.4 mm
31.8 mm
200
100
0.1
0.08
0.06
12.5 mm
19.0 mm
25.4 mm
31.8 mm
0.04
0.02
0
0
10
12
Stroke(mm)
(mm)
Corsa
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
33
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Figure 10-14
Constant-force spring
A volute spring
34
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
35
Massimiliano Avalle
Massimo Rossetto
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento di Meccanica
36