Spanish expeditions and colonization

Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines on March 17, 1521.

Although the archipelago may have been visited before by the Portuguese (see First Europeans in
the Philippines), the earliest documented European expedition to the Philippine was that led
by Ferdinand Magellan, in the service of the king of Spain. The expedition first sighted the mountains
of Samar at dawn on the 16th March 1521, making landfall the following day at the small,
uninhabited island of Homonhon at the mouth of the Leyte Gulf.[1] On Easter Sunday, 31 March
1521, at Limasawa Island, Southern Leyte (as what is stated in Pigafetta's Primo Viaggio Intorno El
Mondo (First Voyage Around the World), Magellan solemnly planted a cross on the summit of a hill
overlooking the sea and claimed possession of the islands he had seen for the king of Spain,
naming them Archipelago of Saint Lazarus.[2]
Magellan sought alliances among the natives beginning with Datu Zula, the chieftain of Sugbu
(now Cebu), and took special pride in converting them to Catholicism. Magellan's expedition got
involved in the political rivalries between the Cebuano natives and took part in a battle againstLapuLapu, chieftain of Mactan island and a mortal enemy of Datu Zula. At dawn on 27 April 1521,
Magellan invaded Mactan Island with 60 armed men and 1,000 Cebuano warriors, but had great
difficulty landing his men on the rocky shore. Lapu-Lapu had an army of 1,500 on land. Magellan
waded ashore with his soldiers and attacked the Mactan defenders, ordering Datu Zula and his
warriors to remain aboard the ships and watch. Magellan seriously underestimated the Lapu-Lapu
and his men, and grossly outnumbered, Magellan and 14 of his soldiers were killed. The rest
managed to reboard the ships. (See Battle of Mactan)
The battle left the expedition with too few crewmen to man three ships, so they abandoned the
"Concepcin". The remaining ships - "Trinidad" and "Victoria" - sailed to the Spice Islands in presentday Indonesia. From there, the expedition split into two groups. The Trinidad, commanded by
Gonzalo Gmez de Espinoza tried to sail eastward across the Pacific Ocean to the Isthmus of
Panama. Disease and shipwreck disrupted Espinoza's voyage and most of the crew died. Survivors
of the Trinidad returned to the Spice Islands, where the Portuguese imprisoned them.
The Victoria continued sailing westward, commanded by Juan Sebastin Elcano, and managed to
return to Sanlcar de Barrameda, Spain in 1522. In 1529, Charles I of Spain relinquished all claims
to the Spice Islands to Portugal in the treaty of Zaragoza. However, the treaty did not stop the
colonization of the Philippine archipelago from New Spain.[3]
After Magellan's voyage, subsequent expeditions were dispatched to the islands. Four expeditions
were sent: that of Loaisa (1525), Cabot (1526), Saavedra (1527), Villalobos(1542),
and Legazpi (1564).[4] The Legazpi expedition was the most successful as it resulted in the discovery

of the tornaviaje or return trip to Mexico across the Pacific byAndrs de Urdaneta.[5] This discovery
started the Manila galleon trade, which lasted two and a half centuries.
In 1543, Ruy Lpez de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar Las Islas
Filipinas after Philip II of Spain.[6] Philip II became King of Spain on January 16, 1556, when his
father, Charles I of Spain, abdicated the Spanish throne. Philip was in Brussels at the time and his
return to Spain was delayed until 1559 because of European politics and wars in northern Europe.
Shortly after his return to Spain, Philip ordered an expedition mounted to the Spice Islands, stating
that its purpose was "to discover the islands to the west". In reality its task was to conquer the
Philippines for Spain.[7]
On November 19 or 20, 1564 a Spanish expedition of a mere 500 men led by Miguel Lpez de
Legazpi departed Barra de Navidad, New Spain, arriving off Cebu on February 13, 1565, not landing
there due to Cebuano opposition.[8]:77
In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay and founded a second settlement on the bank of the Panay
River. In 1570, Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo, who had arrived from Mexico in 1567,
to Mindoro to punish Moro pirates who had been plundering Panay villages. Salcedo also destroyed
forts on the islands of Ilin and Lubang, respectively South and Northwest of Mindoro.[8]:79
In 1570, Martn de Goiti, having been dispatched by Legazpi to Luzon, conquered the Kingdom of
Maynila (now Manila).[8]:79 Legazpi then made Maynila the capital of the Philippines and simplified its
spelling to Manila. His expedition also renamed Luzon Nueva Castilla. Legazpi became the country's
first governor-general. With time, Cebu's importance fell as power shifted north to Luzon. The
archipelago was Spain's outpost in the orient and Manila became the capital of the entire Spanish
East Indies. The colony was administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain (now Mexico) until
1821 when Mexico achieved independence from Spain. After 1821, the colony was governed directly
from Spain.
During most of the colonial period, the Philippine economy depended on the Galleon Trade which
was inaugurated in 1565 between Manila and Acapulco, Mexico. Trade between Spain and the
Philippines was via the Pacific Ocean to Mexico (Manila to Acapulco), and then across
the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean to Spain (Veracruz toCdiz). Manila became the most
important center of trade in Asia between the 17th and 18th centuries. All sorts of products from
China, Japan, Brunei, the Moluccas and even India were sent to Manila to be sold for silver 8-Real
coins which came aboard the galleons from Acapulco. These goods, including silk, porcelain, spices,
lacquerware and textile products were then sent to Acapulco and from there to other parts of New
Spain, Peru and Europe.
The European population in the archipelago steadily grew although natives remained the majority.
They depended on the Galleon Trade for a living. In the later years of the 18th century, GovernorGeneral Basco introduced economic reforms that gave the colony its first significant internal source

income from the production of tobacco and other agricultural exports. In this later period, agriculture
was finally opened to the European population, which before was reserved only for the natives.
During Spains 333 year rule in the Philippines, the colonists had to fight off the Chinese pirates (who
lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which was Limahong in
1574), Dutchforces, Portuguese forces, and indigenous revolts. Moros from western Mindanao and
the Sulu Archipelago also raided the coastal Christian areas of Luzon and the Visayas and
occasionally captured men and women to be sold as slaves.
Some Japanese ships visited the Philippines in the 1570s in order to export Japanese silver and
import Philippine gold. Later, increasing imports of silver from New World sources resulted in
Japanese exports to the Philippines shifting from silver to consumer goods. In the 1580s, the
Spanish traders were troubled to some extent by Japanese pirates, but peaceful trading relations
were established between the Philippines and Japan by 1590.[9] Japan's kampaku (regent), Toyotomi
Hideyoshi, demanded unsuccessfully on several occasions that the Philippines submit to
Japan's suzerainty.[10]
On February 8, 1597, King Philip II, near the end of his 42-year reign, issued a Royal
Cedula instructing Francisco de Tello de Guzmn, then Governor-General of the Philippinesto fulfill
the laws of tributes and to provide for restitution of ill-gotten taxes taken from the natives. The
decree was published in Manila on August 5, 1598. King Philip died on 13 September, just forty days
after the publication of the decree, but his death was not known in the Philippines until middle of
1599, by which time a referendum by which the natives would acknowledge Spanish rule was
underway. With the completion of the Philippine referendum of 1599, Spain could be said to have
established legitimate sovereignty over the Philippines.[11]

Political system
The Spanish quickly organized their new colony according to their model. The first task was the
reduction, or relocation of native inhabitants into settlements. The earliest political system used
during the conquista period was the encomienda system, which resembled the feudal system in
medieval Europe. The conquistadores, friars and native nobles were granted estates, in exchange
for their services to the King, and was given the privilege to collect tribute from its inhabitants. In
return, the person granted theencomienda, known as an encomendero, was tasked to provide
military protection to the inhabitants, justice and governance. In times of war, the encomendero was
duty bound to provide soldiers for the King, in particular, for the complete defense of the colony from
invaders such as the Dutch, British and Chinese. The encomienda system was abused
by encomenderos and by 1700 was largely replaced by administrative provinces, each headed by

an alcalde mayor (provincial governor)[12] The most prominent feature of Spanish cities was the
plaza, a central area for town activities such as the fiesta, and where government buildings, the
church, a market area and other infrastructures were located. Residential areas lay around the
plaza. During the conquista, the first task of colonization was the reduction, or relocation of the
indigenous population into settlements surrounding the plaza.
As in Europe, the church always had control over the state affairs of the colony. The friars controlled
the sentiments of the native population and was more powerful than the governor-general himself.
Among the issues that resulted to the Philippine revolution of 1898 that ended Spanish rule was the
abuse of power by the religious orders.[citation needed]
National government
On the national level, the King of Spain, via his Council of the Indies (Consejo de las Indias),
governed through his representative in the Philippines, the Governor-General of the
Philippines (Gobernador y Capitn General). With the seat of power in Intramuros, Manila, the
Governor-General was given several duties: head of the supreme court, the Royal Audiencia of
Manila; Commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and the economic planner of the country.[citation
needed]

All executive power of the local government stemmed from him and as vice-regal patron, he

had the right to supervise mission work and oversee ecclesiastical appointments. His yearly salary
was 40,000 pesos. The Governor-General was usually a Peninsulars, a Spaniard born in Spain, to
ensure loyalty of the colony to the crown.
Provincial government[
Main article: Provinces of the Philippines
On the provincial level, heading the pacified provinces (alcaldia), was the provincial governor
(alcalde mayor). The unpacified military zones (corregimiento), such as Mariveles and Mindoro, were
headed by the corregidores. City governments (ayuntamientos), were also headed by an alcalde
mayor. Alcalde mayors and corregidores exercised multiple prerogatives as judge, inspector
of encomiendas, chief of police, tribute collector, capitan-general of the province and even vice-regal
patron. His annual salary ranged from P300 to P2000 before 1847 and P1500 to P1600 after it. But
this can be augmented through the special privilege of "indulto de commercio" where all people were
forced to do business with him. The alcalde mayor was usually an Insulares (Spaniard born in the
Philippines). In the 19th century, the Peninsulares began to displace the Insulares which resulted in
the political unrests of 1872, notably the execution of GOMBURZA, Novales Revolt and mutiny of
the Cavite fort under La Madrid.
Municipal government[
Main articles: Municipalities of the Philippines and Cities of the Philippines

The pueblo or town is headed by the Gobernadorcillo or little governor. Among his administrative
duties were the preparation of the tribute list (padron), recruitment and distribution of men for draft
labor, communal public work and military conscription (quinto), postal clerk and judge in minor civil
suits. He intervened in all administrative cases pertaining to his town: lands, justice, finance and the
municipal police. His annual salary, however, was only P24 but he was exempted from taxation. Any
native or Chinese mestizo, 25 years old, literate in oral or written Spanish and has been a Cabeza
de Barangay of 4 years can be a Gobernadorcillo. Among those prominent is Emilio Aguinaldo, a
Chinese Mestizo and who was the Gobernadorcillo of Cavite El Viejo (now Kawit). The officials of
the pueblo were taken from the Principala, the noble class of pre-colonial origin. Their names are
survived by prominent families in contemporary Philippine society such as Duremdes, Lindo, Tupas,
Gatmaitan, Liwanag, Pangilinan, Panganiban, Balderas, and Agbayani, Apalisok, Aguinaldo to name
a few.[citation needed]and also the nation wide[citation needed]
Barrio government
Main article: Barangay
Every pueblo was further divided into "barrios", and the barrio government (village or district) rested
on the barrio administrator (cabeza de barangay). He was responsible for peace and order and
recruited men for communal public works. Cabezas should be literate in Spanish and have good
moral character and property. Cabezas who served for 25 years were exempted from forced labor.
In addition, this is where the sentiment heard as, "Mi Barrio", first came from.
The Residencia and the Visita
To check the abuse of power of royal officials, two ancient castilian institutions were brought to the
Philippines. The Residencia, dating back to the 5th century and the Visitadiffered from
the residencia in that it was conducted clandestinely by a visitador-general sent from Spain and
might occur anytime within the officials term, without any previous notice. Visitas may be specific or
general.
Maura law
The legal foundation for municipal governments in the country was laid with the promulgation of
the Maura Law on May 19, 1893. Named after its author, Don Antonio Maura, the Spanish Minister
of Colonies at the time, the law reorganized town governments in the Philippines with the aim of
making them more effective and autonomous. This law created the municipal organization that was
later adopted, revised, and further strengthened by the American and Filipino governments that
succeeded Spanish.

Economy[
Manila-Acapulco galleon trade

Plaza Mexico, Intramuros - The Manila-Acapulco Galleon

The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade was the main source of income for the colony during its early
years. Service was inaugurated in 1565 and continued into the early 19th century. The Galleon trade
brought silver from New Spain, which was used to purchase Asian goods such as silk from China,
spices from the Moluccas, lacquerware from Japan and Philippine cotton textiles.[13] These goods
were then exported to New Spain and ultimately Europe by way of Manila. Thus, the Philippines
earned its income through the trade of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon. The trade was very prosperous
and attracted many merchants to Manila, especially the Chinese. However, initially it neglected the
development of the colony's local industries which affected the Indios since agriculture was their
main source of income. In addition, the building and operation of galleons put too much burden on
the colonists' annual polo y servicio. However, it resulted in cultural and commercial exchanges
between Asia and the Americas that led to the introduction of new crops and animals to the
Philippines such as corn, potato, tomato, cotton and tobacco among others, that gave the colony its
first real income. The trade lasted for over two hundred years, and ceased in 1815 just before the
secession of American colonies from Spain.
Royal Society of Friends of the Country[
Jos de Basco y Vargas, following a royal order to form a society of intellectuals who can produce
new, useful ideas, formally established the Spanish Royal Economic Society of Friends of the
Country, after the model of the Royal Basque Society. Composed of leading men in business,
industry and profession, the society was tasked to explore and exploit the island's natural bounties.
The society led to the creation of Plan General Economico of Basco which implemented the
monopolies on the areca nut, tobacco, spirited liquors and explosives. It offered local and foreign
scholarships and training grants in agriculture and established an academy of design. It was also
credited to the carabao ban of 1782, the formation of the silversmiths and gold beaters guild and the
construction of the first papermill in the Philippines in 1825. It was introduced on 1780, vanished
temporarily on 1787-1819, 18201822 and 1875-1822 and ceased to exist in the middle of the
1890s.
Royal Company of the Philippines[
See also: Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
On March 10, 1785, King Charles III of Spain confirmed the establishment of the Royal Philippine
Company with a 25 year charter.[14] The Basque-based company was granted a monopoly on the
importation of Chinese and Indian goods into the Philippines, as well as the shipping of the goods
directly to Spain via the Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch and British bitterly opposed them because
they saw the company as a direct attack on their Asian trade. It also faced the hostility of the traders
of the Galleon trade (see above) who saw it as competition. This gradually resulted into the death of
both institutions: The Royal Philippine Company in 1814 and the Galleon trade in 1815.[15]

The first vessel of the Royal Philippine Company to set sail was the "Nuestra Seora de los
Placeres" commanded by the captain Juan Antonio Zabaleta.[16]
Taxation
To support the colony, several taxes and monopolies were established. The buwis (tribute), which
could be paid in cash or kind, with tobacco, chickens, produce, gold, blankets, cotton, rice, or other
products depending on the region of the country, was initially fixed at 8 reales, later increased to 15
reales, apportioned as follows: ten reales buwis, one realdiezmos prediales (tithe), one real to the
town community chest, one real sanctorum tax, and three reales for church support.[17]
Also there was the bandal (from the Tagalog word mandal, a round stack of rice stalks to be
threshed), an annual forced sale and requisitioning of goods such as rice. Custom duties and
income tax were also collected. By 1884, the tribute was replaced by the cedula personal, wherein
everyone over 18 were required to pay for personal identification.[18] The local gobernadorcillos were
responsible for collection of the tribute. Under the cedula system taxpayers were individually
responsible to Spanish authorities for payment of the tax, and were subject to summary arrest for
failure to show a cedula receipt.[19]
Aside from paying a tribute, all male Filipinos from 16 to 60 years old were obliged to render forced
labor called polo. This labor lasted for 40 days a year, later it was reduced to 15 days. It took
various forms such as the building and repairing of roads and bridges, construction of Public
buildings and churches, cutting timber in the forest, working in shipyards and serving as soldiers in
military expeditions. People who rendered the forced labor was called polistas. He could be
exempted by paying the falla which is a sum of money. The polista were according to law, to be
given a daily rice ration during their working days which they often did not receive.[citation needed]

Dutch attacks
In 1646, a series of five naval actions known as the Battles of La Naval de Manila was fought
between the forces of Spain and the Dutch Republic, as part of the Eighty Years' War. Although the
Spanish forces consisted of just two Manila galleons and a galley with crews composed mainly of
Filipino volunteers, against three separate Dutch squadrons, totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch
squadrons were severely defeated in all fronts by the Spanish-Filipino forces, forcing the Dutch to
abandon their plans for an invasion of the Philippines.
On June 6, 1647, Dutch vessels were sighted near Mariveles Island. In spite of the preparations, the
Spanish had only one galleon (the San Diego) and two galleys ready to engage the enemy. The
Dutch had twelve major vessels.
On June 12, the armada attacked the Spanish port of Cavite. The battle lasted eight hours, and the
Spanish believed they had done much damage to the enemy flagship and the other vessels. The
Spanish ships were not badly damaged and casualties were low. However, nearly every roof in the

Spanish settlement was damaged by cannon fire, which particularly concentrated on the cathedral.
On June 19, the armada was split, with six ships sailing for the shipyard of Mindoro and the other six
remaining in Manila Bay. The Dutch next attacked Pampanga, where they captured the fortified
monastery, taking prisoners and executing almost 200 Filipino defenders. The governor ordered
solemn funeral rites for the dead and payments to their widows and orphans.[20][21][22]
There was an expedition the following year that arrived in Jolo in July. The Dutch had formed an
alliance with an anti-Spanish king, Salicala. The Spanish garrison on the island was small, but
survived a Dutch bombardment. The Dutch finally withdrew, and the Spanish made peace with the
Joloans, and then also withdrew.[20][21][22]
There was also an unsuccessful attack on Zamboanga[disambiguation needed] in 1648. That year the Dutch
promised the natives of Mindanao that they would return in 1649 with aid in support of a revolt
against the Spanish. Several revolts did break out, the most serious being in the village of Lindo.
There most of the Spaniards were killed, and the survivors were forced to flee in a small river boat to
Butun. However, Dutch aid did not materialize. The authorities from Manila issued a general
pardon, and many of the Filipinos in the mountains surrendered. However, some of those were
hanged and most of the rest were enslaved.[20][21][22]

British invasion
Main article: British occupation of Manila
In August 1759, Charles III ascended the Spanish throne. At the time, Britain and France were at
war, in what was later called the Seven Years' War. France, suffering a series of setbacks,
successfully negotiated a treaty with Spain known as the Family Compact which was signed on 15
August 1761. By an ancillary secret convention, Spain was committed to making preparations for
war against Britain.[23]
The early success at Manila did not enable the British to control the Philippines. Spanish-Filipino
forces (made up mostly of Filipinos) kept the British confined to Manila. Nevertheless, the British
were confident of eventual success after receiving the written surrender of captured Catholic
Archbishop Rojo on 30 October 1762.[24]
The surrender was rejected as illegal by Don Simn de Anda y Salazar, who claimed the title of
Governor-General under the statutes of the Council of Indies. He led Spanish-Filipino forces that
kept the British confined to Manila and sabotaged or crushed British fomented revolts. Anda
intercepted and redirected the Manila galleon trade to prevent further captures by the British. The
failure of the British to consolidate their position led to troop desertions and a breakdown of
command unity which left the British forces paralysed and in an increasingly precarious position.[25]
The Seven Years' War was ended by the Peace of Paris signed on 10 February 1763. At the time of
signing the treaty, the signatories were not aware that the Manila was under British occupation and

was being administered as a British colony. Consequently no specific provision was made for the
Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided
for be returned to the Spanish Crown.[26]

Resistance against Spanish rule

Spanish rule of the Philippines was constantly threatened by indigenous rebellions and invasions
from the Dutch, Chinese, Japanese and British.
The previously dominant groups resisted Spanish rule, refusing to pay Spanish taxes and rejecting
Spanish excesses. All were defeated by the Spanish and their Filipino allies. In many areas, the
Spanish left indigenous groups to administer their own affairs but under Spanish overlordship.

Early resistance
Main articles: Philippine revolts against Spain and Spanish-Moro Conflict
Resistance against Spain did not immediately cease upon the conquest of the Austronesian cities.
After Rajah patis of Cebu, random native nobles resisted Spanish rule. The longest recorded native
rebellion was that of Francisco Dagohoy which lasted a century.[27]
During the British occupation of Manila (17621764), Diego Silang was appointed by them as
governor of Ilocos and after his assassination by fellow natives, his wife Gabrielacontinued to lead
the Ilocanos in the fight against Spanish rule. Resistance against Spanish rule was regional in
character, based on ethnolinguistic groups.[28]
Hispanization did not spread to the mountainous center of northern Luzon, nor to the inland
communities of Mindanao. The highlanders were more able to resist the Spanish invaders than the
lowlanders.
The Moros, most notably the sultanates, had a more advanced political system than their
counterparts in the Visayas and Luzon. Spanish cities in Mindanao were limited to the coastal areas
of Zamboanga and Cagayan de Oro.

The opening of the Philippines to world trade

In Europe, the Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain during the period known as
the Victorian Age. The industrialization of Europe created great demands for raw materials from the
colonies, bringing with it investment and wealth, although this was very unevenly distributed.
Governor-General Basco had opened the Philippines to this trade. Previously, the Philippines was
seen as a trading post for international trade but in the nineteenth century it was developed both as
a source of raw materials and as a market for manufactured goods. The economy of the Philippines
rose rapidly and its local industries developed to satisfy the rising demands of an industrializing
Europe. A small flow of European immigrants came with the opening of the Suez Canal, which cut

the travel time between Europe and the Philippines by half. New ideas about government and
society, which the friars and colonial authorities found dangerous, quickly found their way into the
Philippines, notably through the Freemasons, who along with others, spread the ideals of
the American, French and other revolutions, including Spanish liberalism.

Rise of Filipino nationalism

Main article: Filipino nationalism
Map of Manila, 1898.

The development of the Philippines as a source of raw materials and as a market for European
manufactures created much local wealth. Many Filipinos prospered. Everyday Filipinos also
benefited from the new economy with the rapid increase in demand for labor and availability of
business opportunities. Some Europeans immigrated to the Philippines to join the wealth wagon,
among them Jacobo Zobel, patriarch of today's Zobel de Ayala family and prominent figure in the
rise of Filipino nationalism. Their scions studied in the best universities of Europe where they learned
the ideals of liberty from the French and American Revolutions. The new economy gave rise to a
new middle class in the Philippines, usually not ethnic Filipinos.
In the early 19th century, the Suez Canal was opened which made the Philippines easier to reach
from Spain. The small increase ofPeninsulares from the Iberian Peninsula threatened the
secularization of the Philippine churches. In state affairs, the Criollos, known locally as Insulares (lit.
"islanders"). were displaced from government positions by the Peninsulares, whom the
native Insulares regarded as foreigners. The Insulares had become increasingly Filipino and called
themselves Los hijos del pas (lit. "sons of the country"). Among the early proponents of Filipino
nationalism were the Insulares Padre Pedro Pelez, archbishop of Manila, who fought for the
secularization of Philippine churches and expulsion of the friars; Padre Jos Burgos whose
execution influenced the national hero Jos Rizal; and Joaqun Pardo de Tavera who fought for
retention of government positions by natives, regardless of race. In retaliation to the rise of Filipino
nationalism, the friars called the Indios (possibly referring to Insulares and mestizos as well) indolent
and unfit for government and church positions. In response, the Insulares came out with Indios
agraviados, a manifesto defending the Filipino against discriminatory remarks. The tension between
the Insulares and Peninsulares erupted into the failed revolts of Novales and the Cavite Mutiny of
1872 which resulted to the deportation of prominent Filipino nationalists to the Marianas and Europe
who would continue the fight for liberty through the Propaganda Movement. The Cavite Mutiny
implicated the priests Mariano Gmez,Jos Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora (see Gomburza) whose
executions would influence the subversive activities of the next generation of Filipino nationalists,
Jos Rizal, who then dedicated his novel, El filibusterismo to the these priests.

Rise of Spanish liberalism

See also: Liberalism and radicalism in Spain

After the Liberals won the Spanish Revolution of 1868, Carlos Mara de la Torre was sent to the
Philippines to serve as governor-general (18691871). He was one of the most loved governorsgeneral in the Philippines because of the reforms he implemented.[citation needed] At one time, his
supporters, including Padre Burgos and Joaqun Pardo de Tavera, serenaded him in front of
the Malacaan Palace.[citation needed] Following the Bourbon Restoration in Spain and the removal of the
Liberals from power, de la Torre was recalled and replaced by Governor-General Izquierdo who
vowed to rule with an iron fist.[citation needed]

Freemasonry
Freemasonry had gained a generous following in Europe and the Americas during the 19th century
and found its way to the Philippines. The Western World was quickly changing and sought less
political control from the Roman Catholic Church.
The first Filipino Masonic lodge was Revoluccion. It was established by Graciano Lopez Jaena in
Barcelona and was recognized in April 1889. It did not last long after he resigned from being its
worshipful master on November 29, 1889.
In December 1889, Marcelo H. del Pilar established, with the help of Julio Llorente,
the Solidaridad in Madrid. Its first worshipful master was Llorente. A short time later,
theSolidaridad grew. Some its members included Jos Rizal, Pedro Serrano Laktaw, Baldomero
Roxas, and Galicano Apacible.
In 1891, Del Pilar sent Laktaw to the Philippines to establish a Masonic lodge. Laktaw established on
January 6, 1892, the Nilad, the first Masonic lodge in the Philippines. It is estimated that there were
35 masonic lodges in the Philippines in 1893 of which nine were in Manila. The
first Filipina freemason was Rosario Villaruel. Trinidad and Josefa Rizal,Marina Dizon, Romualda
Lanuza, Purificacion Leyva, and many others join the masonic lodge.
Freemasonry was important during the time of the Philippine Revolution. It pushed the reform
movement and carried out the propaganda work. In the Philippines, many of those who pushed for a
revolution were member of freemasonry like Andrs Bonifacio. In fact, the organization used by
Bonifacio in establishing the Katipunan was derived from the Masonic society. It may be said that
joining masonry was one activity that both the reformists and the Katipuneros shared.

Illustrados, Rizal and Katipunan

Filipino Ilustrados in Spain.

The mass deportation of nationalists to the Marianas and Europe in 1872 led to a Filipino expatriate
community of reformers in Europe. The community grew with the next generation
of Ilustrados studying in European universities. They allied themselves with Spanish liberals, notably
Spanish senator Miguel Morayta Sagrario, and founded the newspaper La Solidaridad.

Among the reformers was Jos Rizal, who wrote two novels while in Europe. His novels were
considered[by whom?] the most influential of the Illustrados' writings causing further unrest in the islands,
particularly the founding of the Katipunan. A rivalry developed between himself and Marcelo H. del
Pilar for the leadership of La Solidaridad and the reform movement in Europe. Majority of the
expatriates supported the leadership of del Pilar.[citation needed]
Rizal then returned to the Philippines to organize La Liga Filipina and bring the reform movement to
Philippine soil. He was arrested just a few days after founding the league. In 1892, Radical members
of the La Liga Filipina, which included Bonifacio and Deodato Arellano, founded the Kataastaasan
Kagalanggalang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK), called simply the Katipunan, which had
the objective of the Philippines seceding from the Spanish Empire.

The Philippine Revolution

Main article: Philippine Revolution
By 1896 the Katipunan had a membership by the thousands. That same year, the existence of the
Katipunan was discovered by the colonial authorities. In late August Katipuneros gathered in
Caloocan and declared the start of the revolution. The event is now known as the Cry of Balintawak
or Cry of Pugad Lawin, due to conflicting historical traditions and official government positions.[29]
Andrs Bonifacio called for a general offensive on Manila[30] and was defeated in battle at the town of
San Juan del Monte. He regrouped his forces and was able to briefly capture the towns of Marikina,
San Mateo and Montalban. Spanish counterattacks drove him back and he retreated to the
mountains of Balara and Morong and from there engaged in guerrilla warfare.[31] By August 30, the
revolt had spread to eight provinces. On that date, Governor-General Ramon Blanco declared
a state of war in these provinces and placed them under martial law. These
were Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga, Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and Nueva Ecija. They would
later be represented in the eight rays of the sun in the Filipino flag.[32][not in citation given] Emilio Aguinaldo
and the Katipuneros of Cavite were the most successful of the rebels[33] and they controlled most of
their province by SeptemberOctober. They defended their territories with trenches designed
by Edilberto Evangelista.[31]
Many of the educated ilustrado class such as Antonio Luna and Apolinario Mabini did not initially
favor an armed revolution. Rizal himself, whom the rebels took inspiration from and had consulted
beforehand, disapproved of a premature revolution. He was arrested, tried and executed for treason,
sedition and conspiracy on December 30, 1896. Before his arrest he had issued a statement
disavowing the revolution, but in his swan song poem Mi ltimo adis he wrote that dying in battle for
the sake of one's country was just as patriotic as his own impending death.[34][page needed]
While the revolution spread throughout the provinces, Aguinaldo's Katipuneros declared the
existence of an insurgent government in October regardless of Bonifacio's Katipunan,[35] which he

had already converted into an insurgent government with him as president in August.[36][37] Bonifacio
was invited to Cavite to mediate between Aguinaldo's rebels, the Magdalo, and their rivals
the Magdiwang, both chapters of the Katipunan. There he became embroiled in discussions whether
to replace the Katipunan with an insurgent government of the Cavite rebels' design. To this end,
the Tejeros Convention was convened, where Aguinaldo was elected president of the new insurgent
government. Bonifacio refused to recognize this and he was executed for treason in May 1897.[38][39]
By December 1897, the revolution had resulted to a stalemate between the colonial government and
rebels. Pedro Paterno mediated between the two sides for the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato.
The conditions of the armistice included the self-exile of Aguinaldo and his officers in exchange for
$800,000 to be paid by the colonial government. Aguinaldo then sailed to Hong Kong for self exile.

The Spanish-American War

See also: Spanish-American War and PhilippineAmerican War
The Battle of Manila Bay

On April 25, 1898, the Spanish-American War began with declarations of war. On May 1, 1898, the
Spanish navy was decisively defeated in the Battle of Manila Bay by the Asiatic Squadron of
the U.S. Navy led by Commodore George Dewey aboard the USS Olympia Thereafter Spain lost the
ability to defend Manila and therefore the Philippines.
On May 19, Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines aboard an American naval ship and on May
24 took command of Filipino forces. Filipino forces had liberated much of the country from the
Spanish.[citation needed] On June 12, 1898 Aguinaldo issued thePhilippine Declaration of
Independence declaring independence from Spain and later established the First Philippine
Republic. Filipino forces then laid siege to Manila, as had American forces. Aguinaldo however failed
to take the city.
The Americans entered into a pact with the Spanish governor-general in which they agreed to fight a
mock battle before surrendering Manila to the Americans. The Battle of Manila took place on August
13 and Americans took control of the city. In the Treaty of Paris (1898) ending the Spanish-American
War, the Spanish agreed to sell the Philippines to the United States for $20 million which was
subsequently narrowly ratified. With this action, Spanish rule in the Philippines formally ended.
On February 4, 1899, the PhilippineAmerican War began with the Battle of Manila (1899) between
Americans forces and the nascent Philippine Republic.