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Part-B
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A guard rod is attached above and below the gauge glass tube to help protect the tube. In
some cases, a thicker plastic tube encloses the glass tube for added protection against
breakage.
Because of a limited choice of materials for gauge cocks, gauge glasses are usually used for
non corrosive solutions that can discolor the glass tube or damage the gauge cock materials.
An armored gauge glass assemble is also available for high pressure systems like boilers.
These assemblies use a thick flat gauge glass inside an armored enclosure to provide high
pressure protection and safety protection against breakage in high pressure vessels or boilers.
If a very high tank uses armored gauges, they will use several of them at overlapping
locations so all levels can be visible.
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A FLOAT is a point level measuring instrument consisting of a hollow ball that floats on
top of a liquid in a tank. Floats are attached to the instrument by a lever to an On/Off Switch
activated by the movement of the float as depicted below:
Floats are used to indicate a specific tank level, actuate alarms or shutdown switches, or
even mechanically control valves. Switches can start a pump when the float is at one position
and stop the pump at another position.
Floats can be located inside of a tank or enclosed in an attached cage or in a stilling well
to minimize turbulence and could also include alarm contacts.
Tape Flow Level Instruments using cables, pulleys, and a float with the float located
inside of a vessel, as the level raises or lowers, the float attached to a cable will cause an
external indication on the outside of a tank to indicate the level of the solution in that vessel.
Tape Floats are typically used as indication devices only, but they can be used with a
transmitter for continuous level measuring. Both examples are depicted below:
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bottom the tank is empty. The counterweight keeps tension on the tape and the pointer moves
up or down to indicate the level.
Tape Floats are subject to mechanical problems due to corrosion and buildup of
solutions on the tape causing the device to hang up and give a false indication. Sometimes
the float actually develops a leak and falls to the bottom of the tank providing a false
indication.
Float and Dial Level Instruments are used with horizontal tanks. A float attached to a
long arm, long enough for the float to reach the top and bottom of the tank, and is coupled
through a seal to a dial level indicator as depicted below:
These devices are used for measuring clean non corrosive liquids stored under pressure
such as ammonia or methyl chloride, and must be ordered for each specific tank application.
The major problem with all float devices is that they are subject to mechanical problems due to
moving parts that become worn and are subject to breakage or defects over time.
3. Describe what a displacer liquid level measurement system is and how it measures level.
Ans:
A DISPLACER LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM is a liquid level
measuring system consisting of a buoyant cylindrical object, heavier than the liquid,
immersed in the liquid and connected to a spring or torsion device that measures the
buoyancy of the cylinder as depicted below:
The advantage of using the Displacer Level Instrument is that the movement from the
torque tube assembly can easily be transmitted via a pneumatic 3-15 psig or a 4-20 mA signal
for remote level indication and control of the liquid level.
A DISPLACER LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM is a liquid level
measuring system consisting of a buoyant cylindrical object, heavier than the liquid,
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immersed in the liquid and connected to a spring or torsion device that measures the
buoyancy of the cylinder as level increases or decreases.
The Displacer Level system is a Continuous Level Measuring Instrument.
The Displacer Level Instrument Using The Torque Tube Assembly can easily be
transmitted via a pneumatic 3-15 psig or a 4-20 mA signal for remote level indication and
control of the liquid level.
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This type of sensor is primarily used for granular solids, but is also used with non corrosive
liquids and slurries. Industrial noise and dust can create false signals with Ultrasonic devices.
Ultrasonic Sensors can also be used to provide a point level measurement.
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The design for point level measurement uses two similar crystals, one being the transmitter
and the other being the receiver. Both crystals are enclosed in a probe, but are separated by a
small intergral air gap. This ultrasonic sensor is called a Gap Switch as depicted below:
A Gap Switch measures the strength of an ultrasonic signal across a small gap to
determine when material in the tank has reached the switch.
When the gap is exposed to air or vapor, the ultrasonic signal is not able to pass through
in sufficient strength to be received; however, when the liquid rises and fills the gap, the
ultrasonic signal from the transmitter is received. This is due to the fact that liquids carry sound
waves more efficiently than air or vapor.
If liquid is in a slurry state or is sticky, a wider gap permits it to drain more readily from
the gap.
The disadvantage to Gap Switches is that the material used for these devices are not suitable
for corrosive liquids.
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5.
Nuclear Continuous Level Measurement differs from Point Level Measurement in that
it will have several receiving elements instead of just one as depicted below:
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Notice in the picture above, the indicator receiving its signal from the receiver is an indication of
a continuous level as all times and the device receiving its signal from the receiver is providing a
level reading of 0 to 100 % level and it is not an on or off device.
For continuous level measurement, the difference from a point level device is that the receiver is
a scintillation counter that detects and measures nuclear radiation as it strikes a sensitive
material, know as a phosphor, producing tiny flashes of visible light. Phosphors include Zinc,
Sulfide, Sodium Iodide and some liquids and organic substances. The attenuation of the source is
used to determine the level.
1. Define Viscosity.
It is a measure of fluidity of the system. Many fluids undergo continuous deformation
with the application of shearing stress
2. Define Relative Humidity.
This is the ratio of moisture content of gas to maximum moisture content of the gas at
that temperature.
3. Define dew point.
This is the saturation temperature of the mixture at the corresponding vapour pressure.
4. Define Hygrometer.
Used to measure the moisture content in air. It also used to measure humidity.
5. What is the basic principle of Hygrometer.
It consist of mechanical device measuring the dimension change of humidity sensitive
materials like animal hair, animal membrane , paper etc.
6. Define Moisture.
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Part-B
1. Explain the construction and principle of operation of dry bulb Psychrometer with neat .
Principle of measurement
When water or ice covers the bulb of a thermometer (wet-bulb), latent heat is removed
from the surface of the bulb as the water evaporates, and the wet-bulb temperature becomes
lower than the air (dry-bulb) temperature.
At a lower humidity, water evaporates more actively, so that the wet-bulb temperature
lowers sharply. The aspirated psychrometer measures humidity by measuring the difference
between the dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature.
Structure and composition
The psychrometer consists of two thermometers of the same specifications, which are
suspended side by side in the air. One of them measures the actual air (dry-bulb) temperature
while the other, whose bulb is covered with a wet-bulb temperature.
Psychrometers are classified into the non-aspirated type psychrometer (portable
aspirated psychrometers and sling psychrometers) and the aspirated type psychrometers
(Assuman type aspirated psychrometer and JAM type aspirated psychrometers). Aspirated
psychrometers are designed to keep the constant flow of air over around the bulbs. The
structure and composition of the Assuman type aspirated psychrometer, which is commonly
used in Japan, and described below.
Figure 3.1 shows the structure of the Assuman type aspirated psychrometer. The
psychrometer
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consists of two enclosed scale type mercury thermometers, which can read temperature in
increments of 0.1.
One of them is called a dry-bulb thermometer, which measures actual air temperature
and the other is called a wet-bulb thermometer, which is measures the temperature of wetbulb which covered with a wet sleeve. The wet sleeve is a white thin cotton cloth soaked with
water.
The external and internal cylinders of a metal aspiration tube protect the bulbs from
precipitation and radiation of direct sunlight.
As shown in figure 3.1, air floe with a velocity of 2.5 m/s enters from the bottom with an
electromotive fan or a spring fan. The time constant of the psychrometer is about 40 seconds.
A squirt is used to feed water to the wet sleeve of the wet-bulb or to suck excess water from
it.
(3) Psychrometric formula and psychrometric table
When the air steadily flows around the wet-bulb, the wet-bulb temperature falls below the air
temperature by water evaporation from the surface of the wet-bulb. When the heat flow
moving into the wet-bulb from the ambient air has reached equilibrium with the latent heat
flow removed from the wet-bulb by evaporation, the following equation, called the Sprung
psychrometric formula, is derived with the Assuman type aspirated psychrometer,
e= ew- (A/755) p (t-tw)
...................................(1)
where,
Psychrometer constant, A is 0.50 when the wet-bulb is not frozen and 0.44 when it is frozen.
e: Vapor pressure hPa
ew: Saturation vapor pressure ,hPa
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a) The time for aspiration required to stabilize the reading is typically five minutes if
the temperature is 0 or higher. If the temperature is less than 0, an aspiration time
longer than five minutes will be needed.
Sources to cause errors
a) The psychrometer constant A in the psychrometric formula varies, depending on
whether the wet-bulb is frozen or not and the incorrect determination of the wet-bulb leads to
errors. So the state of the wet-bulb should be checked especially in cold conditions before the
calculation.
b) As the temperature becomes lower, air contains less vapor, and the saturation pressure
becomes lower. So the wet-bulb temperature reading error affects the vapor pressure
calculations more significantly. Because of this, much care is needed with reading the
psychrometer at low temperatures.
c) A portable aspirated psychrometer which is not subjected to forced aspiration is
significantly affected by the natural wind. When a portable aspirated psychrometer is used in
a thermometer shelter and the natural wind speed ranges from 0.3 to 4.0 m/s, the error in
humidity may become as high as 7% because the aspiration velocity in the shelter is lower
than the wind speed out of the shelter.
d) The wet-bulb temperature is affected by oil on the wet sleeve as well as by any
impurities, such as salt dissolved in the water. A dirty wet sleeve also prevents correct
measurement. Deposits of dirt on the wet-bulb after the prolonged use may cause errors.
e) Generally, the dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers have the same size and shape.
Because the wet-bulb has higher thermal conductivity, it responds to changes in air
temperature a little more quickly than the dry-bulb. Normally, when the air temperature
changes, the wet-bulb firstly responds, causing a temporary change of humidity indication.
On the other hand, the wet-bulb responds less quickly when a thick icy membrane is formed
on the bulb.
2. Write short notes on dew point and explain in detail about the commercial dew point meter.
Ans: DEW POINT:
The dew point is the temperature below which the water vapor in a volume of
humid air at a given constant barometric pressure will condense into liquid water at the same
rate at which it evaporates. Condensed water is called dew when it forms on a solid surface.
The dew point is a water-to-air saturation temperature. The dew point is associated with
relative humidity. A high relative humidity indicates that the dew point is closer to the
current air temperature. Relative humidity of 100% indicates the dew point is equal to the
current temperature and that the air is maximally saturated with water. When the dew point
remains constant and temperature increases, relative humidity decreases. [1]
General aviation pilots use dew-point data to calculate the likelihood of carburetor
icing and fog, and to estimate the height of the cloud base.
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This graph shows the maximum percentage, by mass, of water vapor that air at sea-level across a
range of temperatures can contain.
At a given temperature but independent of barometric pressure, the dew point is a consequence
of the absolute humidity, the mass of water per unit volume of air. If both the temperature and
pressure rise, however, the dew point will increase and the relative humidity will decrease
accordingly. Reducing the absolute humidity without changing other variables will bring the dew
point back down to its initial value. In the same way, increasing the absolute humidity after a
temperature drop brings the dew point back down to its initial level. If the temperature rises in
conditions of constant pressure, then the dew point will remain constant but the relative humidity
will drop. For this reason, a constant relative humidity (%) with different temperatures implies
that when it's hotter, a higher fraction of the air is water vapor than when it's cooler.
At a given barometric pressure but independent of temperature, the dew point indicates the mole
fraction of water vapor in the air, or, put differently, determines the specific humidity of the air.
If the pressure rises without changing this mole fraction, the dew point will rise accordingly;
Reducing the mole fraction, i.e., making the air less humid, would bring the dew point back
down to its initial value. In the same way, increasing the mole fraction after a pressure drop
brings the relative humidity back up to its initial level. Considering New York (33 ft elevation)
and Denver (5,280 ft elevation),[2] for example, this means that if the dew point and temperature
in both cities are the same, then the mass of water vapor per cubic meter of air will be the same,
but the mole fraction of water vapor in the air will be greater in Denver.
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(2) Structure
Chilled-mirror dewpoint hygrometers consist of a sensor unit with a mirror, an indicator to
output the measurement results, and a pump to draw sample air into the sensor unit. The sample
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flow can be adjusted using the pump, and a filter should be installed if the sample air has a high
contaminant content (Figure 3.8).
With models to which a thermometer can be attached to measure the temperature of the sample
air, relative humidity can be calculated based on the sample temperature and the dewpoint
temperature.
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4. Explain the construction and principle of operation of Say bolt Viscometer with neatsketch
Ans: Viscosity is a measure of fluidity of the system. Many fluids undergo continuous
deformation with the application of shearing stress.
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5. Explain any two types of hygrometers used for Humidity measurement, with neat sketch.
Ans: Hair hygrometer
(1) Principle of measurement and structure
The hair hygrometer uses the characteristic of the hair that its length expands or shrinks
response to the relative humidity. the dimensions of various organic materials vary with their
moisture content. A humidity change takes an effect on the moisture content in such materials.
The length of human hair from which liquid are removed increases by 2 to 2.5% when relative
humidity changes by 0 to 100%. Different types of human hair show different changes in length.
However, there is still a relationship between the length of hair and relative humidity.
The hair hygrograph is a hair hygrometer to which a clock-driven drum is installed to
record humidity no a recording chart. When the humidity in the air changes, a hair bundle
expands or shrinks, so hair joint metal attached to a lever moves, making a rotation of a main
can . The weight of a pen arm attached to the shaft give a downward moment.
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The sensor is fitted with a filter which protects the sensor from contaminants, such as toxic
gases, and has pores to tale moisture in it. Figure 3.6 shows an example of such a filter.
(2) Characteristics of the sensor
The measurement range of the electrical capacitive hygrometer is from 0 to 100%, and its
accuracy can be improved by calibration. By calibrating with the standard hygrometer, the
electrical capacitive hygrometer attains the error of 1% or less in the range from 0 to 90% and
error of 2% or less in the range from 90 to 100%.
The hysteresis becomes large when the humidity changes from high to low. It is within 1% at
relative humidity of 60-80%. when relative humidity increases from 0 to 90% and the sensor
absorbs moisture, the time constant of the sensor is about six seconds. On the other hand, when
relative humidity decreases from 90 to 0% and the sensor releases moisture, the time constant is
about 10 seconds.
For meteorological purposes, the sensor is put in a ventilation shelter to protect the sensor
from precipitation and sunlight with the aspiration speed of 2 to 4 m/s around the sensor. The
time constant with the shelter from the saturation to the room humidity is about 20 minutes,
which is longer than that without the shelter, because of the shelters large thermal capacity.
A high polymer membrane humidity sensor has temperature dependence of about 0.1%/ for the
temperature range from 5 to 30 and 0.2%/ for the temperature range from 30 to 0.
Therefore, a temperature sensor is installed together with the humidity sensor to compensate its
temperature dependency.
(3) Sources to cause errors
a) Any difference between the ambient temperature and the sensor temperature causes an
error. For example, at 20 and 50%RH, a difference of 1 between the ambient temperature and
the sensor temperature results in an error of about 3%. At 90%RH, the error becomes up to about
6%. When the sensor temperature is lower than the ambient temperature in a low humidity
condition, dew may form on the surface of the sensor. This will make a large measurement error.
The sensor is housed in an ventilation shelter to reduce or eliminate the difference of temperature
between the sensor and the ambient air to prevent dew formation.
b) The electronic capacitive hygrometer can be used in any environment where the
human can live. However, do not use the hygrometer in the atmosphere containing oil mist,
flammable gas, dust,
organic solvents, acid, alkaline or ammonia. Using the hygrometer in the atmosphere may cause
its
sensor electrodes to corrode, thus the sensor life is shortened. To prevent the sensor electrode
from
corrosion, a protection filter is used to keep out dust or organic solvents.
(4) Maintenance
Routine maintenance
Routine maintenance is not needed.
Periodic maintenance
a) Compare the electrical capacitive hygrometer with the aspirated psychrometer once three
months to
observe time-dependent changes.
b) Replace the protection filter with a new one twice a year. In rural areas where little soot is
found , the interval between replacements may prolonged to a maximum of once a year.
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