Section A.

Radicals and Rational Exponents

413

Appendix A

Section 1 Radicals and Rational Exponents

Section 1 Exercises
For Exercises 16, recall that there are two real nth roots if n
is even, and only one if n is odd.
1. 181 = 9 or 9, since 81=( ; 9)2
3. 164 = 4, since 64=4

3
3
32. 2 -27x3y6 = 21 -3xy2 2 3 = -3xy2

4
4
33. 23x8y6 = 2 1x2y2 4 # 3y2
4
4
4
4
= 21x2y2 4 # 23y2 = @ x2y@ 23y2 = x2 0 y 0 23y2
3
3
34. 28x6y4 = 2 12x2y2 3 # y
3
3
3
2
= 212x y2 3 # 1y = 2x2y 1y

4
2. 181 = 3 or 3, since 81=( ; 3)4
3

31. 22x3y4 = 2 1xy2 2 2 # 2x

= 2 1xy2 2 2 # 12x = x y2 12x

5
4. 1243 = 3, since 243=35

16
16
116
4
4
4
=
= or - , since
= a; b
B9
3
3
9
3
19
3
127
3
27
6. 3 = - 3 = B 8
2
18

5.

5
5
5
5
5
35. 296x10 = 2 12x2 2 5 # 3 = 2 1 2x2 2 5 # 13 = 2x2 13

36. 2108x4y9 = 2 16x2y4 2 2 # 3y

= 2 16x2y4 2 2 # 13y = 6x2y4 13y
37.

7. 1144 = 12 since 12 # 12=144

8. No real answer no real number multiplied by itself
gives 16.
3
9. 2- 216 = -6, since (6)3=216

38.

12.

4 3
64
4
64
= - , since a - b = 27
3
3
27

64
8
= , since 82=64 and 52=25
B 25
5

15.

5
or 2.5
2

7
16. or 3.5
2
17. 729
18. 32
1
19. or 0.25
4
20.

1
or 0.012345679
81

21. 2
4
22. - or 0.8
5
23. 11.69 = 1.3 since 1.32=1.69
24. 119.4481 = 4.41 since 4.41=19.4481
4
25. 119.4481 = 2.1 since 2.14=19.4481
3
26. 13.375=1.5 since 1.53=3.375

27. 1288 = 2122 # 2 = 2122 # 12 = 12 12

3
3
3
3
3
28. 1500 = 253 # 4 = 253 # 14 = 5 14

3
3
3
3
3
29. 1-250 = 2 1 -5 2 3 # 2 = 21 - 52 3 # 12 = -5 12
4
4
4
4
4
30. 1192 = 224 # 12 = 224 # 112 = 2 112

12 14

4 14
3

18

3
4 14
3
= 2 14
2

1 # 15
15
15
=
=
5
15 15
125
5 3
2x
x

2 2y3
y

41.

x2
= 3
By
1y

42.

5 3
5 3
5 3 3
5 3 3
a3
2a
2a
b
2a
b
# 2b
= 5
= 5
=
2
5
2
3
5
Bb
b
2b 2b
2b

40.

5 2
2x
2x3

2x
# 2x
= 5
5

# 2y
4

2x5

4 3
2 2y

4
1y
2y3

4 4
2y
3
2x2 # 2y2

3 2 2
2x
y

13. 4
14. 5

# 14
3

39.

3
10. 1216 = 6, since 63=216

11.

4
3

3 2
2y

3 3
2y

3 2 2
2x
y
y

43. [(a+2b)2]1/3=(a+2b)2/3
44. (x2y3)1/5=(x2)1/5(y3)1/5=x2/5y3/5
45. 2x(x2y)1/3=2x(x2)1/3y1/3=2x3/3x2/3y1/3=2x5/3y1/3
46. xy(xy3)1/4=xyx1/4(y3)1/4=x4/4y4/4x1/4y3/4=x5/4y7/4
4
4
4
47. a3/4b1/4= 2a3 # 1b = 2a3b
3
3
3
48. x2/3y1/3= 2x2 # 1y = 2x2y
3
49. x5/3= 2x-5 =

1
3

2x5

4
50. (xy)3/4= 2x-3y-3 =

1
4

2x3y3

4
51. 2 12x = 3 12x2 1>2 4 1>2 = 12x2 1>4 = 12x

3
6
52. 3 23x2 = 3 13x2 1>3 4 1>2 = 13x2 2 1>6 = 23x2
4
8
53. 31xy = 3 1xy2 1>2 4 1>4 = 1 xy2 1>8 = 1xy
3
6
54. 31ab = 3 1ab2 1>2 4 1>3 = 1ab2 1>6 = 1ab
5 2
2a

a2>5
15
= a2/5-1/3=a1/15= 1a
a1>3
1a
3
6
6
56. 1a 2a2 = a1/2a2/3=a1/2+2/3=a7/6= 2a7 = a 1a
55.

57. a3/5a1/3a3/2=a3/5+1/3-3/2=a17/30=
58. 2x2y4 = 2 1xy2 2 2 = @ xy2 @ = @ x@ y2

1
a17>30

Appendix A

414

4
79. 2
1 -22 4 7 -2 12 7 -2 2

59. (a5/3b3/4)(3a1/3b5/4)=3 # a5/3a1/3 # b3/4b5/4=3 # a6/3 #

b8/4=3a2b2 (b  0)
1 x1>2 2 6
x6>2
x1>2 6
x3
60. a 2>3 b = 2>3 6 = 12>3 = 4 1x  0 2
y
y
1y 2
y
-8x6 2>3
= 1 -8x6y3 2 2>3 = 1 -82 2>3 1x6 2 2>3 1y3 2 2>3
61. a -3 b
y
=[(8)2]1/3 x12/3y6/3=641/3x4y2=4x4y2

62.

1 p2q4 2 1>2

1 27q p 2
q
=
3 @ p@

2p2q4

3 6 1>3

1x y 2

227q3p6
1x y 2

9 6 -1>3

63.

1x y 2

64. a

1
0y0

1>2

9 6 1>3

2 1pq2 2 2

21 3qp2 2 3

@ pq @

2x y

9 6

@ x y@

82. 42/3<33/4 (0.396<0.438)

84. t=0.45 1200 = 4.5 12 L 6.36 sec

@ p@ q

3qp

6 2

81. 22/3<33/4 (1.587<2.279)

83. t=1.1 110 L 3.48 sec

2x y

6 2 1>2

1x y 2
0x0
0x0
=
x
x0y0

6 2 -1>2

3
80. 2 1 -22 3 = -2

3qp

@ x @ # @ y@
3

x3y2

x3y2

Section 2 Polynomials and Factoring

Section 2 Exercises
1. 3x2+2x-1; degree 2
2. 2x3+x2-2x+1; degree 3
3. x7+1; degree 7

1>2 - 2>3

6x
2x
3x
6x
b a 1>2 b = 2>3 + 1>2 =
y2>3
y
y
y7>6
-2>3

-1>6

3y

66. 216y8z-2 = @ 4y4z-1 @ = 4y4 @ z-1 @ =

4y4

6
x y

1>6 7>6

65. 29x-6y4 = @ 3x-3y2 @ = 3y2 @ x-3 @ =

8 2

6 2

@ z@

4. x4+x2+x-3; degree 4
5. No cannot have a negative exponent like x1
6. No cannot have a variable in the denominator

@ x3 @

7. Yes
8. Yes
4

26x y
26x x y
2 # 3x y
4 3x y
=4
=
=
B 8x2
B 2 # 8x2
2
2
4
2 2
0 x 0 26x y
=
2
5
3
6
6
# 6
2108x
y
4x
y
5
5 108x y
5 27 4x y
=
=
68.
=
3
3
5
3
#
B 9x
B 27 9x
B 3x
3
8 2

85. If n is even, then there are two real nth roots of a (when
n
n
a>0): 1a
and - 1a.

4 2 2

67.

3
2
2
2
2
4
2 2x4
3 4x # 3 2x
3 14x 2 1 2x 2
3 8x
=
=
=
69.
B y2 B y
B 1 y2 2 1y 2
B y3
y
3
2x 1x
=
y

5
5
5
5
70. 29ab6 # 227a2b-1 = 2 19ab6 2 127a2b-1 2 = 2243a3b5
5 3
=3b 2a

10. (3x2-5)+(x2-7x-12)=(3x2-x2)
7x+(5-12)=4x2-7x-17
11. (4x3-x2+3x)+(x3-12x+3)
=(4x3-x3)-x2+(3x-12x)+3
=3x3-x2-9x+3
12. (y2-2y+3)+(5y2+3y+4)
=(y2+5y2)+(2y+3y)+(3+4)
=4y2+y+7
13. 2x(x2)-2x(x)+2x(3)=2x3-2x2+6x
14. y2(2y2)+y2(3y)-y2(4)=2y4+3y3-4y2
15. (3u)(4u)+(3u)(1)=12u2+3u
16. (4v)(2)+(4v)(3v3)=8v+12v4=12v4-8v

- 2 26
71. 3 24
=12 13-1213=0

17. 2(5x)-x(5x)-3x2(5x)=10x-5x2-15x3
=15x3-5x2+10x

72. 2 252 # 7 - 4 222 # 7 = 2 # 5 17 - 4 # 2 17

=10 17 - 817 = 2 17

18. 1(2x)-x2(2x)+x4(2x)=2x-2x3+2x5
=2x5-2x3+2x

73. 2x2 # x - 21 2y2 2 # x = @ x@ 1x - 2 @ y@ # 1x

= 1 @ x@ - 2 @ y@ 2 1x = 1 x - 2 @ y@ 2 1x (since the square
root is undefined when x<0)

19. x(x+5)-2(x+5)=(x)(x)+(x)(5)-(2)(x)
-(2)(5)=x2+5x-2x-10=x2+3x-10

#3

# 3 = 3 # 413 - 2 # 6 13

9. (x2-3x+7)+(3x2+5x-3)=(x2+3x2)
+(3x+5x)+(7-3)=4x2+2x+4

74. 2 13x2 2 # 2y + 2y2 # 2y = 3 @ x@ 12y + @ y@ # 12y

=(3|x|+|y|) 12y = 1 3 @ x@ + y2 12y (since the square
root is undefined when y<0)
For Exercises 7582, evaluate each side using a calculator or
paper and pencil.

20. 2x(4x+1)+3(4x+1)=(2x)(4x)+(2x)(1)
+(3)(4x)+(3)(1)=8x2+2x+12x+3
=8x2+14x+3
21. 3x(x+2)-5(x+2)=(3x)(x)+(3x)(2)
-(5)(x)-(5)(2)=3x2+6x-5x-10
=3x2+x-10
22. (2x)2-(3)2=4x2-9

75. 12 + 6 6 12 + 16 (2.828<3.863)

23. (3x)2-(y)2=9x2-y2

76. 14 + 19 7 14 + 9 (5>3.605)

24. (3)2-2(3)(5x)+(5x)2=9-30x+25x2
=25x2-30x+9

77. (32)1/2=3
1
78. (2 ) <2 a 6 2 b
2
3 1/3

25. (3x)2+2(3x)(4y)+(4y)2=9x2+24xy+16y2
26. (x)3-3(x)2(1)+3(x)(1)2-(1)3
=x3-3x2+3x-1

Section A.2
27. (2u)3-3(2u)2(v)+3(2u)(v)2-(v)3
=8u3-3v(4u2)+6uv2-v3
=8u3-12u2v+6uv2-v3
3

29. (2x ) -(3y) =4x -9y

30. (5x3)2-2(5x3)(1)+(1)2=25x6-10x3+1
31. x2(x+4)-2x(x+4)+3(x+4)
=(x2)(x)+(x2)(4)-(2x)(x)-(2x)(4)
+(3)(x)+(3)(4)
=x3+4x2-2x2-8x+3x+12
=x3+2x2-5x+12
2

32. x (x-3)+3x(x-3)-2(x-3)
=(x2)(x)+(x2)(3)+(3x)(x)+(3x)(3)
-(2)(x)-(2)(3)
=x3-3x2+3x2-9x-2x+6=x3-11x+6
33. x2(x2+x+1)+x(x2+x+1)-3(x2+x+1)
=(x2)(x2)+(x2)(x)+(x2)(1)+(x)(x2)+(x)(x)
+(x)(1)-(3)(x2)-(3)(x)-(3)(1)
=x4+x3+x2+x3+x2+x-3x2-3x-3
=x4+2x3-x2-2x-3
2

34. 2x (x -x+2)-3x(x -x+2)+1(x -x+2)

=(2x2)(x2)+(2x2)(x)+(2x2)(2)-(3x)(x2)
-(3x)(x)-(3x)(2)+(1)(x2)+(1)(x)
+(1)(2)
=2x4-2x3+4x2-3x3+3x2-6x+x2-x+2
=2x4-5x3+8x2-7x+2
35. (x)2-( 12)2=x2-2
36. (x1/2)2-(y1/2)2=x-y, x  0 and y  0
37. ( 1u)2-( 1v)2=u-v, u  0 and v  0
38. (x2)2-( 13)2=x4-3
39. x(x2+2x+4)-2(x2+2x+4)=(x)(x2)
+(x)(2x)+(x)(4)-(2)(x2)-(2)(2x)-(2)(4)
=x3+2x2+4x-2x2-4x-8=x3-8
40. x(x2-x+1)+1(x2-x+1)=(x)(x2)+
(x)(x)+(x)(1)+(1)(x2)+(1)(x)+(1)(1)
=x3-x2+x+x2-x+1=x3+1
41. 5(x-3)

56. (4z)3+33=(4z+3)[(4z)2-(4z)(3)+32]
=(4z+3)(16z2-12z+9)
57. 13-x3=(1-x)[12+(1)(x)+x2]
=(1-x)(1+x+x2)=(1-x)(1+x+x2)
58. 33-y3=(3-y)[32+(3)(y)+y2]
=(3-y)(9+3y+y2)=(3-y)(9+3y+y2)
59. (x+2)(x+7)
60. (y-5)(y-6)
61. (z-8)(z+3)
62. (2t+1)(3t+1)
63. (2u-5)(7u+1)
64. (2v+3)(5v+4)
65. (3x+5)(4x-3)
66. (x-y)(2x-y)
67. (2x+5y)(3x-2y)
68. (3x+7y)(5x-2y)
69. (x3-4x2)+(5x-20)=x2(x-4)+5(x-4)
=(x-4)(x2+5)
70. (2x3-3x2)+(2x-3)=x2(2x-3)+1(2x-3)
=(2x-3)(x2+1)
71. (x6-3x4)+(x2-3)=x4(x2-3)+1(x2-3)
=(x2-3)(x4+1)
72. (x6+2x4)+(x2+2)=x4(x2+2)+1(x2+2)
=(x2+2)(x4+1)
73. (2ac+6ad)-(bc+3bd)=2a(c+3d)-b(c+3d)
=(c+3d)(2a-b)
74. (3uw+12uz)-(2vw+8vz)=3u(w+4z)
2v(w+4z)=(w+4z)(3u-2v)
75. x(x2+1)
76. y(4y2-20y+25)=y[(2y)2-2(2y)(5)+52]
=y(2y-5)2
77. 2y(9y2+24y+16)=2y[(3y)2+2(3y)(4)
+42]=2y(3y+4)2
78. 2x(x2-8x+7)=2x(x-1)(x-7)

42. 5x(x2-4)

79. y(16-y2)=y(42-y2)=y(4+y)(4-y)

43. yz(z2-3z+2)
45. z2-72=(z+7)(z-7)

80. 3x(x3+8)=3x(x3+23)
=3x(x+2)[x2-(x)(2)+22]
=3x(x+2)(x2-2x+4)

46. (3y)2-42=(3y+4)(3y-4)

81. y(5+3y-2y2)=y(1+y)(5-2y)

47. 82-(5y)2=(8+5y)(8-5y)

82. z(1-8z3)=z[13-(2z)3]
=z(1-2z)[12+(1)(2z)+(2z)2]
=z(1-2z)(1+2z+4z2)

44. (x+3)(2x-5)

48. 4 -(x+2) =[4+(x+2)]

[(4-(x+2)]=(6+x)(2-x)
49. y2+2(y)(4)+42=(y+4)2
50. (6y)2+2(6y)(1)+12=(6y+1)2
51. (2z)2-2(2z)(1)+12=(2z-1)2
52. (3z)2-2(3z)(4)+42=(3z-4)2
53. y3-23=(y-2)[y2+(y)(2)+22]
=(y-2)(y2+2y+4)
3

54. z +4 =(z+4)[z -(z)(4)+4 ]

=(z+4)(z2-4z+16)

415

55. (3y)3-23=(3y-2)[(3y)2+(3y)(2)+22]
=(3y-2)(9y2+6y+4)

28. (u) +3(u) (3v)+3(u)(3v) +(3v) =u +9u v

+3u(9v2)+27v3=u3+9u2v+27uv2+27v3
3 2

Polynomials and Factoring

83. 2[(5x+1)2-9]=2[(5x+1)2-32]
=2[(5x+1)+3][(5x+1)-3]
=2(5x+4)(5x-2)
84. 5[(2x-3)2-4]=5[(2x-3)2-22]
=5[(2x-3)+2][(2x-3)-2]
=5(2x-1)(2x-5)
85. 2(6x2+11x-10)=2(2x+5)(3x-2)
86. (x+5y)(3x-2y)

416

Appendix A

87. (2ac+4ad)-(2bd+bc)=2a(c+2d)-b(2d+c)
=(c+2d)(2a-b)=(2a-b)(c+2d)

1
17. x1= and the denominator cannot be 0, so x Z 0.
x

88. (6ac+4bc)-(2bd+3ad)
=2c(3a+2b)-d(2b+3a)=(3a+2b)(2c-d)

18. x(x+1)2=

89. (x3-3x2)-(4x-12)=x2(x-3)-4(x-3)
=(x-3)(x2-4)=(x-3)(x+2)(x-2)
3

90. x(x -4x -x+4)

=x(x-1)(x2-3x-4)
=x(x-1)(x+1)(x-4)

x
and the denominator cannot
1x + 12 2
be 0, so (x+1)2 Z 0 or x+1 Z 0: x Z 1.

19. The denominator is 12x3=(3x)(4x2), so the new

numerator is 2(4x2)=8x2.
20. The numerator is 15y=(5)(3y), so the new denominator
is (2y)(3y)=6y2.

91. (2ac+bc)-(2ad+bd)
=c(2a+b)-d(2a+b)=(c-d)(2a+b)
Neither of the groupings (2ac-bd) and (2ad+bc)
has a common factor to remove.

21. The numerator is x2-4x=(x-4)(x), so the new

denominator is (x)(x)=x2.
22. The denominator is x2-4=(x-2)(x+2), so the
new numerator is x(x-2)=x2-2x.

Section 3 Fractional Expressions

23. The denominator is x2+2x-8=(x+4)(x-2), so

the new numerator is (x+3)(x+4)=x2+7x+12.

Section 3 Exercises

24. The numerator is x2-x-12=(x-4)(x+3), so the

new denominator is (x+5)(x+3)=x2+8x+15.

1.

5
10
5 + 10
15
5
+
=
=
=
9
9
9
9
3

2.

17
9
17 - 9
8
1
=
=
=
32
32
32
32
4

3.

20 9
# = 20# # 9 = 180 = 30
21 22
21 22
462
77

4.

33 20
# = 33 ## 20 = 660 = 12
25 77
25 77
1925
35
2#5
3#4

25. The numerator is x2-3x=x(x-3), so the new

denominator is x(x2+2x) or x3+2x2.
26. The denominator is x2-9=(x+3)(x-3), so the
new numerator is
(x+3)(x2+x-6)=x(x2+x-6)
+3(x2+x-6)=x3+x2-6x+3x2
+3x-18=x3+4x2-3x-18.
27. (x-2)(x+7) cancels out during simplification; the
restriction indicates that the values 2 and 7 were not
valid in the original expression.

5.

2
4
2 5
, = # =
3
5
3 4

6.

9
15
9
3
9 2
9#2
18
3
,
= , = # = # =
=
4
10
4
2
4 3
4 3
12
2

10
5
=
12
6

7. The LCD of the denominators is 2 # 7 # 3 # 5 = 210 :

4
5
15
56
50
1
+
=
+
14
15
21
210
210
210
15 + 56 - 50
21
1
=
=
=
210
210
10
8. The LCD of the denominators is 2 # 3 # 5 # 7 = 210 :
6
4
35
36
56
1
+
=
+
6
35
15
210
210
210
35 + 36 - 56
15
1
=
=
=
210
210
14
9. No values are restricted, so the domain is all real numbers.

28. (x+1)(x-2) cancels out during simplification; the

restriction indicates that the values 1 and 2 were not
valid in the original expression.
29. No factors were removed from the expression; we can see
2
by inspection that and 5 are not valid.
3
30. x cancels out during simplification; the restriction indicates
that 0 was not valid in the original expression.
31. (x-3) ends up in the numerator of the simplified
expression; the restriction reminds us that it began in the
denominator so that 3 is not allowed.
32. When a=b in the original, we get division by 0; this is
not apparent in the simplified expression because we
canceled a factor of b-a.
33.

3x16x2 2

12. The value under the radical must be positive, so

x+3 7 0: x 7 3 or (3, q).

34.

3y2 125 2

6x2
,xZ0
5

25
3y2

13. The denominator cannot be 0, so x2+3x Z 0 or

x(x+3) Z 0. Then x Z 0 and x+3 Z 0: x Z 0
and x Z 3.

35.

10. No values are restricted, so the domain is all real numbers.

11. The value under the radical must be nonnegative, so
x-4  0: x  4 or [4, q).

14. The denominator cannot be 0, so x -4 Z 0 or

(x+2)(x-2) Z 0. Then x+2 Z 0 and x-2 Z 0:
x Z 2 and x Z 2.

36.
37.

15. The denominator cannot be 0, so x-1 Z 0, or x Z 1.

Then x Z 2 and x Z 1.

38.

16. The denominator cannot be 0, so x-2 Z 0, or x Z 2.

Then x Z 2 and x Z 0.

39.

3x15 2

3y 13y 2
2

x1x2 2

x1x - 2 2

2y1y + 32
4 1y + 32

x2
,xZ0
x - 2
y
, y Z 3
2

z1z - 32

z
,zZ3
z + 3

13 - z2 1 3 + z2

= -

1x + 3 2 2

1x + 3 2 1x - 4 2

1y + 5 2 1y - 6 2

x + 3
, x Z 3
x - 4

1y + 3 2 1 y - 6 2

y + 5
,yZ6
y + 3

Section A.3

40.

y1 y2 + 4y - 21 2
1y + 7 2 1y - 7 2

41.

42.

43.

45.

y - 7

y1 y + 72 1y - 3 2
1 y + 72 1 y - 7 2

58.

, y Z 7

12z2 3 - 13

12z - 1 2 3 12z2 2 + 1 2z2 11 2 + 12 4

1 z + 3 2 1 2z - 1 2
1
4z2 + 2z + 1
,zZ
=
z + 3
2
=

2z1 z2 + 3z + 9 2

1 z + 3 2 12z - 1 2

1 x3 + 2x2 2 - 13x + 6 2
x2 1 x + 2 2
1x + 22 1x2 - 3 2

x + 4
3 + x + 1
=
x - 2
x - 2

x2 1x + 2 2 - 3 1 x + 2 2
x2 1x + 2 2

x2 1 x + 2 2

x - 3
, x Z 2
x2

y1y + 3 2
y1 y + 32
= 2
1 y3 + 3y2 2 - 15y + 15 2
y 1y + 3 2 - 5 1 y + 32
y1y + 3 2
y
=
= 2
, y Z 3
2
1y + 3 2 1y - 52
y - 5

62.

1
# 1 x + 1 2 1x - 1 2 = x + 1 , x Z 1
x - 1
3
3

x + 3
# 14 = 1, x Z 3
7
21 x + 3 2
x + 3
# - 1 x - 1 2 = - 1 , x Z 1 and x Z 3
47.
x - 1 1 x + 3 2 1x - 3 2
x - 3

46.

48.

3x1 6x - 12

3xy

12y2
1
= 12y, x Z 0, y Z 0 and x Z
6x - 1
6

49.

1 x - 1 2 1x2 + x + 1 2

50.

y1y2 + 2y + 4 2

51.

52.

2x

2 1x - 12
4x
=
x
x + x + 1
2

1y + 22 1y - 2 2

y2 1y + 22
1y - 2 2 1 y2 + 2y + 4 2
y Z 2 and y Z 2
1 y + 52 1 2y - 1 2

1y + 52 1 y - 52
1
yZ
2
1y + 4 2 2

1 3y + 22 1 y - 1 2
2
yZ 3

1
,
y

y + 4

y1 y + 4 2
y - 1

63.

, y Z 4 and
64.

141 x - y2
2

57.

2x y

1x - 32

x - y

x2y2

2 2

xy

x - y2

y + x
xy
2

y - x

2 2
y + x
# 2x y 2
xy
y - x

xy 1y + x2
xy
=
,
1y - x2 1 x + y 2
y - x
x Z y, x Z 0, and y Z 0

3
, x Z y and y Z 0
8

#x - 3
2

x3 - y3
2

2
4x x
# = x 2, x Z 0
y 8y
2y

71x - y 2

x2y2
2

x2y2

x1 x - 32 3y2
3 1x - 3 2
#
=
, x Z 0 and y Z 0
55.
14y
2xy
28
56.

2
4
5
+
1x + 3 2 1x - 2 2
x - 2
1x + 2 2 1 x - 22
5 1x + 2 2
2 1x + 2 2 1x + 3 2
=
1x + 2 2 1x + 32 1x - 22
1 x + 2 2 1x + 32 1 x - 22
41x + 32
+
1x + 2 2 1x + 32 1 x - 2 2
15x + 10 2 - 12x2 + 10x + 12 2 + 14x + 122
=
1x + 2 2 1x + 3 2 1 x - 22
-2x2 - x + 10
=
1x + 2 2 1x + 32 1x - 22
12x + 52 1x - 2 2
=1x + 22 1x + 3 2 1x - 22
2x + 5
2x + 5
,xZ2
= - 2
=1x + 22 1x + 3 2
x + 5x + 6

x2y2
1x - y2 1 x2 + xy + y2 2
x2 + xy + y2
=
,
=
1x - y 2 1x + y2
x + y
x Z y, x Z 0, and y Z 0

1 4
# =2
53.
2x 1
x
54.

3
1
6
x1x + 3 2
x
1x + 3 2 1x - 32
31 x - 3 2
1 1x + 32 1 x - 32
=
x1 x + 3 2 1x - 3 2
x1 x + 3 2 1 x - 3 2
6x
x1x + 3 2 1x - 32
13x - 9 2 - 1x2 - 9 2 - 16x2
=
x1 x + 3 2 1x - 32
x1x + 3 2
-x2 - 3x
= =
x1 x + 3 2 1x - 3 2
x1x + 32 1x - 3 2
1
1
=
, x Z 0 and x Z 3
=x - 3
3 - x

x3 - y3

y - 5
1
= , y Z 5, y Z 5 and
y12y - 1 2
y

# y13y + 2 2

2xy
x Z y and x Z y

417

4x2y
= - 2x, x Z 0, y Z 0,
1y + x2 1y - x2

60.

2z1 z2 + 3z + 9 2

2x + 1 - 3
2x - 2
=
x + 5
x + 5

61.

1x + y 2 1x - y2

59.

z - 3
1z - 3 2 3z2 + 1 z2 1 32 + 32 4
2
2z1z + 3z + 9 2
2z
=
=
2
z
- 3
1z - 3 2 1z + 3z + 9 2
3

=
44.

y1 y - 3 2

Fractional Expressions

8xy

x
, x Z 0 and y Z 0
41x - 32

2x1x - 42 + 13x - 3
65.

x - 4
2x1x - 42 + x + 3

x - 4
12x - 1 2 1x + 32

12x - 1 2 1x - 32

2x2 + 5x - 3
# 2x-4
x - 4
2x - 7x + 3

x + 3
1
, x Z 4 and x Z
x - 3
2

Appendix A

418

2 1x + 5 2 - 13

66.

2x - 3 x - 3
x + 5
x - 3
#
=
=
,
2 1x - 3 2 + 3
x + 5 2x - 3
x + 5
x - 3
3
x Z 3, and x Z
2
x - 1x + h2
2

67.

x2 1 x + h2 2

x2 - 1x2 + 2xh + h2 2 1
#
h
x2 1 x + h 2 2
-h1 2x + h2

h
-2xh - h2
= 2
=
hx 1x + h 2 2
hx2 1x + h2 2
2x + h
=- 2
,hZ0
x 1x + h2 2

1x + h 2 1x + 2 2 - x1x + h + 2 2

68.

1x + h + 2 2 1x + 2 2

h
x2 + 2x + hx + 2h - x2 - hx - 2x # 1
=
1x + h + 2 2 1x + 2 2
h
2h
=
h1x + h + 2 2 1 x + 2 2
2
=
,hZ0
1x + h + 22 1 x + 2 2

b2 - a2
1 b + a2 1b - a2
ab
# ab = b + a
69.
=
b - a
ab
b - a
ab
=a+b, a Z 0, b Z 0, and a Z b
b + a
b + a
ab
ab
1
#
70. 2
=
=
2
ab
1b
+
a
2
1b
a2
b
a
b - a
ab
a Z 0, b Z 0, and a Z b
x + y
1
1
71. a
ba
b =
, x Z y
xy
x + y
xy
x - y
,xZy
x + y
y
x + y
1
1
x
73.
+
=
+
=
x
y
xy
xy
xy
72.

74.

xy
1
1
1
=
=
=
,
-1
y
+
x
1
1
y
+ x
x + y
+
x
y
xy
x Z 0, and y Z 0
-1

Section C.1

Logic: An Introduction

419

Appendix C

Section 1 Logic: An Introduction

Section 1 Exercises
1. (a) 2+4=8 is a false statement.
(b) Shut the window is an instruction, which is neither
true nor false. It is not a statement.
(c) Los Angeles is a state is a false statement.
(d) He is in town is neither true nor false when he is
unspecified. It is not a statement.
(e) What time is it? is a question, which is neither true
nor false. Is it not a statement.
(f) 5x=15 is neither true nor false when x is unspecified. It is not a statement.
(g) 3 # 2=6 is a true statement.
(h) 2x2>x is neither true nor false when x is unspecified. It is not a statement.
(i) This statement is false is true if it is false, and false
if it is true. So it fails to be either true or false but not
both. It is not a statement.
(j) Stay put! is a command, which is neither true nor
false. It is not a statement.
2. (a) The equation is true when x=3: There exists a natural
number x such that x+8=11.
(b) Apply the Identity Property of Addition: For all natural
numbers x, x+0=x.
(c) The equation is true when x=2 or 2: There exists a
natural number x such that x2=4. (Read a natural
number as at least one natural number.)
(d) Subtracting x from both sides produces 1=2, which
is impossible. There is no natural number x such that
x+1=x+2.
3. In each case, negate the corresponding quantified statement from Exercise 2.
(a) There is no natural number x such that x+8=11.
(b) It is not true that for all natural numbers x,
x+0=x. That is: There exists a natural number x
such that x+0 Z x.
(c) There is no natural number x such that x2=4.
(d) There exists a natural number x such that
x+1=x+2.
4. (a) p
~p
~(~p)
T
F
(b) p
T
F

F
T

(d) No, p~p and p~p are not equivalent, because

they sometimes have different truth values. Indeed,
they always have different truth values: p~p is
always true and p~p is always false.
5. (a) The book does not have 500 pages.
(b) Six is not less than eight.
(c) 3 # 5 Z 15
(d) It is not true that some people have blond hair. In
other words: No people have blond hair.
(e) Not all dogs have four legs. (Or, in other words: Some
dogs do not have four legs.)
(f) It is not true that some cats do not have nine lives.
In other words: All cats have nine lives.
(g) Not all squares are rectangles. (Or, in other words:
Some squares are not rectangles.)
(h) All rectangles are squares.
(i) It is not true that for all natural numbers x,
x+3=3+x. In other words: There exists a natural
number x such that x+3 Z 3+x.
(j) There does not exist a natural number x such that
3 # (x+2)=12. In other words: For all natural numbers x, 3 # (x+2) Z 12.
(k) Not every counting number is divisible by itself and 1.
(Or, in other words: Some natural counting number is
not divisible by itself and 1.)
(l) All natural numbers are divisible by 2.
(m) It is not true that for all natural numbers x,
5x+4x=9x. In other words: For some natural
number x, 5x+4x Z 9x.
6. Use q: This course is easy and r: Lazy students do not
study.
(a) The conjunction of q and r is qr.
(b) The disjunction that joins r to the negation of q is
r~q.
(c) The negation of the statement in part (a)
is ~(qr).
(d) The negation of q is ~q.
7. Use the truth tables for the connectives.
(a) pq is false because p is false (and a true
conjunction requires both sides true).
(b) pq is true because q is true (and a true
disjunction requires only one side true).

T
F

~p

p~p

p~p

(c) ~p is true because p is false.

F
T

T
T

F
F

(d) ~q is false because q is true.

(c) Yes, p and ~(~p) are equivalent, because they always

have the same truth value.

(e) ~(~p) is false because ~p is true [part (c)].

(f) ~ pq is true because ~p and q are both true.
(Either one would suffice.)

420

Appendix C

(g) p~q is false because p and ~q are both false.

(Either one false would suffice to make the conjunction
false.)

(d) p

pq

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
F
F

(i) ~(~pq) is false because ~p and q both true

makes ~pq true.
(j) ~q~p is false because ~q is false [part (d)].
(a) pq is false because p and q are both false. (Either
one false would suffice to make the conjunction false.)
(b) pq is false because p and q are both false (and
a true disjunction requires at least one side true).
(c) ~p is true because p is false.
(d) ~q is true because q is false.
(e) ~(~p) is false because ~p is true [part (c)].
(f) ~pq is true because ~p is true.
(g) p~q is false because p is false.
(h) ~(pq) is true because pq is false [part (b)].
(i) ~(~pq) is true because q false makes ~pq
false.
(j) ~q~p is true because ~q and ~p are both
true.
9. (a) r,, and s are analogous to R, , and S, respectively,
so rs corresponds to R S.
(b) q,, and ~q are analogous to Q, , and Q, respectively,
so q~q corresponds to Q Q.
(c) r,, and q are analogous to R, , and Q, respectively,
so ~(rq) corresponds to R Q.
(d) p,, r,, and s are analogous to P, , R, , and S,
respectively, so p(rs) corresponds to P (R S).
~p ~q

~p~q

~p ~q

~p~q

F
F
F
F
T
F
T
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
T
T
*
*
The statements ~(pq) and ~p~q are equivalent, because their truth values are always the same.

(h) ~(pq) is false because pq is true [part (b)].

8. Use the truth tables for the connectives.

~(pq)

11. (a) The statements ~(pq) and ~p~q are equivalent, and the statements ~(pq) and ~p~q are
equivalent.
(b) The corresponding De Morgan Laws for sets are
PQ = PQ and PQ = PQ. The analogy
comes from letting p mean x is a member of P and
letting q mean x is a member of Q. Then, for the
first law, ~(pq) means x is a member of PQ,
which is equivalent to x is a member of PQ, which
translates into ~p~q. Similar reasoning holds for
the second law.
12. p
q
~p
~q
~pq
T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

F
F
T
T

F
T
F
T

T
F
T
T

Note that the column for ~q is not really necessary.

13. Restate using De Morgans Laws.
(a) Today is not Wednesday or the month is not June.
(b) I did not eat breakfast yesterday, or I did not
watch television yesterday.
(c) It is not true that both it is raining and it is July.

Section 2 Conditionals and Biconditionals

10. (a) p

pq

~(pq)

1. Use p: It is raining and q: The grass is wet.

(a) The conditional If p, then q is p S q.

(b) The conditional If not-p, then q is ~p S q.

(c) The conditional If p, then not-q is p S ~q.

*
*
The statements ~(pq) and ~p~q are not
equivalent, because their truth values can differ.
(b) p

pq

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
T
T
F

~(pq)

~p ~q

~p~q

F
F
F
F
F
F
T
F
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
*
*
The statements ~(pq) and ~p~q are equivalent, because their truth values are always the same.
(c) p

pq

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
F
F

~(pq)

~p ~q

~p~q

F
F
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
*
*
The statements ~(pq) and ~p~q are not
equivalent, because their truth values can differ.

Section 2 Exercises

(d) The conditional q if p is p S q.

(e) The conditional Not-q implies not-p is ~q S ~p.
(f) The biconditional q if, and only if, p is q 4 p.
2. (a) p

pq

p S (pq)

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
T
T
F

T
T
T
T

(b) p

pq

(pq) S q

~p

~(~p)

(c) p

p 4 ~(~p)

Section C.2
~(p S q)

Conditionals and Biconditionals

(d) p

pSq

(c) (pq) S (pq) is false because p true and q

false makes pq true and pq false.

(d) p S ~p is false because p is true and ~p is false.

(e) (p~p) S p is true because p is true. (p~p

is always true.)
(f) (pq) 4 (p q) is false because
(pq) S (pq) is false [part (c)].

3. If the implication is p S q, then the converse is q S p, the

inverse is ~p S ~q, and the contrapositive is ~q S ~p.
(a) Converse: If you are good in sports, then you eat
Meaties; Inverse: If you do not eat Meaties, then you
are not good in sports; Contrapositive: If you are not
good in sports, then you do not eat Meaties.
(b) Converse: If you do not like mathematics, then
you do not like this book; Inverse: If like this book,
then you like mathematics; Contrapositive: If you like
mathematics, then you like this book.
(c) Converse: If you have cavities, then you do not
use Ultra Brush toothpaste; Inverse: If you use Ultra
Brush toothpaste, then you do not have cavities;
Contrapositive: If you do not have cavities, then you
use Ultra Brush toothpaste.
(d) Converse: If your grades are high, then you are
good at logic; Inverse: If you are not good at logic,
then your grades are not high; Contrapositive: If your
grades are not high, then you are not good at logic.
4. No, an implication and its converse cannot both be false.
For p S q to be false, p must be true and q must be false.
But then q S p is true.
5. Use the truth tables for the connectives.
(a) ~p S ~q is true because ~p is false and ~q is true.
(Either one would suffice to make the implication true.)

421

6. Use the truth tables for the connectives.

(a) ~p S ~q is true because ~q is true.
(b) ~(p S q) is false because p false makes p S q true.
(c) (pq) S (pq) is true because p and q both
false makes pq false.
(d) p S ~p is true because p is false and ~p is true.
(Either one would suffice to make the
implication true.)
(e) (p~p) S p is false because p is false.
(p~p is always true.)
(f) (pq) 4 (pq) is true because p and q both
false makes pq and pq both false.
7. No. If it does not rain and Iris goes to the movies, then the
first statement is true, but the second statement is false.
8. (a) This is the inverse, which is not logically equivalent to
the original implication.
(b) This is the contrapositive, which is equivalent to the
original implication.
(c) This is the converse, which is not logically equivalent
to the original implication.
9. The contrapositive is logically equivalent: If a number is
not a multiple of 4, it is not a multiple of 8.

(b) ~(p S q) is true because p true and q false

makes p S q false.
10. (a) p
q
r
pSq
pr
(pr) S q
(p S q) S [(pr) S q]
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
T
(p S q) S [(pr) S q] is always true.
(b) p
q
pSq
(p S q)p
[(p S q)p] S q
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
T
F
T
F
F
T
F
T
[(p S q)p] S q is always true.
(c) p
q
~p
~q p S q
(p S q)~q
[(p S q) ~q] S ~p
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
T
F
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
[(p S q)~q] S ~p is always true.

422

Appendix C
(d) p
q
r
pSq
qSr
pSr
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
[(p S q)(q S r)] S (p S r) is always true.

(p S q) (q S r)
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
T

11. (a) For r S s to be true when s is false, r must be false

also. By the same reasoning, q must be false, and so
must p.
(b) p must be false, because if p were true, pq would
be true, and then (pq) S r could not be true while
r was false.
(c) Not only can q be true, but it has to be true, since q true
and p false makes p S q true and is the only way for
q S p to be false.
12. (a) Use p: Marys little lamb follows her to school, q:
The lambs appearance at school will break the
rules, and r: Mary will be sent home. Then the
statement translates as p S (qr).
(b) Use p: Jack is nimble, q: Jack is quick, and r: Jack
will make it over the candlestick. Then the statement
translates as ~(pq) S ~r.
(c) Use p: The apple hit Newton on the head and q:
The laws of gravity were discovered. Then the statement translates as ~p S ~q.
13. (a) All college students are poor.
Helen is a college student.
Helen is poor.
(A Venn diagram will confirm that this is valid.)
(b) Some freshmen like mathematics.
All people who like mathematics are intelligent.
Some freshmen are intelligent.
(A Venn diagram will confirm that this is valid.)
(c) If I study for the final, then I will pass the final.
If I pass the final, then I will pass the course.
If I pass the course, then I will look for a teaching job.
If I study for the final, then I will look for a teaching
job.
(This involves two successive applications of the chain
rule.)
(d) Every equilateral triangle is isosceles.
There exist triangles that are equilateral.
There exist triangles that are isosceles.
(A Venn diagram will confirm that this is valid.)
14. (a) Draw a Venn diagram satisfying the hypotheses, and
the conclusion is automatically satisfied.
Mortals
Women
Hypatia

The argument is valid.

[(p S q) (q S r)] S (p S r)
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

(b) Draw a Venn diagram satisfying the hypotheses, and

the conclusion is automatically satisfied.
U

Polygons
Quadrilaterals
Squares

The argument is valid.

(c) Draw a Venn diagram satisfying the hypotheses, and
the conclusion is automatically satisfied.
U

Intelligent
People

Teachers

Rich
People

The argument is valid.

(d) It is possible to draw a Venn diagram that satisfies the
hypotheses but not the conclusion.
U

Taking Math

Freshmen

Jane Sophomores

The argument is invalid.

15. (a) If a figure is a square, then it is a rectangle.
(b) If a number is an integer, then it is a rational number.
(c) If a figure has exactly three sides, then it may be a
triangle.
(d) If it rains, it is cloudy.