tmp8203 TMP

Handbook of Food Chemistry
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Chemical Composition of Vegetables and their Products

Monica Butnariua* and Alina Butub
a
Banats University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Regele Mihai I al Rom^aniei, Timisoara,
Romania
b
National Institute of Research and Development for Biological Sciences, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract
Vegetables and their products (salads, fermented and nonfermented pickles, prepared sauces, and
pickled, conserved, frozen, marinated, and dried vegetables) are a good source of compounds that
are involved in pharmacodynamic activity. Humans are inseparably linked to the existence of
vegetables, as they are the source of several bioproducts essential for the survival of the animal
kingdom. The importance of vegetables from the point of view of the food industry is determined by
their complex chemical content that is important to the human body and includes organic substances
(carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and organic acids), phytoncides and antimicrobial substances, a
high content of minerals (Ca, P, Fe, K, Mg, S, Cl, Zn, and Cu), and a high content of vitamins (A,
B complex, C, E, F, K, P, and PP). The complex chemicals in vegetables have a favorable effect on
the human body because they provide hydration due to their high water content, regulate metabolism
in general, stimulate the muscular and skeletal systems, internal glands, and enzymatic activity, and
have high nutritional and energy value. Vegetables are characterized by high nutritional density with
low energy input and contain a variety of biological phytonutrients that make them an important part
of the basic diet. It is recommended that vegetables be consumed fresh when their nutritional value is
at its highest; some methods of processing and storage cause some water-soluble vitamins and
nutrients to be lost. With energy from the sun, vegetables synthesize the basic compounds necessary
for their survival (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins), and a variety of organic phytochemicals can
be extracted as raw materials that have important applications in dermatology, cosmetics, medicine,
technology, and commerce.
Introduction
Vegetables and their products are low in calories but rich in vitamins and are essential for a balanced
body. Of the 1,200 plant species that are considered vegetable plants, only 250 species are
cultivated. Vegetables are sources of nutrients but are also 7595 % water. The dry matter of
vegetables consists of biomolecules (lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates), minerals, vitamins, and
phytonutrients. Vegetables have a great variety of avors, provide energy, provide hydration for the
body which is 8090 % water, are rich in liposoluble and water-soluble vitamins and bers such as
cellulose and pectin that facilitate intestinal transit, and are rich in minerals.
Vegetables are foods from plants with different uses and are a signicant source of nutrients. The
edible part of a plant root, stem, bulb, fruit, owers, seeds, leaves, or the whole plant varies from
one species to another. The intake of nutrients from vegetables depends on the consumed organ of
the plant. Tubers are rich in starch but have few vitamins; roots and stems are high in ber (cellulose
*Email: monicabutnariu@yahoo.com
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
and hemicellulose) but do not contain vitamin C; leafy vegetables are very rich in vitamin C, Mg,
chlorophyll, and carotenoids; owers, which are rarely consumed as such (e.g., cauliower), are
high in vitamin K and B-complex vitamins.
The carbohydrate content (cellulose in large amounts) of a plant varies by species. Lettuce,
zucchini, tomato, eggplant, cucumber, greens, onion, okra, carrots, leeks, beets, celery, green peas,
Brussels sprouts, potatoes, and dried beans contain sucrose, starch, and cellulose. In general,
carbohydrates found in vegetables, such as starch, pectin, and cellulose, are mono- and disaccharides. Glucose is rarely consumed in its monocarbohydrate form but was determined to be a free
compound in carrots. Fructose (the sweetest monocarbohydrate) makes up approximately 3 % of
dehydrated vegetables by weight; in general, vegetables contain between 1 % and 7 % fructose.
Inulin-type oligocarbohydrates are natural polymers of fructose, a form of carbohydrate storage
(onions and asparagus), and since they are not proximally absorbed, they produce 1 kcal/g. Other
vegetables rich in fructo-oligocarbohydrates are tomatoes and garlic. Sucrose is found in large
quantities in unripened vegetables but the quantity decreases as the fruit ripens, with sucrose
replaced by glucose and fructose. Some vegetables do not contain sucrose.
Starches are insoluble compounds with a complex nature and formula (C6H10O6)n. Starch is a
reserve substance in vegetables such as carrots, potatoes, and dried legumes (beans and peas). In
vegetables, starch granules are encapsulated in rigid cellulose walls, making them inaccessible to
digestive enzymes, which is why raw grains and potatoes are difcult to digest. Heat causes the
granules to expand, the starch gels, and the cell wall softens and breaks, thus making digestion
possible. Starch is found in large quantities in a plant before it matures, decreasing the extent of fruit
maturation by its transformation to low sugar. Carrot starch can be eaten raw and usually is
recommended for infants. Vegetable cellulose has a ner structure than that of grains and is
recommended for those with some digestive diseases. In vegetables, cellulose combines with pectic
substances to form pectin-cellulose complexes with the potential to stimulate motility and digestive
secretions. Vegetable cellulose content ranges from 0.3 % (zucchini) to 3.6 % (parsnip). Hemicelluloses retain water in the intestine and x cations; they are in carrot, beet, and zucchini. An
indigestible polycarbohydrate, hemicellulose is associated with cellulose and lignin except in berrich vegetables such as radish, cabbage, and eggplant. Pectins are characteristic to carrots and beets;
they are used in medicines for the intestines (e.g., to treat enteritis), and they are used to make
antiseptics and absorbent gels.
Lipids are in vegetables in low amounts (except oilseeds). Among the saturated fatty acids,
palmitic, myristic, and stearic acids can be found in peas, beans, and spinach, and low amounts of
saturated fatty acids are in almonds and peanuts. Of the monounsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid was
identied in peas and palmitoleic acid in spinach (23 %). The polyunsaturated fatty acid omega-3 is
found in soybeans and beans. Moreover, soybean is a known source of lipids (47 mg/100 g; with a
linoleic to linolenic acid ratio of 7.5:1) and glycerophospholipids such as lecithin.
The protein content of most vegetables ranges from 0.5 % to 1.5 %; the exceptions are green
legumes (56 % in peas and beans) and dried legumes (2034 % in lentils, dried beans, and soybeans
which contain globulin-type protein: phaseolin in beans, legumelin in peas and lentils, and glycine in
soybeans). From a nutrition point of view, soybean proteins are incomplete proteins because they
contain all of the essential amino acids but not in equal proportion (methionine and lysine are in
limited amounts). A protein is considered incomplete if it contains all essential amino acids but not
in equal proportion, such as dried legumes which has methionine in limited amounts, or if it is
missing one or more essential amino acids. Soybean is used to make our and concentrate/protein
isolates are used in the food industry for the production of soy milk, energy drinks, and other
products (Butu et al. 2014a).
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Vegetables contain minerals, mainly K, Ca, Mg, P, and Fe. They also contain traces of
oligoelements (Cr, Cu, I, F, Zn, Mg, Mo, and Se), which are absorbed from the soil together with
water; therefore, their proportions vary. Ca is found in vegetables such as cabbage, cauliower,
broccoli, parsley, onions, peas, and beans (with an absorption rate >50 %). Soybeans and beans
contain relatively large amounts of Ca. Oxalic acid in spinach and tomatoes limits the bioavailability
of minerals by forming insoluble calcium oxalate salts. Ca:P ratios are optimal in cabbage, lettuce,
and onions which helps their uptake. The vegetables provide < 30 % of P needed by the body.
Phosphorus has been identied in dried legumes in the form of phytic acid, which forms insoluble
complexes with a predatory effect on Ca, Fe, Zn, and Mg. Potassium is found in large quantities as
carbonate and organic acid salts and is solubilized in water and gastric juice. Because of the high
content of water and K, vegetables in general have a diuretic effect. Important sources of K are dried
beans (1,500 mg/100 g), spinach (700 mg/100 g), and potatoes (500 mg/100 g).
Good sources of Mg are the darker green vegetables, such as lettuce, spinach, green onions, and
nettles, and dried legumes in which Mg is an essential constituent of chlorophyll. After meat,
vegetables are a good source of Fe, particularly dried beans and lentils. A high vitamin C content in
vegetables makes the Fe more available for absorption, even for vegetables with a lower Fe content
(carrots, broccoli, potatoes, tomatoes, cauliower, cabbage, and sweet peppers). Vegetables with
high concentrations of phytate, phosphate, cellulose, tannin, and oxalic acid have a decreased
amount of Fe available for absorption. Fragmentation caused by boiling and excessive rening
increases the loss of Fe. The most important sources of S are dried beans, broccoli, and cauliower.
Vegetables with high concentrations of Zn are usually rich in chlorophyll (spinach, dried beans,
lentils, and peas). The Cu content in vegetables, which provide about 2 mg Cu/day, is lower than that
in animal products, except for dried legumes. The presence of cellulose or thiocyanate (as in
cabbage, cauliower, turnips, and kale) reduces Cu absorption. Iodine is found in varying amounts
in vegetables. Vegetables have a low Se content; it is found in soy, garlic, beans, and broccoli. These
foods are a poor source of Na and are indicated for salt-restricted diets needed by hypertensive
patients or patients with renal insufciency or those with edema). High-Na-content vegetables are
winter radishes, celery, carrots, beets, spinach, and turnips.
The amount of vitamins in a vegetable depends on its type, ripening stage, the soil it grows in, and
mode of conservation. Vitamin C from vegetables is more active than synthetic vitamin C, and when
accompanied by vitamin P and other antioxidants, its uptake is enhanced. Vitamins and minerals
have a signicant presence in most green vegetables. Large amounts of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) are
found in leafy greens and some vegetables (tomatoes and peppers), tubers (asparagus and potato),
and bulbs (onions). The concentration of vitamin C in vegetables depends on the development and
maturation of crops. Vitamin C is present in higher quantities in the shell than in the core, so when
the outer layer is removed vitamin C is lost. The presence of vitamin C in plants depends on ascorbic
oxidase activity (metalloenzymes containing Cu), which oxidizes vitamin C to dehydroascorbic acid
with reduced vitamin activity or to compounds with no vitamin activity (dicetogulonic acid). The
amount of vitamin C is inversely proportional to the amount of ascorbic oxidase (Xu et al. 2007).
Vegetables with a high proportion of ascorbic oxidase (cucumbers, zucchini, and carrots) are almost
devoid of vitamin C. Vitamin C in the form of dehydroascorbic acid is found in red pepper, parsley,
dill, and horseradish.
Vitamin C is destroyed by oxidation, and sodium bicarbonate added to preserve and enhance the
color of cooked vegetables causes loss of vitamin C. Refrigeration and freezing of foods can help
preserve vitamin C, but cooking causes the loss of up to 45 % and 52 %, respectively, of vitamin C in
those foods (Butnariu et al. 2013).
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Deciency in Fe and vitamin C may affect the status of folic acid in an organism. Vitamin B1 is in
legumes (dried beans at 0.6 mg%), leafy vegetables (spinach and lettuce), cabbage (0.51.5 mg%),
and potatoes (0.56 mg%). B2 is found in green leafy vegetables (broccoli, spinach, and parsley at
0.20.3 mg%) and pulses (lentils at 0.20.3 mg%). Niacin in the form of nicotinic acid is in dried
legumes (23 mg% in lentils) and other vegetables such as potatoes, tomatoes, eggplant, spinach,
cauliower, green peas, and beans. The most important plant sources of vitamin B5 are broccoli,
potatoes, and tomatoes. Vitamin B6 is present in pulses (soybeans, lentils, and beans) and vegetables
such as potatoes, cauliower, and spinach. The bioavailability of vitamin B6 in vegetables is lower
than that in animal sources because it is affected by long-term storage, prolonged heat treatment, and
freezing techniques. Vitamin B7 (H) is in vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, beans, peas, carrots,
and tomatoes. Leafy green vegetables (spinach, lettuce, broccoli) are a good source of folic acid
(vitamin B9), which is also found in potatoes and pulses. Reduced B9 from vegetables is oxidized
and destroyed at a rate of 5090 % during boiling. The bioavailability of B9 varies depending on the
presence or absence of B9-conjugated metal chelates, inhibitors, and chelating agents (B9-linked
vegetables), the form of which determines an individuals nutritional status. B9 uptake from lettuce is
twice as small as that of yeasts or bananas. Cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12) is found in vegetables in
small amounts and is synthesized by bacteria. Vegetarians have lower circulating concentrations of
vitamin B12 after 56 years if they do not take a supplement.
Vitamin D is found in vegetables, with the highest content in spinach and cabbage. Tocopherols/
tocotrienols are synthesized only by plants, with the oils extracted from plants being the richest
sources. Soybean oil contains 8095 % a-tocopherol/g-tocopherol. Vitamin E, known for its role as
an antioxidant, is in seeds, legumes, spinach, lettuce, peas, cabbage, and celery. Vitamin K is found
in green leafy vegetables such as parsley, spinach, broccoli, lettuce, turnips, and cabbage (4050 %
of total intake). The bioavailability of vitamin K1 depends on the vegetable (e.g., higher in broccoli
than in spinach) and the composition of the diet (e.g., the addition of fats increases absorption).
The stability of vitamins exposed to certain conditions is presented in Table 1.
Carotenoids, i.e., carotenoid hydrocarbons and their oxygenated derivatives, in vegetables are in
free form or combined with holoproteins and carbohydrates to form carotenoproteins and carotenoid
glycosides, respectively. Hydrocarbon carotenoids are carotenoids with 40 carbon atoms and the
most important ones are lycopenes, a-carotene, b-carotene, and g-carotene. Heating a-carotene may
convert it into b-carotene. b-Carotene (the main precursor of vitamin A) is widespread in plants and
permanently accompanies chlorophyll. By oxidative enzymatic hydrolysis, b-carotene is converted
into two molecules of vitamin A1. The bioavailability of b-carotene from plants compared to that of
puried b-carotene is in the range of 36 % for leafy vegetables, 1934 % for carrots, and 2224 %
Table 1 Stability of vitamins when exposed to certain conditions

Phytochemicals
Vitamin A
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Vitamin B7
Vitamin B6
Vitamin B2
Vitamin B1
Air
A
A
A
U
U
U
U
A
Light
A
A
A
A
U
A
A
A
Heat
U
A
U
U
A
A
A
A
Maximum loss from cooking (%)

40
100
40
5
60
40
75
55
U unalterable (no considerable destruction), A alterable (considerable destruction)
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
for broccoli. Consuming broccoli and peas can cause an increase in retinol and b-carotene in plasma
compared to consumption of spinach (Patel et al. 2001). It was demonstrated that b-carotene from
some vegetables is 2.6-6 times more effective at increasing the plasma concentration of b-carotene
than that from green leafy vegetables. The difference is due to intracellular localization of carotenoids; they are found in chloroplasts in vegetables and in chromoplasts in other products. g-Carotene
takes the form of red crystals with blue reections and is less common in the plant kingdom (it is
found mostly in carrots). Phytonutrients such as anthocyanins and carotenoids (carrots, spinach,
green onions, lettuce, and tomatoes) are efcient protectors of cells because they inhibit
destabilizing processes (Hendrickson et al. 2013; Butnariu 2014).
Isothiocyanates (ITCs) are found in cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauliower, and broccoli). When isothiocyanates split they form substances that cause hypertrophy and
hyperplasia of the thyroid gland. Goitrin (L-5-vinyl-2-thiooxazolidone) is found in plants in watersoluble form and its precursor is the inactive compound progoitrin; goitrin is released from
progoitrin with the help of thioglucosidase. Heat treatment destroys thioglucosidase, so goitrin
cannot be formed. Goitrin interferes with the synthesis of the thyroid hormones thyroxine and
triiodothyronine. Thiocyanates inhibit inorganic iodine (I) intake, thereby contributing to the
hyperthyroid effect of vegetables.
Insoluble bers such as lignin and chitin bind biliary acids and reduce the absorption of
cholesterol and lipids. Soluble bers such as pectin and guar gum from dried legumes and other
vegetables cause a decrease in LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol. The effects vary with the
type and amount of ber. Vegetables with a low glycemic index cause a low insulinemic response
with decreased hepatic synthesis of VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein) and LDL cholesterol
simultaneously.
Some components of vegetables, tannins, saponins, and phytates interact with macronutrients and
vitamins or minerals in the diet, causing the reduction of their absorption. Phytate, found in the
external layer of dried legumes, is a ring of six carbon atoms and each atom owns a phosphate radical
(myo-inositol phosphate). It has the ability to bind to metal ions, especially those of Ca, Cu, Fe, and
Zn. Ca catalyzes amylase action, and catalyzes excessive phytate contributing to the formation of
resources starch hydrolsis. Phytate can be hydrolyzed by the phytase enzyme, which is produced by
yeast fermentation. Hexaphosphoric ester of inositol (phytic acid or phytate) reacts with Ca salts and
Mg to form phytin.
The constituents of ber that may enhance absorption of nutrients, such as inulin-soluble ber and
sugar obtained from beets, have also been determined. They increase Ca absorption without
adversely affecting minerals (Butnariu and Samra 2013a). Beans, peas, lentils, and chick peas,
all with high-protein content (23 %), carbohydrates (57 %), including starch (47 %), vitamins, and
minerals have such ber. If legumes are boiled too long they become bloated and their purine content
increases.
Some vegetables contain antinutritive substances. Vegetables contain substances that inhibit or
inactivate phytochemicals (vitamins) and are called antivitamin substances and antimineral substances. The former include oxalic acid (biologically inactive) and ascorbic oxidase, an enzyme
which, in presence of oxygen, oxidizes vitamin C rst to dehydroascorbic acid (active) and nally to
2,5-diketogluconic acid. The latter include phytic and oxalic acids, present in green vegetables and
pulses (spinach and beans) and which bind Ca, Mg, and/or Fe into insoluble complexes, making
their absorption and utilization in the human body impossible. Other antinutritive substances are
antithyroid substances (ITCs) from cabbage, cauliower, and kale that prevent iodine absorption in
the thyroid gland, and some nonproteinogenic substances (e.g., trypsin inhibitor from beans) that
inhibit pancreatic trypsin (Plaza-Daz et al. 2013).
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Vegetables have therapeutic value and are used as snacks (celery, peas, and chicory), cholagogue
(artichokes), depuratives (radish, lettuce, asparagus, dandelion green, leek, celery, watercress, and
chicory), diuretics (asparagus, dandelions, leeks, celery, and watercress), emollients (spinach, leeks,
sorrel, lettuce, onions, carrots, and potatoes), expectorants (red cabbage), and vermifuges (garlic,
onion, and cabbage). Vegetables can be used raw in salads or cooked in purees, puddings, and other
foods. The water in which vegetables are boiled contains water-soluble vitamins (vitamin
B complex, C), minerals, and other nutrients.
Asparagus
Asparagus ofcinalis contains folic acid, vitamin C, sulfur, and malic and citric acids. A quantity of
100 g of asparagus has 20 kcal of energy. In addition to proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and cellulose,
asparagus contains vitamins, phytohormones, enzymes, and minerals, and it has allelopathy potential for crop diseases and pests (Bostan et al. 2013). The chemical composition of asparagus is
presented in Table 2.
Certain phytochemicals in asparagus are metabolized to yield NH3 and diverse S-containing
degradation products (various thiols and thioesters). Some volatile organic phytochemicals responsible for the odor of asparagus are methanethiol, dimethyl sulde, dimethyl disulde, bis
Table 2 Nutritional value of asparagus per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Fat
Protein
Vitamins
A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine (vitamin B1)
Riboavin (vitamin B2)
Niacin (vitamin B3)
Vitamin B6
Value/100 g (unit)
85 kJ (20 kcal)
3.88 g
1.88 g
2.1 g
0.12 g
2.2 g
38 mg (5 %)
449 mg (4 %)
710 mg
0.143 mg (12 %)
0.141 mg (12 %)
0.978 mg (7 %)
0.091 mg (7 %)
Phytochemicals
Folate (vitamin B9)
Choline
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Minerals
Calcium (Ca)
Iron (Fe)
Magnesium (Mg)
Manganese (Mn)
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Sodium (Na)
Zinc (Zn)
Value/100 g (unit)
52 mg (13 %)
16 mg (3 %)
5.6 mg (7 %)
1.1 mg (7 %)
41.6 mg (40 %)
24 mg (2 %)
2.14 mg (16 %)
14 mg (4 %)
0.158 mg (8 %)
52 mg (7 %)
202 mg (4 %)
2 mg (0 %)
0.54 mg (6 %)
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(methylthio)methane, dimethyl sulfoxide, and dimethyl sulfone (Visavadiya and Narasimhacharya

2009). The rst two are the most pungent, while the last two (sulfur-oxidized) have a sweet aroma.
OH
OH
P OH
O
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
O P
O P O
O
O
O
P
OH
O
OH
Fructose
SH
H
H 3C
Malic acid
CH3
H3C
Dimethyl sulde
O
H3C
CH3
Dimethyl sulfoxide
Dimethyl sulfone
CH3
Dimethyl disulde
O
S
HO
OH
H
OH
OH
CH2OH
Methanethiol
H3C
C
C
C
C
OH
Phytic acid
H
OH
OH
HO
CHOH
H
HO
H
H
H3C
CH3
Bis(methylthio)methane
O
S
O
OH
CH3
S S
Asparagusic acid
Mixtures of these phytochemicals create an odor attributed to methanethiol. The phytochemicals

known to originate in asparagus, such as asparagusic acid and its derivatives, are the only sulfurcontaining phytochemicals and are unique to asparagus (Motoki et al. 2012). This vegetable is a
source of vitamin E and fructo-oligocarbohydrates. Volatile oil contains methanethiol, dimethyl
sulde, dimethyl disulde, bis(methylthio)methane, dimethyl sulfoxide, and dimethyl sulfone.
Sulfate-active substances have a role in energy production, blood clotting, collagen synthesis
(protein contents in bones, brous tissue, skin, hair, and nails), and enzyme synthesis (increase
bioreactions). Sulfate-active substances contain P and vitamin B and have remineralizing and
stimulating properties. The thiolsulde redox system is important in biological systems. Many
peptides contain a free SH group and disulde bonds can be achieved in the peptide chain.
Asparagus is recommended for diabetics and diets for losing weight because it is low in calories:
14 cal per 100 g.
Beans
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is an annual or multiannual plant cultivated for its edible pods or the
seeds inside them. The chemical composition of beans is presented in Table 3.
Green beans are rich in carotene, vitamins, and minerals. Dried beans contain proteins (21 %),
carbohydrates (56 %) as starch and cellulose, carotenes, vitamins, and albumin. Beans are a source
of vitamins B and macro- and micronutrients. Dried beans contain K (177 mg%), Ca (195 mg%),
P (420 mg%), Fe, and trace elements and has a protein content ten times higher than green beans.
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 3 Nutritional value of beans per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Protein
Total lipid (fat)
Carbohydrates, by difference
Fiber, total dietary
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated
Value/100 g(unit)
71 kcal
4.07 g
0.29 g
13.33 g
3.6 g
Value/100 g(unit)
81.17 g
28 mg
1.61 mg
34 mg
71 mg
285 mg
252 mg
0.64 mg
Phytochemicals
Water
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid
Thiamin
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate, DFE
Vitamin B12
Vitamin A, RAE
Vitamin A, IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)
Vitamin D
0.066 g
0.016 g
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

Cholesterol
0.139 g
0 mg
7.3 mg
0.029 mg
0.043 mg
0.532 mg
0.062 mg
16 mg
0.00 mg
8 mg
150 IU
0.0 mg
0 IU
Because of the silicic acid in the sheath, beans have many minerals to bring to an organism. One
hundred grams of beans has 102 cal.
CH3
O
O P
N
H 3C
O
O
H 3C
O
O
O
O
O P
O
O P
O
O
Phytin
lecithin
H3C
O
O O P O
O
O
O
O
O
O P O
O
O
P OO
PO
O
O
H 3C
H3C
H3C
CH3
N
O
O
CH3
CH3
O
H
H
HO
Betaine
Phaseolin
White beans contain Ca, Fe, Mg, and other substances. Red beans are a good source of starch.
A serving of 100 g red beans has 93 kcal (Mendes et al. 2012). The main components of green beans
are vitamins, minerals, chlorophylls, carbohydrates, trace elements (Ni, Cu, and Co), amino acids
(arginine, asparagine, tyrosine, tryptophan, betaine, and lysine), silicic acid, phosphoric acid,
mineral salts, and about 50 % hemicellulose. A serving of 100 g dried red beans has 25 g starch
and also contains phytin. The amino acid composition revealed that kidney bean had total essential
amino acids of 48.8 %, including arginine at 65.5 mg/g protein, leucine at 62.6 mg/g protein, and
lysine at 62.0 mg/g protein. Glutamic acid (134.1 mg/g protein) and aspartic acid (96.6 mg/g protein)
are rich nonessential amino acids. Kidney bean is also rich in essential fatty acids (55.6 %) and
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contains soluble and insoluble cellulose and several antinutritional factors (ANFs), including
saponin 1.24 %, tannic acid 0.77 %, phytin phosphorus 11.5 mg/g, phytic acid 40.8 mg/g, and
oxalate 3.65 mg/g (Asheld et al. 2012). The physicochemical features of kidney bean oil are that it
has a signicant saponication value (247 mg KOH/g) and a signicant iodine value (89.4 mg I/g).
Kidney bean has signicant water and oil absorption capacities (165 % and 117 %) with a
moderately low least gelation concentration (6.0 %) and signicant emulsion capacity (34.5 %).
Broccoli
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis italic) is a source of vitamins and mineral components,
b-carotene, and S compounds; it is one of richest sources of vitamins and minerals. A serving of
100 g broccoli has 30 cal. It is high in nutritional value due to its carbohydrates, vitamins (vitamin
C content is equal to that of lemon), and provitamins. The Ca content of broccoli is equal to that of
milk. Broccoli contains Q10 coenzyme (a liposoluble substance with vitamin properties), which is
present in every cell of the body, where it has a role in energy production and antioxidant activity.
This vegetable contains a-lipoic acid as an antioxidant that increases the effects of other antioxidants
like vitamins C and E (Guo et al. 2013).
H3C
S
O
N C
S
OH
O
CH3
H3CO
CH2
H3CO
OH
CH2
CH
CH2
10
S S
OH
Sulforaphane
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10, ubiquinone)
a-Lipoic acid
Broccoli contains sulforaphane, hidrochinonglicosides, quercetin, and indoles, and its cellulose
content is lower than that of cauliower. Broccoli contains enzymes, chlorophyll and glucose enol,
starch, minerals, and vitamins, has a strong effect on stress, and is used in the treatment of cancer.
3,30 -Diindolylmethane in broccoli is a strong modulator of the immune response system. Broccoli
also contains glucoraphanin, which can be processed into the anticancer phytochemical sulforaphane. It is a source of indole-3-carbinol (I3C), a physicochemical that boosts DNA repair in cells. The
chemical composition of broccoli is presented in Table 4.
Boiling broccoli reduces the levels of suspected anticarcinogenic phytochemicals such as sulforaphane, with losses of 2030 % after 5 min, 4050 % after 10 min, and 77 % after 30 min. It is rich
in lutein and provides a moderate amount of b-carotene. Phytochemicals identied in broccoli are
glucosinolates, dithiolthiones, indoles, glucoraphanin, S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide, and ITCs.
Cabbage
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) contains the carbohydrates pentosans, partially assimilated sugars, sucrose, glucose, and fructose. Red cabbage delivers 196.5 mg of polyphenols
per 100 g (3.5oz), of which 28.3 mg are anthocyanins. Green cabbage yields 45 mg of polyphenols
per 100 g, including 0.01 mg of anthocyanins.
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 4 Nutritional value of broccoli per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Water
Protein
Total lipids (fat)
Sugars, total
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Lipids
Value/100 g (unit)
35 kcal
89.25 g
2.38 g
0.41 g
7.18 g
3.3 g
1.39 g
40 mg
0.67 mg
21 mg
67 mg
293 mg
41 mg
0.45 mg
0.079 g
0.040 g
OH
HO
OH
HO
N
H
OH
OH
Phytochemicals
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total
Thiamin
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate, DFE
Vitamin B12
Vitamin A, RAE
Vitamin A, IU
Vitamin E (a-tocopherol)
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)

Cholesterol
0.170 g
0 mg
H2N
N
HO
Myo-inositol
CH2OH
O
H
H
N
N
CH2NH
CONH
HOOC CH2 CH2 C COOH
OH
Indol-3-carbinol
64.9 mg
0.063 mg
0.123 mg
0.553 mg
0.200 mg
108 mg
0.00 mg
77 mg
1548 IU
1.45 mg
0.0 mg
0 IU
141.1 mg
Folic acid
Guaran
H OH
O
H HO CH2
O
H H
O
OH HO
H
O
OH HO H
H
H H
O
CH2OH
Vitamin C equivalent a measure of antioxidant capacity of red cabbage is six to eight times
greater than that of green cabbage. The chemical composition of cabbage is presented in Table 5.
Red cabbage is one of the most nutritious and best-tasting vegetables. Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is
not an isothiocyanate (ITC) but a benzopyrrole, and it is formed only when ITCs made by
glucobrassicin are further broken down into non-sulfur-containing phytochemicals (Tarozzi
et al. 2013). ITCs made from cabbage glucosinolates protect against cancer through a variety of
different mechanisms. The cellulose and S content causes atulence. Cabbage also contains substances that help the liver metabolize toxins, vegetal albumin, gum, gum extract, potassium nitrate,
oxides of Fe, S, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and vitamins (Dong et al. 2013; Niu et al. 2012).
Page 10 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 5 Nutritional value of cabbage per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Water
Protein
Total lipid (fat)
Sugars, total
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Lipids
Value/100 g (unit)
25 kcal
92.18 g
1.28 g
0.10 g
5.80 g
2.5 g
3.20 g
40 mg
0.47 mg
12 mg
26 mg
170 mg
18 mg
0.18 mg
0.034 g
0.017 g
Phytochemicals
Vitamins
Thiamin
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate, DFE
Vitamin B12
Vitamin A, RAE
Vitamin A, IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)

Cholesterol
0.017 g
0 mg
36.6 mg
0.061 mg
0.040 mg
0.234 mg
0.124 mg
43 mg
0.00 mg
5 mg
98 IU
0.15 mg
0.0 mg
0 IU
76.0 mg
The antioxidant I3C metabolizes excess estrogen (Duclos and Bjrkman 2008). A serving of 100 g
cabbage has 25 cal (100 kJ) and 100 g Brussels sprouts has 2534 kcal. Brussels sprouts are a source
of folic acid, vitamin C, and antioxidants.
Carrot
Carrot (Daucus carota) contains the highest amount of b-carotene among all vegetables. Its
consumption increases resistance to ultraviolet rays, giving the skin a smooth and healthy coloring.
Carrot contains vitamins, levulose and dextrose, salts, minerals (Fe up to 7 % and K 235 mg%),
carotene, asparagine, daucarine, and pectin (Mech-Nowak et al. 2012).
H3C
H3C
CH3
CH3
H3C
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3 H3C
b-Carotene
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH2OH
CH3
Vitamin A
H3C
CH3
CH3
Retinal (retinalaldehyde)
CH3
CH3 H
C=O
H3C
CH3
COOH
CH3
Retinoic acid
(continued)
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
O
H
COOH
O
H
H
COOCH3
O
H
H
O
OH
OH
H OH
H
H
OH
O
H
COOCH3
O
H
H
OH H O
H
OH
COOH
O
H
H
COOCH3
O
H
H
H
OH
OH
O
H
Pectin
OH
OH
Carrot is a source of b-carotene as provitamin A and contains carbohydrates and minerals.

A serving of 100 g carrot has 31 kcal. The chemical composition of carrot is presented in Table 6.
Polyacetylenes can be detected in carrots and are involved in cytotoxic activities. Falcarinol and
falcarindiol are two such phytochemicals and they are antifungals. Falcarindiol is the main phytochemical responsible for the carrots bitter taste (Singh et al. 2012). Other phytochemicals such as
pyrrolidine (leaves), 6-hydroxymellein, 6-methoxymellein, eugenin, 2,4,5-trimethoxybenzaldehyde
(gazarin), and (Z)-3-acetoxy-heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diin-8-ol (falcarindiol 3-acetate) are also
found in carrot.
Cauliflower
Cauliower [Brassica oleracea L. convar. botrytis (L.) Alef. var. botrytis L.] is high in nutritional
value with its minerals, carotene, and vitamins. The chemical composition of cauliower is
Cauliower is easily digestible and has a high Ca content, which is good for building bone.
Cauliower has a sweet taste and is recommended to those who consume excessively acidic food.
It has moderate energy value (100 g provides about 48.2 mg or 80 %) and provides needed vitamins
Table 6 Nutritional value of carrot per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Water
Protein
Total lipid (fat)
Sugars, total
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Lipids
Value/100 g (unit)
41 kcal
88.29 g
0.93 g
0.24 g
9.58 g
2.8 g
4.74 g
33 mg
0.30 mg
12 mg
35 mg
320 mg
69 mg
0.24 mg
0.037 g
0.014 g
Phytochemicals
Vitamins
Thiamin
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate, DFE
Vitamin B12
Vitamin A, RAE
Vitamin A, IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)

Fatty acids, total trans
Cholesterol
0.117 g
0.000 g
0 mg
5.9 mg
0.066 mg
0.058 mg
0.983 mg
19 mg
19 mg
0.00 mg
835 mg
16706 IU
0.66 mg
0.0 mg
0 IU
13.2 mg
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 7 Nutritional value of cauliflower per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Water
Protein
Total lipid (fat)
Sugars, total
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Lipids
Value/100 g (unit)
25 kcal
92.07 g
1.92 g
0.28 g
4.97 g
2.0 g
1.91 g
22 mg
0.42 mg
15 mg
44 mg
299 mg
30 mg
0.27 mg
0.064 g
0.017 g
Phytochemicals
Vitamins
Thiamin
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate, DFE
Vitamin B12
Vitamin A, RAE
Vitamin A, IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)

Fatty acids, total trans
Cholesterol
0.015 g
0. 000 g
0 mg
48.2 mg
0.050 mg
0.060 mg
0.507 mg
0.184 mg
57 mg
0.00 mg
0 mg
0 IU
0.08 mg
0.0 mg
0 IU
15.5 mg
and minerals, including a signicant amount of vitamin C and many essential B-complex vitamins.
It contains anticancer phytochemicals such as sulforaphane; vegetal sterols such as I3C, which is an
antiestrogen agent; Mg, which is a cofactor for the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase; and K,
which is an intracellular electrolyte that helps counter the negative effects of Na such as
hypertension.
HO
OH
HO
O
S
OH
N C
O
N C
S
O3S O N
Glucosinolates
Isocyanate
Isothiocyanate
Cauliower contains diindolylmethane (DIM), a lipid-soluble phytochemical contained in the

Brassica group of vegetables in large amounts (Dhall et al. 2010). Cauliower is low in calories but
gives the feeling of satiation and thus is recommended as part of weight loss diets. It plays a role in
the prevention of the development of genetically determined cancers and stimulates the natural
antioxidant system with its glucosinolates and ITCs. It contains substances that can form phenols
and hydrogen sulde during heat treatment, and other substances that diminish the effectiveness of
paracetamol analgesics. A serving of 100 g cauliower yields 21 kcal of energy.
Celery
Celery (Apium graveolens) contains vitamins, minerals, and organic acids. Its volatile oil is rich in
Ca and vitamins. Active phytochemicals identied in celery are falcariondiol, (9Z)-1,9Page 13 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 8 Nutritional value of celery per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Water
Energy
Protein
Total lipid (fat)
Sugars, total
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Lipids
Value/100 g (unit)
95.43 g
16 kcal
0.69 g
0.17 g
2.97 g
1.6 g
1.83 g
40 mg
0.2 mg
11 mg
24 mg
260 mg
80 mg
0.13 mg
0.042 g
0.032 g
Phytochemicals
Vitamins
Thiamin
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate, DFE
Vitamin B12
Vitamin A, RAE
Vitamin A, IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)

Cholesterol
0.079 g
0 mg
3.1 mg
0.021 mg
0.057 mg
0.32 mg
0.074 mg
36 mg
0 mg
22 mg
449 IU
0.27 mg
0 mg
0 IU
29.3 mg
heptadecadiene-4,6-diyne-3,8,11-triol,
oplopandiol,
bergapten
(5,8-dimethoxypsoralen)
isofraxidin, eugenic acid, trans-ferulic acid, trans-cinnamic acid, p-hydroxyphenylethanol ferulate,
caffeoylquinic acid, 5-p-trans-coumaroylquinic acid, sedanolide, lunularin, lunularic acid,
2-(3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenol)-propane-1,3-diol, D-allitol, b-sitosterol, benzoic acid, and succinic
acid (Jorge et al. 2013). The chemical composition of celery is presented in Table 8.
Celery contains 3-butylphthalide, a constituent of celery oil, and its leaves are high in minerals
and vitamins and also contain essential oils, avones, furanocoumarins (furocoumarins), and
coumarins (obsthol, obsthenol, umbelliferone) (Kolarovic et al. 2010). Furocoumarins and their
chemical structures found in celery leaves are as follows:
Angular furocoumarins
H3CO
OCH3
O
Angelicin
Isobergapten
OCH3
OH
H3CO
O
Sphondin
HO
OH
HO
O
Pimpinellin
Isobergaptol
O
O
Sphondinol
5,6-Dihydroxyangelicin
(continued)
Page 14 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
CH3
H3C
H3C
CH3
H3C
H3C
OCH3
O
O
Lanatin
Linear furocoumarins
Heratomin
OH
6Isopentenyloxyisobergapten
5Isopentenyloxysphondin
H3C
H3C
H3C
O
CH3
O
5Hydroxyxanthotoxin
Isoimperatorin
CH3
Imperatorin
Oxypeucedanin
OH
O
O
Psoralen
Bergapten
Xanthotoxin
Bergaptol
OCH3
HO
O
OH
Xanthotoxol
5,8-Dihydroxypsoralen
CH3
OH
OH
CH3
CH3
H3C
HO
OCH3
Isopimpinellin
OH
H3C
O
OCH3
OCH3
OCH3
O
CH3
O
OCH3
H3CO
O
O
CH3
8-Hydroxybergapten
CH3
H3C
H3C
O
H3C
H3C
H3C
O
O
O
O
O
CH3
CH3
Epoxybergamottin
6,7Dihydroxybergamottin
Cnidicin
O
O
CH3
O
O
O
CH3
H3C
O
CH3
CH3
Heraclenin
H3C CH
3
OH
H3C
CH3
OCH3
O
Bergamottin
Phellopterin
O
OCH3
Cnidilin
Oxypeucedaninhydrate
(continued)
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
CH3
O
O
O
CH3
OCH3
H3C
CH3
8-Geranoxypsoralen
CH2
H3C
H3C
CH3
Heraclenol
Byakangelicin
CH3
O
CH3
CH3
CH3
H3C
Santalol
HO
b-Pinen
Isoimperatorin
CH3
NH O
O
H 3C
CH3
Humulen
CH3
Selinen
O
C O
[CH2]3CH3
[CH2]3CH3
CH3
3-Dibutyl phthalate
O
O
H2C
CH3
H3C
H3C
OH
CH3
Limonen
CH3
O
CH3
OH
HO
H3C CH
3
CH3
Byakangelicol
OH
OH
CH3
O
OH
OH
CH3
HO
O
O
O H 3C
O
O
Taxol
Volatile oil gives celery its characteristic taste and odor. The components of celerys volatile oil
are p-cimol, a-santalol, limonene, b-pinene, b-caryophyllene, humulen, a- and b-selinen, and taxol,
but the constituents that give celery its characteristic taste and smell are sedanolide and sedanonic
anhydride.
Cucumber
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is ~96 % water and contains minerals, vitamins, provitamin A, 11 % K,
2 % K, and 10 % NaCl. Cucumber also contains tartaric acid, which inhibits the synthesis of lipids
from carbohydrates and provitamin A. The chemical composition of the cucumber is presented in
Table 9.
Cucumber contains the following unsaponiable matter: 24-ethylcholesta-7,22,25-trienol,
24-ethylcholesta-7,25-dienol, avenasterol, spinasterol, karounidiol, and isokarounidiol. The fatty
acids in cucumber include myristic acid (0.12 %), palmitic acid (12.04 %), palmitoleic acid (0.09 %),
heptadecanoic acid (0.06 %), stearic acid (5.64 %), oleic acid (6.95 %), linoleic acid (70.40 %),
arachidic acid (0.19 %), and a-linolenic acid (0.51 %) (Bie et al. 2013). Specic phytonutrients
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 9 Nutritional value of cucumber per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Water
Protein
Total lipid (fat)
Sugars, total
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Lipids
Value/100 g (unit)
15 kcal
95.23 g
0.65 g
0.11 g
3.63 g
0.5 g
1.67 g
16 mg
0.28 mg
13 mg
24 mg
147 mg
2 mg
0.20 mg
0.037 g
0.005 g
Phytochemicals
Vitamins
Thiamin
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate, DFE
Vitamin B12
Vitamin A, RAE
Vitamin A, IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)

Cholesterol
0.032 g
0 mg
2.8 mg
0.027 mg
0.033 mg
0.098 mg
0.040 mg
7 mg
0.00 mg
5 mg
105 IU
0.03 mg
0.0 mg
0 IU
16.4 mg
provided by cucumbers include avonoids (apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, and kaempferol), lignans
(pinoresinol, lariciresinol, and secoisolariciresinol), and triterpenes (cucurbitacins A, B, C, and D).
HO
O
O
HO
HO
O
OH
OH
N
HO
HOH2C
O
N+
H
Ascorbic acid
Vitamin PP (B3), niacin, niacinamide
Pyridoxine
Vitamin B6
CH3
+
O
HOH2C
N+
H
Pyridoxal
CH3
NH3
O
HOH2C
N+
CH3
Pyridoxamine
Cucumbers plant lignans are converted into enterolignans (enterodiol and enterolactone) in the
presence of digestive tract bacteria. Enterolignans bind to estrogen receptors and have both
proestrogenic and antiestrogenic effects. A 100-g serving of cucumber has 15 kcal.
Dill
Dill (Anethum graveolens) contains monoterpenes, avonoids, minerals, vitamins, ber,
a-phellandrene, eugenol, dillapiol, anethole, limonene, terpinene, myristicin, coumarins,
triterpenes, phenolic acids, and umbelliferones. Dill oil is more than 50 % carvone and also contains
limonene and terpinene. It is pale yellow, darkens over time, and has a fruity smell and a hot,
acrid taste. Signicant phytochemicals in dill are a mixture of a parafn hydrocarbon and 4060 %
of d-carvone (23.1 %) with d-limonene (45 %). Other known phytochemicals in dill
are oxypeucedanin, oxypeucedanin hydrate, falcarindiol, furanocoumarin, and 5-[400 -hydroxy300 -methyl-200 -butenyloxy]-6,7-furocoumarin.
Page 17 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 10 Nutritional value of dill per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Dietary ber
Vitamins
Vitamin B12
Vitamin C
Vitamin A equiv.
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Value/100 g (unit)
180 kJ (43 kcal)
7g
2.1 g
Phytochemicals
Fat
Protein
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Copper
0 mg (0 %)
85 mg (102 %)
7,717 (154 %) IU
0.3 mg (25 %)
1.6 mg (11 %)
0.4 mg (8 %)
0.2 mg (15 %)
150 mg (38 %)
Value/100 g (unit)
1.1 g
3.5 g
208 mg (21 %)
6.6 mg (51 %)
55 mg (15 %)
1.3 mg (62 %)
66 mg (9 %)
738 mg (16 %)
61 mg (4 %)
0.9 mg (9 %)
0.14 g (7 %)
The seeds of dill contains about 3.5 % oil, with a specic gravity of volatile oil ranging between
0.895 and 0.915. Monoterpene hydrocarbons such as a-phellandrene, representing signicant
phytochemicals, are found in dill oil.
CH3
O
CH3
H3C
CH3
C
CH2
CH3
CH2
Carvone fungicides
d-Limonene insecticides
H3C
CH3
a-Terpinene
Unsaponiable matter and methyl esters in the aerial parts of the dill plant have been identied
(Naseri et al. 2012). The chemical composition of dill is presented in Table 10.
b-Sitosterol (3.92 %) is the most signicant sterol in dill, followed by campesterol (2.50 %), and
stigmasterol (2.01 %). N-dotriacontane (58.40 %) is the most signicant hydrocarbon in the
unsaponiable fraction, while linoleic acid (20.51 %) is the most signicant fatty acid present,
followed by nonadecanoic acid (9.95 %).
Eggplant
Eggplant (Solanum melongena) contains starch, minerals, and vitamins. A serving of 100 g eggplant
has 20 kcal. The chemical composition of eggplant is presented in Table 11.
The signicant phytochemicals in the leaves of eggplant are 4-ethylactechol; trans-caffeic,
hydrocaffeic, protocatechuic, and chlorogenic acids; g-hydroxyglutamic acid; lanost-8-en-3b-ol;
Page 18 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 11 Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Fat
Protein
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Lipids
Value/100 g (unit)
104 kJ (25 kcal)
5.88 g
3.53 g
3g
0.18 g
0.98 g
Value/100 g (unit)
229 mg (5 %)
0.16 mg (2 %)
9 mg (1 %)
0.23 mg (2 %)
14 mg (4 %)
0.232 mg (11 %)
24 mg (3 %)
Phytochemicals
Potassium
Zinc
Vitamins
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
0.034 g
0.016 g

Cholesterol
0.076 g
0 mg
0.039 mg (3 %)
0.037 mg (3 %)
0.649 mg (4 %)
0.281 mg (6 %)
0.084 mg (6 %)
22 mg (6 %)
2.2 mg (3 %)
0.3 mg (2 %)
3.5 mg (3 %)
lanosterol; 24-methylene lanost-8-en-3b-ol; cycloartanol; cycloartenol; 24-methylenecycloartanol;

lupeol; b-amyrin; daturaolone; and daturadiol.
H3C
OH
OH
HO
HO
OH
H3C
HO
HO
H3C
OH
O
O
O
H
H
a-Solanine
H3C
CH3
O
OH
Eggplant also contains 4a-methylsterols, vanillin, isoscopoletin, ethyl caffeate, trans-ferulic acid,
and p-aminobenzaldehyde, along with four phenolic amides: N-trans-feruloyltyramine, N-trans-pcoumaroyltyramine, N-trans-feruloyloctopamine, and N-trans-p-coumaroyloctopamine. The eggplant fruit contains solasodin, antioxidants, and a number of nutrients. It is rich in ber and low in fat
and salt. Immature green fruit contains a toxin (solanine) that inhibits Ca (Ge et al. 2013). It also
contains dioscin, protodioscin, stigmasterol, stigmasterol--D-glucoside, -sitosterol--D-glucoside,
and methyl protodioscin, and is rich in polyphenols. The bark contains bers and potassium.
Garlic
Garlic (Allium sativum) is a seleniferous plant, i.e., it absorbs selenium from the soil even when Se
concentration in the soil is not favorable. Garlic contains allicin and carbohydrates that give it a high
nutritional value (Bagiu et al. 2012). The chemical composition of garlic (100 g/edible product) is
Page 19 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 12 Nutritional value of garlic per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Vitamins
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Value/100 g (unit)
623 kJ (149 kcal)
33.06 g
1g
2.1 g
Phytochemicals
Protein
Fat
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Selenium
0.2 mg (17 %)
0.11 mg (9 %)
0.7 mg (5 %)
0.596 mg (12 %)
1.235 mg (95 %)
3 mg (1 %)
31.2 mg (38 %)
Value/100 g (unit)
6.36 g
0.5 g
181 mg (18 %)
1.7 mg (13 %)
25 mg (7 %)
1.672 mg (80 %)
153 mg (22 %)
401 mg (9 %)
17 mg (1 %)
1.16 mg (12 %)
14.2 mg
Garlic contains P and vitamin B1 polysuldes, 1,2-DT (1,2-vinyldithiin), and thiacremonone, and
its essential oils contain allyl polysuldes (i.e., a diversity of compounds).
H2C CH H2C S S
CH2 CH CH2
O
Allicin
O
H2C CH CH2 S CH2 CH CH COOH
NH2
S-allyl-L-cysteine
HN
H3C
O O
S
OH
N-acetyl-S-allyl-L-cysteine
S CH2 CH CH2
S
S CH2 CH CH2
Allitridum
H2C CH CH2 S CH2 CH COOH

O
NH2
Alliin
HO
OH O
OH
OH
Kaempferol
Garlic bulbs contain anthocyanins, proteins, amino acids, glycosides of kaempferol and quercetin,
saponin-like components, sterols (-sitosterol, cholesterol, and campesterol), vitamins, polycarbohydrates, and prostaglandins A2 and F1; four steroidal saponins: protoisoeruboside, eruboside B,
isoeruboside B, and sativioside C; and two amino acids: adensine and tryptophan. An active
component in garlic is scordinin A1 isolated, which upon alkaline hydrolysis yields a peptide and
allylthiofructosiduronic acid. Bulb yields have a mixture of polycarbohydrates containing pectic
acid, a D-galactan, and a fructan component containing fructose. A 100-g portion of garlic leaves
contains 83.2 mg kaempferol and salts of iodine.
Garlic (as well as onions and leeks) is rich in a variety S-containing compounds such as
thiosulnates (allicin), sulfoxides (alliin), and dithiins (ajoene). These compounds are responsible
for garlics characteristic pungent odor. S-containing garlic constituents that help lower our risk of
oxidative stress include alliin, allicin, allixin, allyl polysuldes, diallyl sulde, diallyl disulfude,
diallyl
trisulde,
N-acetylcysteine,
N-acetyl-S-allylcysteine,
S-allylcysteine,
S-allylmercaptocysteine, S-ethylcysteine, S-methylcysteine, S-propylcysteine, 1,2-vinyldithiin
(1,2-DT), and thiacremonone.
Page 20 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Leeks
Leek (Allium porrum) has a more delicate avor and is sweeter than onion. It contains proteins,
carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, mucilage, and cellulose. A serving of 30 g raw leek has 54 cal.
The energy value is 22 cal per 100 g. The chemical composition of leek is presented in Table 13.
Leeks are a source of vitamin K, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A (in the form
of carotenoids), Cu, Fe, Mg, Ca, dietary ber, and omega-3 fatty acids. The leeks characteristic
avor is due to its essential oil content which is 0.020.08 % by weight. The folate is in the bioactive
form of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate.
H
H
O
OH
O
OH
OH
OH
H
O
H H
OH
OH
O
OH
OH
Cellulose
H
H
OH
OH
H
O
H
O
H
HOH2C
HH
OH
CH2OH
O
H
H
HH
OH
H
H
OH
OH
OH
H
H
HOH2C
OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
H H
H
O
O
CH2OH
H H
H
OH
HH
OH
H H
CH2OCOCH3 CH2OH
CH2OH
O
O
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
O
O
O
O
H OH H
H OH HO
H OH HO
H
CH2OH
O
H
H
O
H
O
OH
O
OH
H
OH
O
H H
OH
OH
Xylan
Arabinoxylan
CH2OH
OH
H
O
H H
CH2OH
O
H
H
Glucomannan
Four spirostanol saponins have been isolated from the bulb of A. porrum L. Leek contains (25R)5a-spirostan-3b,6b-diol 3-O-{O-b-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 ! 2)-O-[b-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 ! 3)]O-b-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 ! 4)-b-D-galactopyranoside}, 6b-diol 3-O-{O-b-D-glucopyranosyl(1 ! 3)-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 ! 2)-O-[b-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 ! 3)]-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl(1 ! 4)-b-D-galactopyranoside}, and (25R)-5a-spirostan-3b. It is rich in water at 8790 % content
and low in fat at ~0.4 % (Zhou et al. 2013). Leek also contains salts (oxalates) that can interfere with
the absorption of Ca in the body.
Page 21 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 13 Nutritional value of leek per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Fat
Protein
Water
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Value/100 g (unit)
255 kJ (61 kcal)
14.15 g
3.9 g
1.8 g
0.3 g
1.5 g
83 g
Phytochemicals
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
59 mg (6 %)
2.1 mg (16 %)
28 mg (8 %)
0.481 mg (23 %)
35 mg (5 %)
180 mg (4 %)
Value/100 g (unit)
83 mg (10 %)
1,000 mg (9 %)
1,900 mg
0.06 mg (5 %)
0.03 mg (3 %)
0.4 mg (3 %)
0.14 mg (3 %)
0.233 mg (18 %)
64 mg (16 %)
12 mg (14 %)
0.92 mg (6 %)
47 mg (45 %)
Lentils
Lentil (Lens culinaris) is rich in proteins, starch, cellulose, and minerals and has a low
fat content. It also contains carotene and vitamins, uric acid, arsenic, kaempferol glycoside, and
30 ,40 , 7-trihydroxyavone (Flavonoids). A serving of 120 g lentils has 154 cal. The chemical
composition of lentils is presented in Table 14.
A serving of 100 g dried lentils contains 6.8 % of meal nitrogen as nonprotein nitrogen. Lentil
seed contains such phytochemicals as tricetin, luteolin, a diglycosyldelphinidin, and two
proanthocyanidins.
OH
OH
O
HO
OH
N
O
O O
OH
HO
OH
HO
HO
O O
O
N
OO
CH3
OH
O
O
HO
HO
HO
HO
O
O
N
HO
N
Rutin
Quercetin
Inositol hexanicotinate
The seeds also contain antinutritional phytochemicals (factors), including protease inhibitors,
lectins, phytic acid, saponins, and tannins (moderate amounts) (Butu et al. 2014a). Lentil starch
contains 36.1 % amylose. About half (47.1 %) of lentil proteins are soluble in 1.0 M sodium
chloride, 3.8 % are soluble in water, 3.1 % are soluble in 70 % ethanol, and 14.9 % are soluble in
diluted hydrochloric acid. Only 24.0 % of lentil proteins are not solubilized by these solvents. Lentils
have all of the essential amino acids, especially glutamic acid, aspartic acid, arginine, leucine, and
lysine. Minor amino acids in lentils are methionine, cysteine, and tryptophan. Lentils are a good
substitute for meat (100 g cooked lentils contain the same amount of protein as 134 g beef).
Page 22 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 14 Nutritional value of lentil per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Vitamins
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Value/100 g (unit)
1,477 kJ (353 kcal)
60 g
2g
31 g
0.87 mg (76 %)
0.211 mg (18 %)
2.605 mg (17 %)
2.120 mg (42 %)
0.54 mg (42 %)
479 mg (120 %)
4.4 mg (5 %)
Phytochemicals
Value/100 g (unit)
Fat
Protein
Water
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
1g
26 g
10.4 g
56 mg (6 %)
7.54 mg (58 %)
122 mg (34 %)
451 mg (64 %)
955 mg (20 %)
6 mg (0 %)
4.78 mg (50 %)
They have a low glycemic index and are rich in soluble and insoluble ber and inositol, the C6H12O6
part of B-complex vitamins.
Lentils contain chiro-inositol, a compound that lowers blood glucose. This vegetable also
contains two antioxidants, quercetin and rutin. It is an excellent source of Mg and provides at
least 20 % of the recommended daily dose. Lentils contain no cholesterol. The energy value is about
110160 kcal/100 g, depending on the variety and how they are prepared.
Lettuce
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) contains starch, minerals, vitamins, and provitamin A. The chemical
composition of lettuce is presented in Table 15.
The energy value of 100 g lettuce is 12 kcal. Lettuce contains avonoids, anthocyanidins, avan3-ols, avanones, avones, avonols, and proanthocyanidin.
CH3
CH2CH3
3
OH
H3C
O
N
HOH2C
Mg
CH2
18
CH3
CO2CH3
H3C=HC
Lactucin
CH3
CH3
CH3
17 CH2CH2CO2CH2CH2=C(CH2CH2CH2CH)3CH3
H CH3
Chlorophyll
Lettuce seeds contain japonicin A, isoquercitrin, avonol glycoside (lactuca sativoside A), and
caffeic acid. Lettuce contains triterpenoids, saponins, simple phenols, oxalate, tannin, phytate,
ascorbic acid, chlorophyll (it is an antianemic), amino acids, and mucilage. The whole plant is
rich in a milky bitter sap (lactucarium) that ows freely when the plant is wounded. Lactucarium,
because it is a latex, is known as lettuce opium; thus, lettuce has a mild narcotic effect due to two
Page 23 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 15 Nutritional value of lettuce per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Riboavin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
55 kJ (13 kcal)
2.23 g
0.94
1.1 g
166 mg (21 %)
1987 mg (18 %)
1223 mg
0.057 mg (5 %)
0.062 mg (5 %)
0.15 mg (3 %)
0.082 mg (6 %)
73 mg (18 %)
3.7 mg (4 %)
0.18 mg (1 %)
102.3 mg (97 %)
Phytochemicals
Value/100 g (unit)
Water
Fat
Protein
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
95.63 g
0.22 g
1.35 g
35 mg (4 %)
1.24 mg (10 %)
13 mg (4 %)
0.179 mg (9 %)
33 mg (5 %)
238 mg (5 %)
5 mg (0 %)
0.2 mg (2 %)
sesquiterpene lactones in lactucarium. Lettuce also contains lactucin (an ingredient of lactucarium)
and chemicals that act as hormones (Ghorbani et al. 2013).
Lovage
Lovage (Levisticum ofcinale) contains etheric substances and volatile oils present in all plant parts
and seeds, giving it the characteristic pungent and aromatic odor.
OH
CH3
CH3
OCH3
OH
H3C
H3C
OH CH3
CH3
CH2
Eugenol
a-Terpineol
Carvacrol
O
O
O
O
H3C
Coumarin
O
OCH3
Bergapten
Xanthotoxin
Its chemical composition includes essential oil, organic acids, gumirezine, mineral salts, vitamins,
coumarin (Dragan et al. 2008), and the tannins in lovage (containing several phenolic hydroxyl
groups, and carboxyl groups). It is capable of precipitating proteins that form insoluble, rot-proof,
Page 24 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 16 Chemical composition of roots oil from L. officinale

Compounds
cis-Ligustilide
trans-Ligustilide
3n-Butylidene phthalide E
3n-Butylidene phthalide Z
3n-Butylidene-4,5-dihydrophthalide
b-Phellandrene
a-Terpinyl acetate
Palmitic acid
Phytol
Linoleic acid
Stigmasterol1
b-Sitosterol
Value/100 g (unit)
42.0 %
3.95 %
1.75 %
0.73 %
4.9 %
0.28 %
0.08 %
2.81 %
2.62 %
3.52 %
11 %
1.28 %
Compounds
a-Pinen
Camphene
b-Pinene
Myrcene
a-Phellandrene
a-Terpinene
Limonene
b-Phellandrene
cis-Ocimene
g-Terpinene/trans-ocimene
Terpinolene
Pentylcyclohexadiene
Pentylbenzene
Value/100 g (unit)
4.54.6 %
1.01.1 %
7.18.0 %
0.9 %
0.40.5 %
0.1 %
0.81.2 %
8.710.7 %
0.20.4 %
0.20.3 %
1.21.5 %
7.412.7 %
0.10.3 %
and waterproof precipitates with protein. The chemical composition of lovage is presented in
Table 16.
The oil content of the dried cut roots of lovage is between 0.11 % and 1.80 % and that of the
leaves, 0.09 %. Phytochemicals represent over 87 % of all the oil and include trans-p-mentha-2,8dien-1-ol, iso-thujyl alcohol, p-mentha-1,5-dien-8-ol, bicycl[3.2.0]heptan-3-ol, 2-methylene-6,6dimethyl, trans-carveol, perillaldehyde, sabinyl acetate, perillyl alcohol, methyl ester of methylpentadecate acid, and methyl hexadecadienate acid. Root oil contains high quantities of (E)-ligustilide
and pentylcyclohexadiene, and leaf oil contains high amounts of a-terpinyl acetate and
bphellandrene. The content of (Z)-ligustilide in leaf oil was less than that in root oil. The plants
roots contain 0.61 % volatile oil. The oil obtained from lovage lowers blood pressure and
stimulates diuresis. Lovage essential oil has the following properties: d1515 = 1.001.05,
a2020 = +6 , nD20 = 1.5361.554, and acidity index = 216. Consumption during pregnancy is
not recommended since it stimulates uterine contractions.
Onion
Onion (Allium cepa) contains antibiotic substances. Several studies have shown the presence of
albumin, sugar, some amounts of carbohydrates, vitamins, and avonoids (Samra et al. 2013). The
chemical composition of onion (per 100 g of edible product) is presented in Table 17.
Known constituents of onion are sugar, vitamins, mineral salts, Na, K, phosphate and nitrate
limestone, Fe, S, I, Si, phosphoric and acetic acids, allyl propyl disulde, volatile oil, glucokinin,
oxidase diastase (latter sterilized by heat), and antibacterial substances. It also contains carbohydrates, vitamins, and active substances that are antimicrobial agents (Putnoky et al. 2013). Onion
contains alliinase, an enzyme; iso-alliin, a sulfur amino acid; and propanethial-S-oxide, which
causes tearing.
Page 25 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 17 Nutritional value of onion per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Vitamins
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
H
H3C CH S
O
2
CH2C C
OH
NH2
Value/100 g (unit)
166 kJ (40 kcal)
9.34 g
4.24 g
1.7 g
Phytochemicals
Fat
Protein
Water
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Zinc
Fluoride
0.046 mg (4 %)
0.027 mg (2 %)
0.116 mg (1 %)
0.123 mg (2 %)
0.12 mg (9 %)
19 mg (5 %)
7.4 mg (9 %)
O
H
H
C
S S C C CH2
C
H2C
H
H
H
Value/100 g (unit)
0.1 g
1.1 g
89.11 g
23 mg (2 %)
0.21 mg (2 %)
10 mg (3 %)
0.129 mg (6 %)
29 mg (4 %)
146 mg (3 %)
0.17 mg (2 %)
1.1 mg
H3C
NH
O
Alliin
Alliinase
Cepanone
OH
CH3
S
CH3
Cycloallin
Onion also contains quercetin (the absorption of quercetin from onions is twice that of quercetin
from tea and apples is absorbed at a greater rate than that from onions) and dihydroaliin (an antibiotic).
Red onion contains sciliroside, a glycosidic insecticide, along with scilirosidine aglycone. Onions
contain phytochemicals known as disuldes, trisuldes, cepaenes, and vinyl dithiins. They are also a
source of vitamin C, vitamin B6, potassium, dietary ber, folic acid, Ca, and Fe and are high in protein.
Onions are low in sodium, contain no fat, are low in calories, and are cholesterol-free. Others include
ryania, rotenoids, nicotinoids and a group containing strychnine and scilliroside.
Parsley
Parsley (Petroselinum sativum) is important for its roots, leaves, and seeds because they are rich in
vitamin C and essential oil. Parsley is an antioxidant and contains vitamins A, C, complex B, and E,
and minerals Fe and Mg. Other substances contained in its oil are myristicin allyltetramethoxybenzene, a-felandren, a-terpinene, caryophyllene, terpinolene, and p-cineole, and
other components in small quantities such as apiol (Farshori et al. 2013).
CH2
O
O
CH3
CH3
H3C
OH
CH3
O
CH3
Myristicin
H3C
a-Felandren-8-ol
CH3
a-Terpinene
(continued)
Page 26 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
CH3
CH3
OCH3
CH2
O
O
O
H3C
H3C
CH3
Terpinolene
OCH3
CH3
p-Cineol
Apiol
Parsley contains three times more vitamins than an orange (100 g has ~150 mg vitamin C) and
twice as much Fe as spinach. It contains avonoids that neutralize free radicals and monoterpenes,
coumarin, psoralen, 8-methoxypsoralen, 5-methoxypsoralen, oxypeucedanin, isopimpinellin,
cusin, bergapten, majudin, and heraclin. Parsley contains the estrogenic avone glycosides
acetylapiin and petroside (Butnariu 2012). The chemical composition of parsley is presented in
Table 18.
Parsley contains polyacetylenes:
n
All-cis-polyacetylene (C2H2)n
All-trans-polyacetylene (C2H2)n
and naturally occurring coumarins:

H3CO
O
O
H3CO
Coumarin
O
OCH3
Umbelliferone
5,7-Dihydroxycoumarin
HO
HO
Esculetin
Daphnetin
HO
OCH3
Scoparone
Hydrangetin
OH
5-Methoxy-7-hydoxycoumarin
OH
Limettin
HO
HO
Fraxetin
H3CO
OCH3
OH
Isofraxitin
H3CO
7Methoxycoumarin
HO
H3CO
O
H3CO
HO
OCH3
O
O
OCH3
O
HO
H3CO
HO
Fraxetindimethylether
OH
HO
H3CO
H3CO
Scopoletin
H3CO
OH
Daphnetin-7-methylether
H3CO
Hydroxy-7methoxycoumarin
(continued)
Page 27 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
HO
O
H3CO
HO
OCH3
O
H3C
CH3
H3C
CH3
7-(2,3-Epoxy-3-methoxylbutoxy) 7-Isoprenyloxycoumarin
coumarin
Isoscopoletin
Daphnetin dimethyl ether

H3CO
OCH3
H3CO
O
CH3
CH3
H3C
H3C
CH3
7-Methoxy-8isoprenyloxycoumarin
O
CH3
5-Methoxy-7-isoprenyloxycoumarin
CH3
O
CH3
Auraptene
H3CO
H3C
CH3
6-Methoxyauraptene
CH3
CH3
H3C
7,8Diisoprenyloxycoumarin
CH3
O
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
O
CH3
O
O
CH3
7-Methoxy-6-geranyloxycoumarin
H3C
CH3
Epoxyauraptene
O
H3CO
CH3
CH3
H3C
CH3
7-Isoprenyloxy-8methoxycoumarin
6-Isoprenyl-7methoxycoumarin
H3C
OCH3
H3C
H3CO
H3CO
O
CH3
H3CO
5-Isoprenyl-7methoxycoumarin
O
O
CH3
6-Methoxy-7isoprenyloxycoumarin
CH3
H3C
CH3
H3C
O
OCH3
CH3
H3C
H3C
CH3
Umbelliprenin
H3C
CH3
A serving of 1 g dried parsley contains about 6.0 mg of lycopene, 10.7 mg of a-carotene, 82.9 mg of
lutein + zeaxanthin, and 80.7 mg of b-carotene (Butnariu et al. 2014). Parsley is a source of
avonoids, luteolin, and apigenin.
Page 28 of 49

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 18 Nutritional value of parsley per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Fat
Protein
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
151 kJ (36 kcal)
0.79 g
2.97 g
421 mg (53 %)
5,054 mg (47 %)
5,561 mg
0.086 mg (7 %)
0.09 mg (8 %)
1.313 mg (9 %)
0.4 mg (8 %)
0.09 mg (7 %)
152 mg (38 %)
133 mg (160 %)
0.75 mg (5 %)
1,640 mg (1562 %)
Phytochemicals
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Value/100 g (unit)
6.33 g
0.85 g
3.3 g
138 mg (14 %)
6.2 mg (48 %)
50 mg (14 %)
0.16 mg (8 %)
58 mg (8 %)
554 mg (12 %)
56 mg (4 %)
1.07 mg (11 %)
Table 19 Nutritional value of parsnips per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Value/100 g (unit)
314 kJ (75 kcal)
18 g
4.8
4.9 g
36 mg (4 %)
0.59 mg (5 %)
29 mg (8 %)
0.56 mg (27 %)
71 mg (10 %)
375 mg (8 %)
10 mg (1 %)
0.59 mg (6 %)
Phytochemicals
Fat
Protein
Water
Vitamins
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
0.3 g
1.2 g
79.53 g
0.09 mg (8 %)
0.05 mg (4 %)
0.7 mg (5 %)
0.6 mg (12 %)
0.09 mg (7 %)
67 mg (17 %)
17 mg (20 %)
1.49 mg (10 %)
22.5 mg (21 %)
Parsnips
Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) is an aromatic herb that contains active phytochemicals, minerals, and
vitamins. The dietary ber in parsnip is part soluble and part insoluble (inulin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin). The chemical composition of parsnip is presented in Table 19.
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Table 20 Nutritional value of pea per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Value/100 g (unit)
339 kJ (81 kcal)
14.45 g
5.67 g
5.1 g
Phytochemicals
Fat
Protein
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
25 mg (3 %)
1.47 mg (11 %)
33 mg (9 %)
0.41 mg (20 %)
108 mg (15 %)
244 mg (5 %)
5 mg (0 %)
1.24 mg (13 %)
Value/100 g (unit)
0.4 g
5.42 g
38 mg (5 %)
449 mg (4 %)
2,477 mg
0.266 mg (23 %)
0.132 mg (11 %)
2.09 mg (14 %)
0.169 mg (13 %)
65 mg (16 %)
40 mg (48 %)
0.13 mg (1 %)
24.8 mg (24 %)
Parsnip contains furanocoumarins (psoralen, xanthotoxin, isopimpinellin, angelicin, and

bergapten), which deter herbivores from eating its foliage. Parsnip also contains antioxidants such
as falcarinol, falcarindiol, panaxydiol, and methyl-falcarindiol.
HOCH2
HO
HO CH2OH
OH H
CH2
H
O
OH
HO
CH2OH
O
H
H
OH
OH
Inulin
CH2
O
H H
OH
H3C
H3C
OCH3
O
O
O
OCOCH3
Xanthotoxin
HO CH2OH
H3C
O
Bergapten
CH3
OCO CH CH2 CH3

CH3
H3CO
CH3
HO CH OH
2
H
Visnadin
Khelin
Its volatile oil contains hexyl butyrate, octanol, octyl butyrate, octyl hexanoate, decyl butyrate,
and phenylethyl butyrate (Carroll et al. 2000).
Peas
Pea (Pisum sativum) is rich in starch and contains proteins, vitamins, carotene, oil, cellulose, and
minerals. A serving of 100 g fresh peas has 42 kcal. P. sativum consumption decreases cholesterol.
The chemical composition of pea is presented in Table 20.
Yellow pea contains 22 % protein, 1 % fat, and 59 % carbohydrates and minerals and has high
energy value (359 kcal/100 g).
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
HN
N
H
HO
N
H
CH2OH
O
H
H
H
OH
OH
H H
O
OH
H
H
OH
H H
O
CH2OH
OH
H H
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
H
H
O
H H
CH2OH
O
H
O
OH
OH
b-Glucan
Uric acid
Pea seeds contain starch, albuminoids, galactolipids, alkaloids, trigonelline and piplartine, essential oil and soluble carbohydrates, kaempferol-3-triglucoside, quercetin-3-triglucoside and
p-coumaric acid esters, glycoside (pisatoside), pyrimidine derivatives and amino acids, pisatin and
L-pipecolic acid, free homoserine, and methyl-4-chloindole-3-acetate. Germinating pea seedlings
contain a high concentration of D-alanine. A cerebroside has been isolated from pea seeds and upon
hydrolysis yields hydroxytricosanoic acid, sphingosine base and glucose. Ferritin has been isolated
from dried pea. Cis-, trans-, and trans, trans-xanthoxin were found in the roots of peas. Pea contains
phytoestrogens or similar substances that are chemically isoavones, phenylcoumarin, and naphthalene (Aughey et al. 2013). The maximum concentration of phytoestrogens is achieved during the
owering period.
Peppers
Pepper (Capsicum annuum) fruits contain glucose (7.33 % fresh weight [fw]), fructose (1.99 % fw),
sucrose (0.33 % fw), starch (1.784.40 % dry weight [dw]), hemicellulose (0.853.14 g% dw),
pectic substances (7.89.8 g% dw), cellulose (14.83 g% dw in green fruit and 13.50 g% dw in dried
fruit), fat (0.33 %), and carotenoids (127284 mg/kg fw). Pepper contains coloring carotenoids with
the following structures:
CH2NHCHCO(CH2)4CH=CHCH
CH3
HO
CH3
HO
O
OH
OCH3
CH3
OH
Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide)
Luteolin
OH
OH
H3C
H3C
H3C
H 3C
H3C
H3C
CH3
H3C
Capsorubin
H3C
CH3
O
H3C
CH3
CH3
O
CH3
CH3
O CH
H3C
3
CH3
OH
CH3
CH3
Capsanthin
(continued)
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Zeaxanthin
HO
CH3
H3C
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
OH
H3C
CH3
H3C
CH3 H3C
CH3
b-Carotene
CH3 H C
3
CH3
H3C
Astaxanthin
O
CH3
H3C
CH3
HO
CH3
OH
H3C
CH3
CH3
CH3
H3C
CH3
Pepper fruits contain small quantities of essential oil, vitamin C (139160 % mg red fruits),
vitamin B1 (0.05 mg% g1 fw), vitamin B2 (0.05 mg% g1 fw), vitamin PP (0.33 mg% g1 fw),
vitamin E (0.65 mg% g1 fw green fruit and 1 mg% g1 fw red fruit), vitamin A (0.756.00 mg%
g1 fw), vitamin P (5300 g sp citrin, avonoids that act synergistically with vitamin C), enzymes
(peroxidase, lipoxidase, and cellulose), irritant capsaicin (hot variety), and macro- and trace
elements. The energy value of pepper is 21 kcal/100 g.
Capsaicin [N-vanillyl-8-methyl-6-(E)-noneamide] is the main capsaicinoid in peppers, followed
by dihydrocapsaicin, and is the cause of the sensation of heat of chilies. Others capsaicinoids in
pepper are nordihydro-, homo-, homodihydro-, nor-, and nornorcapsaicin. Capsaicin is an important
phytochemical condiment, and capsanthin and capsorubin are phytochemicals responsible for the
red coloring present in chili peppers (Butnariu et al. 2012).
The chemical composition of pepper is presented in Table 21.
Capsaicin in red pepper is a powerful insecticide. It also gives chili peppers their hot taste and a
small amount (0.010.25 %) causes local irritation. It can be extracted with organic solvent
(Butnariu and Samra 2013b). Pepper contains saponins, carbohydrates, and proteins. Green pepper
contains more vitamin C, while yellow and red peppers contain more b-carotene. Pepper is a second
source of vitamin C, immediately after parsley (200 g pepper gives the daily vitamin C requirement
for an adult); it also contains vitamin A. The hot taste of chili peppers is measured in Scoville heat
units (SHU).
Potato
Potato (Solanum tuberosum) contains provitamin A, vitamin K (antibleeding and antianemia),
S (combats excess oil and Fe), and tuberin (a nitric substance), and it is one of the main sources
of vitamin C. By hydrolysis of tomatine, the a-glycone derivative tomatidine is obtained, and also
two molecules of D-glucose and one molecule of D-galactose and D-xylose. The chemical composition of potato is presented in Table 22.
Four monocarbohydrate units form lycotetraose (tomatidine and lycotetraose, hydrolysis products of alpha-tomatine). Solasodine is the aglycone in solasonine and its carbohydrate component is
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Table 21 Nutritional value of pepper per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Value/100 g (unit)
84 kJ (20 kcal)
4.64 g
2.4 g
1.7 g
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Fluoride
10 mg (1 %)
0.34 mg (3 %)
10 mg (3 %)
0.122 mg (6 %)
20 mg (3 %)
175 mg (4 %)
3 mg (0 %)
0.13 mg (1 %)
2 mg
Phytochemicals
Fat
Protein
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
0.17 g
0.86 g
18 mg (2 %)
208 mg (2 %)
341 mg
0.057 mg (5 %)
0.028 mg (2 %)
0.48 mg (3 %)
0.099 mg (2 %)
0.224 mg (17 %)
10 mg (3 %)
80.4 mg (97 %)
0.37 mg (2 %)
7.4 mg (7 %)
Table 22 Nutritional value of potato per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Starch
Dietary ber
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Value/100 g (unit)
321 kJ (77 kcal)
17.47 g
15.44 g
2.2 g
12 mg (1 %)
0.78 mg (6 %)
23 mg (6 %)
0.153 mg (7 %)
57 mg (8 %)
421 mg (9 %)
6 mg (0 %)
0.29 mg (3 %)
Phytochemicals
Fat
Protein
Water
Vitamins
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
0.1 g
2g
75 g
0.08 mg (7 %)
0.03 mg (3 %)
1.05 mg (7 %)
0.296 mg (6 %)
0.295 mg (23 %)
16 mg (4 %)
19.7 mg (24 %)
0.01 mg (0 %)
1.9 mg (2 %)
identical to a-solanine (substante/solatrioza). Potato is a source of complex carbohydrates

(D-glucose, D-galactose, and L-rhamnose) and ber and provides trace elements, minerals (K, Mg,
Fe), vitamins, and especially vitamin C. Potato is about 80 % water, is a source of carbohydrates
(23 g carbohydrates per 100 g), contains little protein (1.6 g/100 g), and has low fat. It is a source of
vegetal protein and is low in fat and has no more than 80 cal per 100 g (Albiski et al. 2012). It
contains minerals such as K (375 mg/100 g), Ca (411 mg/100 g), Mg and Fe. Potatoes are low fat in
Na (only 7 mg/100 g) and a source of B vitamins and b-carotene. The vitamin C content of raw
potatoes is high (30 mg/100 g), greater than that of carrots and green beans, but decreases
signicantly with time after harvest; 9 months after harvest this value decreases to 8 mg/100 g.
Potato has a high microelement content, surpassing that of fruits like banana and apple. K in potato is
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
involved in intracellular movement and the balance of muscles. The energy value of potato is
97 kcal/100 g.
The main glycoalkaloid in potato is a-solanine. The structures of glycoalkaloids in potato are as
follows:
CH3
CH3
HO
CH3
HO
HO
HO
H3C
HO
H O
OH
HO
O
H
HO
HO
HO N
H
H
H
Solasonine
O
HO
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
HO
HO
HO
HO
H3C
HO
H O
OH
HO
O
H
HO
HN
HO N
H
CH3
CH3
H
H
CH3
H O
H
H
HO
O
HO
CH3
Solasodine
HO
Solamargine
Tomatine
OH
OH
HO
O
HO
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
HO
O
OH
O
H3C
H3C
H3C
H
N
H3C
Pumpkin
Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) contains b-carotene, leucine, peporezina, tyrosine, carbohydrates, proteins and minerals, water, Ca, P, K, Mg, Zn, vitamins (folic acid, vitamin B2, and B1), unsaturated
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Table 23 Nutritional value of pumpkin per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Fat
Protein
Minerals
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Zinc
Value/100 g (unit)
69 kJ (16 kcal)
3.4 g
2.2 g
1.1 g
0.2 g
1.2 g
0.35 mg (3 %)
17 mg (5 %)
0.175 mg (8 %)
38 mg (5 %)
262 mg (6 %)
0.29 mg (3 %)
Phytochemicals
Water
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
95 g
10 mg (1 %)
120 mg (1 %)
2,125 mg
0.048 mg (4 %)
0.142 mg (12 %)
0.487 mg (3 %)
0.155 mg (3 %)
0.218 mg (17 %)
29 mg (7 %)
17 mg (20 %)
3 mg (3 %)
oils, and antioxidants. The fat content of pumpkin is 3555 %. Pumpkin is a good source of K,
starch, Ca, and P (Shapiro et al. 2013). The chemical composition of pumpkin is presented in
Table 23.
Pumpkin seeds are rich in oil with medicinal properties. They contain anticancer substances such
as ber, pectin, sitosterol, and vitamin E in the following forms: a-tocopherol, g-tocopherol,
D-tocopherol, a-tocomonoenol, and g-tocomonoenol. Pumpkin seed contains moderate concentrations of minerals, including P, Mg, and K. Pumpkin contains the antioxidant carotenoid lycopene as
well as small amounts of provitamin A, vitamin C, K, and cellulose (including the pectin-soluble
fraction).
CH3
H3C
H3C
CH3
H
CH3
CH3
H3C
H2C
CH3
H3C
H3 C
H3C
HO
HO
b-Sitosterol
HO
Vitamin D2
CH3
H3C
CH3
H3C
CH3
Vitamin E
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
OH
CH3
Vitamin A
The energy value of 100 g pumpkin is 11 kcal. The amino acid proles indicate that methionine
and tryptophan are the most limited, while arginine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid are the most
plentiful. Pumpkin contains the saturated fatty acids palmitic acid and stearic acid and the unsaturated fatty acids oleic acid and linoleic acid.
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Radishes
Radishes [Raphanus sativus (red radish) and Raphanus sativus niger (black radish)] contain mainly
vitamins that are antiscorbutic and antisterility (tocopherol), vitamin B, minerals, and rafanol, a
sulfur glycoside with bactericidal potential. Radishes contain Ca and vitamin D, which is needed by
the body for Ca absorption. Nitrogen phytochemicals present in radish roots include pyrrolidine,
phenethylamine, N-methylphenethylamine, 1,20 -pyrrolidin-tion-3il-3-acid-carboxylic-1,2,3,4tetrahydro--carboline, and sinapine.
Cytokinin (6-benzylamino-9-glucosylpurine) is a signicant metabolite of 6-benzylaminopurine
(6-BAP) in root radish. A minor biometabolite of 6-BAP in radish has been identied
as 6-benzylamino-3--D-glucopyranosylpurine. In addition, the diamines diaminotoluene,
4,40 -methylenedianiline, and 1,6-hexanediamine were isolated during germination of young radish
seeds (Roh et al. 2013). vitamin B1 is produced at a greater rate during germination.
HO
Rasatiol
OCH3
H3CO
O
O
O
O
OH
OH
HO
OH
OH O O
H3CO
OH
OCH3
OH
The chemical composition of radish is presented in Table 24.
Red Beets
Red beet (Beta vulgaris) contains the following main components: 810 % carbohydrates, amino
acids (betaine and asparagine), vitamins, provitamin A, micronutrients (minerals, with a small
Table 24 Nutritional value of radish per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Value/100 g (unit)
66 kJ (16 kcal)
3.4 g
1.86 g
1.6 g
0.012 mg (1 %)
0.039 mg (3 %)
0.254 mg (2 %)
0.165 mg (3 %)
0.071 mg (5 %)
25 mg (6 %)
14.8 mg (18 %)
Phytochemicals
Fat
Protein
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Zinc
Fluoride
Value/100 g (unit)
0.1 g
0.68 g
25 mg (3 %)
0.34 mg (3 %)
10 mg (3 %)
0.069 mg (3 %)
20 mg (3 %)
233 mg (5 %)
0.28 mg (3 %)
6 mg
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
Table 25 Nutritional value of red beet per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Fat
Protein
Water
Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Value/100 g (unit)
180 kJ (43 kcal)
9.56 g
6.76 g
2.8 g
0.17 g
1.61 g
87.58 g
16 mg (2 %)
0.8 mg (6 %)
23 mg (6 %)
0.329 mg (16 %)
40 mg (6 %)
Phytochemicals
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Value/100 g (unit)
325 mg (7 %)
78 mg (5 %)
0.35 mg (4 %)
2 mg (0 %)
20 mg (0 %)
0.031 mg (3 %)
0.04 mg (3 %)
0.334 mg (2 %)
0.155 mg (3 %)
0.067 mg (5 %)
109 mg (27 %)
4.9 mg (6 %)
amount of rubidium and cesium), anthocyanin pigments (red color), and ber (Hernndez-Martnez
et al. 2013). The chemical composition of red beets is presented in Table 25.
The protein in the red beet leaf comprises the following amino acids: threonine, valine, cystine,
methionine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, histidine, arginine, aspartic acid, serine,
glutamic acid, proline, glycine, alanine, and tyrosine. The red beet leaf contains phenolic compounds, mainly betacyanins (betanin and isobetanin), and ferulic acid ester [b-D-fructofuranosyla-D-(6-O-(E)-feruloylglucopyranoside)].
Asparagine
O
H2N
OH
O
NH2
O H3C
HO
CH3
Betaine
CH3
The leaves of red beets contain fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3
series such as a-linolenic acid. They are also particularly rich in vitamins and are a source of natural
Ca and Fe. The red beet is a rich source of a group of red and yellow pigments known as betalains,
including red violet betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins. Betanin is a major constituent (7595 %)
of the red pigment and vulgaxanthin I is the principal constituent of the yellow pigment. Betalains
also include isobetanin, isobetanidine, prebetanin, isoprebetanin, and vulgaxanthin II. Beet juice
contains tetracyclitol (betitol). A 100-g portion of beet is 37 kcal.
Soybean
Soybean (Glycine max) is an excellent source of albumin, minerals, vitamins, including B vitamins,
and Fe and is rich in ber. A 100-g portion of soybean has 381 kcal. Soybean proteins are easily
assimilated (7797 %) and rich in essential amino acids. The amino acid content of soybean is
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
comparable to that of meat. Representative phytochemicals identied in soy include isoavones,

genistein, saponins, b-sitosterol, and daidzein.
HO
HO
HO
CH3
H3C
H3C
CH3
H3C
OH
OH O
H2C
CH2OH
HO
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
CH2OH
O
HO
O
OH
OH
OH
HO
Vitamin D3 (colecalciferol)
HO
OH
HO
O HO
O
OH
Sucrose
OH
OH
OH
HO
Maltose
HO
OH
O HO
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
CH2OH
O OH
OH
OH
OH
OH OH
OH
Trehalose
Cellobiose
HOH2C
HO
HO
Gentiobiose
O
OH
HO
HO
HO
OCH2
HO
O
O
OH
CH2OH
HO
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
O
HO
OH
CH2OH O
HO
OH
OH
OH
Panose
Cellotriose
HO
HO
HO
CH2O
HO
HO
OH
O
HO
CH2OH
O
OH
CH2OH
HO
OH
O
HO
CH2OH
HO
CH2OH
HO
O
HO
O
HO
O
CH2
HO
OH
CH2OH O
OH
OH
6OTritylmaltotetraose
Isopanose
NaOOC
OH
HO
HO
CH2OH
O
O
HO
COONa HO CH2OH
CH3CH2HN O
O
O
HO
OH
OH
OCH3
Methyl(sodium a-L-idopyranosyluronate)-(1!4)-(2-acetamido2-deoxy-a-D-glucopyranosyl)-(1!4)-(sodium
b-D-glucopyranosyluronate)-(1!3)-b-D-galactopyranoside
(continued)
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DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41609-5_17-1
CH2OH
O
H H
HO OH
H
HO
H
HO
H O
OHCH2
H H
HO OH
H
CH2OH
OH
O
HOH2C
HO
O
H
H
OH
HOCH2 O
O
H
OH
HO
O
HOH2C
HO CH OH
2
O
CH2
O
HO
CH2
HOH2C
HO O
HO
CH2OH
OH
Rafnose b-D-Fructofuranosyl a-D-galactopyranosyl(1!6)-a-D-glucopyranoside

CH2OH O
HO
CH2OH
OH
O
O
HO galactose
HO
O
O
HO
HO
OH
CH2OH
n
O
OH
mannose
O
O
O
HO
m
Nystose
A-Galactomannan
The chemical composition of soybean is presented in Table 26.

The principal soluble carbohydrates of mature soybeans are dicarbohydrate sucrose (2.58.2 %);
trirafnose (0.11.1 %), composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose;
and tetracarbohydrate stachyose (1.44.1 %), composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules
of galactose. Soybean oil or the lipid part of the seed contains four phytosterols: stigmasterol,
sitosterol, campesterol, and brassicasterol, which account for about 2.5 % of the lipid fraction.
Soybeans contain isoavonoids (phytoestrogens, natural plant estrogens), which were identied in
chickpeas, seeds, red wine, oats, legumes, and other vegetables (Kim et al. 2013a). The richest
sources of isoavonoids are soy milk, soy yogurt, and tofu. Soy also contains isoavones like
genistein and daidzein, and glycitein, an O-methylated isoavone that accounts for 510 % of the
total isoavones in soy food products. Glycitein is a phytoestrogen with weak estrogenic activity,
comparable to that of other soy isoavones. The protein content of soybean (3548 %) makes it rst
among plant and animal products. The fat content of soybeans is 1737 %, and they are rich in
unsaturated fatty acids, phosphatides (3.9 %), carbohydrates (2032 %), B-complex vitamins,
choline, minerals, and lecithin. Soybeans are used to prepare cereals, our, protein isolate, vegetable
oil, milk, and milk products. It contains 40 g albumin per 100 g. Soybean is a source of soluble
dietary ber and Ca, P, and K.
Soybeans can provide the human body with 18 amino acids, 9 of which are essential; soy protein
contains all the essential amino acids needed by the human body. The seeds contain an estrogen
analog molecule that attaches to the estrogen receptor to stop harmful substances (nonylphenol); this
affects the genetic ngerprint.
Some negative effects of soy are that soy extracts contain large amounts of aluminum, which is
toxic. Soy phytoestrogens disturb endocrine function. Soybean trypsin inhibitors interfere with
protein digestion and can cause pancreatic disorders. At high temperatures, Soy protein isolate is a
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Table 26 Nutritional value of soybean per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Protein (amino acid)
Tryptophan
Threonine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Cystine
Phenylalanine
Tyrosine
Valine
Arginine
Histidine
Alanine
Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid
Glycine
Proline
Serine
Value/100 g (unit)
1,866 kJ (446 kcal)
30.16 g
7.33 g
9.3 g
36.49 g
0.591 g
1.766 g
1.971 g
3.309 g
2.706 g
0.547 g
0.655 g
2.122 g
1.539 g
2.029 g
3.153 g
1.097 g
1.915 g
5.112 g
7.874 g
1.880 g
2.379 g
2.357 g
Phytochemicals
Fat
Saturated
Monounsaturated
Polyunsaturated
Water
Vitamin A equiv.
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Choline
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Value/100 g (unit)
19.94 g
2.884 g
4.404 g
11.255 g
8.54 g
1 mg (0 %)
0.874 mg (76 %)
0.87 mg (73 %)
1.623 mg (11 %)
0.793 mg (16 %)
0.377 mg (29 %)
375 mg (94 %)
115.9 mg (24 %)
6.0 mg (7 %)
0.85 mg (6 %)
47 mg (45 %)
277 mg (28 %)
15.7 mg (121 %)
280 mg (79 %)
2.517 mg (120 %)
704 mg (101 %)
1,797 mg (38 %)
2 mg (0 %)
4.89 mg (51 %)
dry powder food ingredient that has been separated or isolated from the other components of the
soybean and vegetal proteins (soya proteins with unstable structure) are skewed (Kumar et al. 2013).
High amounts of phytic acid in soybeans trigger lower uptake of Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, and Zn. The
processing of soy protein results in the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and toxic
lysinoalanine, and soy free of glumatic acid is formed, which makes it a neurotoxin. Soybean
contains lecithin, a substance essential for brain function.
Spinach
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is rich in carotene, starch, minerals, vitamins, and oxalates, the latter of
which prevent Ca absorption and so spinach is contraindicated for those with urolithiasis. The
chemical composition of spinach is presented in Table 27.
Polyglutamyl folate (vitamin B9 or folic acid) is a constituent of cells and spinach is a source of
folic acid. Spinach has a higher Fe content (25 mg/100 g) than any other vegetable, and a high
content of b-carotene, a precursor pigment that once ingested is converted within the liver and small
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Table 27 Nutritional value of spinach per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Fat
Protein
Water
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Value/100 g (unit)
97 kJ (23 kcal)
3.6 g
0.4 g
2.2 g
0.4 g
2.9 g
91.4 g
99 mg (10 %)
2.71 mg (21 %)
79 mg (22 %)
0.897 mg (43 %)
49 mg (7 %)
558 mg (12 %)
79 mg (5 %)
0.53 mg (6 %)
Phytochemicals
Vitamin A equiv.
Vitamin A
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
469 mg (59 %)
9,377 IU
5,626 mg (52 %)
12,198 mg
0.078 mg (7 %)
0.189 mg (16 %)
0.724 mg (5 %)
0.195 mg (15 %)
194 mg (49 %)
28 mg (34 %)
2 mg (13 %)
483 mg (460 %)
intestine into vitamin A. b-Carotene is an antioxidant that plays a role in preventing cancer of the
lungs, oral cavity, stomach, and prostate. Spinach is rich in ber and easy to digest, has a low protein
content (2 %), low carbohydrate content (7 %), and low lipid content (0.5 %), and has a very low
energy value of 17 kcal/100 g.
H3C
Neoxanthin
CH3
OH
H3C
H3C
CH3
H3C
CH3
H3C
OH
H3C
CH3
Violaxanthin
CH3
O
HO
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
H3C
H3C
CH3
H3C
H3C
CH3
CH3
Vitamin K1
O
CH3
CH3
O
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
Spinach contains vitamin K, which affects bone strength. Because content of vitamins C and E,
the substances folic acid, Zn, Mg, K and folic acid-soluble B vitamins have a important role for
human consumtion. Neoxanthin and violaxanthin are two anti-inammatory epoxyxanthophylls
found in spinach. The opioid peptides called rubiscolins have also been found in spinach. The leaves
contain phytonutrients such as mucilage, fat, sugar, oxalic acid (68 % in young leaves, 2327 % in
cotyledons), I, lecithin, chlorophyll, and carotene, and avonoids. They also contain stigmasterol,
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Table 28 Nutritional value of tomato per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Fat
Protein
Water
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Value/100 g (unit)
74 kJ (18 kcal)
3.9 g
2.6 g
1.2 g
0.2 g
0.9 g
94.5 g
11 mg (3 %)
0.114 mg (5 %)
24 mg (3 %)
Phytochemicals
Potassium
Lycopene
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
237 mg (5 %)
2,573 mg
42 mg (5 %)
449 mg (4 %)
123 mg
0.037 mg (3 %)
0.594 mg (4 %)
0.08 mg (6 %)
14 mg (17 %)
0.54 mg (4 %)
7.9 mg (8 %)
stigmastanol, a-spinasterol, patuletin, spinacetin, saponins, fatty acids, and hexadecenic acid.
Spinacosides C and D have been isolated from the fresh aerial parts and spinasaponins A and
B have been isolated from the roots of spinach, which also contain spilanthol (Park et al. 2013).
Germinating seeds from spinach contain enzymes.
Tomatoes
Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) are red due to their lycopene content (Butnariu and Giuchici
2011). Lycopene in soups and sauces is assimilated more easily than that from raw tomatoes. The
chemical composition of the tomato is presented in Table 28.
For an adult, the daily recommended 100 g of fresh tomatoes provides water (94 %),
soluble sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose), organic acids, and zingiberene (Butu et al. 2014b).
The fruits color is the result of a combination of carotenoid pigments (red from lycopene and orange
from carotene). In sunny and warm weather, more lycopene is synthesized so the fruit becomes
redder.
Fruit rmness and consistency are functions of protein content, amino acids, pectic substances,
cellulose, and hemicellulose (Khayat Nouri and Namvaran Abbas Abad 2013). The therapeutic
quality and alimentary importance of tomatoes is due to its rich content of vitamins, carbohydrates,
organic acids, minerals, and energy-giving compounds. The content of tomatoes depends on variety,
cultivating area, variable climate conditions, and cultivation technology. Red tomato is the richest
source of lycopene and yellow tomato is rich in carotene (Butnariu and Samra 2012). Lycopene and
carotene annihilate free radicals (Butnariu and Grozea 2012) and prevent formation of carcinogenic
metabolites. Tomato juice and tomato paste block oxidation in body that predispose it to illness.
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Tomatidin, an aglycone steroid with fungicidal and insecticidal characteristics, is extracted from the
tomato stem.
The energy value of tomato is relatively low (20 kcal/100 g fresh fruit).
CO2H
OH
O
C
CH2OH
HO
CH2
O
H
CO2H
Malic acid
Citric acid
CH3
CH3
H
O
COOH
COOH
O
H
H
O
O
OH H
H
H
H OH
OH
OH H H
O
H
O
COOH
Pectic acid
Lycopene
H3C
CH3
CH3
OH
OH H H
OH
C
HO
CH2 C
CH2 C
H3C
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
Representative phytochemicals identied in tomato are phytoene, phytouene, b-carotene, avonoids, carotenoids, lycopene, quercetin, polyphenols, and kaempferol (Kim et al. 2013b). Leaves,
stems, and green unripened fruit of the tomato plant contain small amounts of tomatine and solanine,
toxic alkaloids found in potato leaves and other plants in the nightshade family.
Turnip
Turnip (Brassica oleracea var. gongyloides) has a sweet and delicate avor, between that of radish
and cabbage, with a high content of vitamin C and K and ber. Vitamin C contributes to healthy
bones, promotes Fe absorption, accelerates wound healing, and has antioxidant properties. Turnip is
also a good source of P and contains minerals. The green leaves of the turnip top are a good source of
vitamin A, folate, vitamin C, vitamin K, and calcium. A 100-g portion of raw turnip has 25 cal.
HO
S
OH
HO
HO
SO4
OH
HO
O
OH
OH
OH
N O
HO
CH2
O
O
OH
OH
HO
OH
General structure glucosinolates

HO
S
OH
HO
OH
Glucobrassicin
O
NH
Gluconasturtiin
HO
OH
Sinigrin
OH
HO
OH
O
OH
OH
O
O
HO
N
CH3
CH2
Sinalbin
Piridoxal
The chemical composition of the turnip is presented in Table 29.
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Table 29 Nutritional value of turnip per 100 g (3.5 oz) (Adapted after http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods)
Phytochemicals
Energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietary ber
Fat
Protein
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Value/100 g (unit)
84 kJ (20 kcal)
4.4 g
0.5 g
3.5 g
0.2 g
1.1 g
137 mg (14 %)
0.8 mg (6 %)
22 mg (6 %)
0.337 mg (16 %)
29 mg (4 %)
203 mg (4 %)
29 mg (2 %)
Phytochemicals
Vitamin A equiv.
b-Carotene
Lutein/zeaxanthin
Thiamine
Riboavin
Niacin
Pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6
Folate
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Value/100 g (unit)
381 mg (48 %)
4,575 mg (42 %)
8,440 mg
0.045 mg (4 %)
0.072 mg (6 %)
0.411 mg (3 %)
0.274 mg (5 %)
0.18 mg (14 %)
118 mg (30 %)
27.4 mg (33 %)
1.88 mg (13 %)
368 mg (350 %)
Turnip is a vital vegetable and good for the diet. Its roots and leaves are consumed for their high
content of carbohydrates, minerals (Bhattacharya and Malleshi 2012), vitamins, and cellulose. It
contains glycosinolates that inhibit iodine uptake by the thyroid; turnip consumption is not
recommended for people with thyroid problems (Butnariu and Caunii 2013). Like rutabaga, turnip
contains bitter cyanoglucosides that release small amounts of cyanide. Sensitivity to the bitterness of
these cyanoglucosides is controlled by a paired gene.
Consuming vegetables of cruciferous family (i.e., kale, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauliower,
broccoli, and radishes) helps prevent certain types of cancer such as lung cancer. Consumption of
these foods is recommended for a low-calorie diet or to maintain a slim silhouette.
Conclusion and Future Directions

Vegetables, together with other components of the plant world, remain the only source of some
secondary metabolites that are used by the pharmaceutical and food industries. This is because they
cannot be synthesized chemically since they are stereocomplexes with chiral centers, which may be
essential for biological activity. Primary and secondary plant metabolites with pharmacodynamic
properties or that are used in the food industry have some common characteristics: most are
nonprotein chemical compounds that can be extracted from plant material by steam distillation
with organic solvents or water, and most are low-molecular-weight compounds, except biopolymers, condensed tannins, and some polycarbohydrates such as gums, pectin, and starch.
Carotenes are widespread in vegetal material (carrots, spinach, green onions, lettuce, and tomatoes). Leafy vegetables contain signicant amounts of vitamin B9, a vitamin involved in cell growth
processes, the formation of red blood cells, and the prevention of anemia. Vitamin K, which is in the
green parts of vegetables, is in sufcient quantities in spinach, kale, lettuce, and green onions; this
vitamin is needed for blood clotting and to prevent bleeding. The vitamin inositol has a role in
protecting the liver, heart, and digestive system. The carotenoids are red, orange, and yellow
pigments that are mainly in vegetables (carrot, pumpkin, tomatoes, broccoli, and spinach) and fruits
(papaya, orange, mango), but are also in animal products (fat, egg yolk) as provitamin A. Yellow and
orange carotenoids are known as carotenes and the red carotenoid is lycopene. Carotenoids act as
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antioxidants and some are precursors of vitamin A (i.e., they biosynthesize vitamin A); therefore,
they are called provitamins.
Because they are antioxidants, some carotenoids have anticancer properties and others protect
against cardiovascular disease and eye diseases such as macular degeneration. a-Carotene helps to
strengthen the immune system and reduces the risk of cancer. b-Cryptoxanthin is a precursor of
vitamin A. Canthaxanthin helps the immune system and reduces the risk of skin cancer. Lutein (from
broccoli) reduces the risk of lung cancer. Lycopene (from tomato) reduces the risk of bowel cancer.
Of the more than 600 carotenoids found so far, b-carotene is the most well-known since it is a
precursor of vitamin A. b-Carotene is an isomer of carotene and is the pigment that gives carrots their
orange color. Metabolic bioreactions convert b-carotene into vitamin A as needed; b-carotene is
processed by liver. When a large amount of alcohol is consumed, b-carotene becomes toxic,
especially to the liver. b-Carotene consumption reduces the risk of cancer and cardiovascular
incidents and improves the immune system, vision, and even bone growth. Vegetables with the
highest content of b-carotene are carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, broccoli, and spinach.
Vegetables are the most important source of phytochemicals used in pharmaceutical products,
food, cosmetics, and agrochemicals; they have invaluable commercial value. Vegetables are irreplaceable sources of industrial oils (volatile and xed), avors, fragrances, resins, gum hydrocolloid,
saponins and other surfactants, dyes, pesticides, drug substances, and many other special
compounds.
The main properties of vegetables are summarized below:
Alkaline action of organic acids that are metabolized in the body to alkali metal salts
Astringent, constipating action, contain tannins
Act as diuretics due to water content; this helps those with renal diseases, in which there is
increased retention of water, and those with retention of nitrogenous substances in the blood (urea
and uric acid)
Diuretic effect of vegetables could have a role in the development of heart failure but the vitamins
and carbohydrates they contain strengthen the heart muscle, thereby increasing the strength of the
hearts contractions
Hypocaloric characteristics and possess a small amount of protein, fat, and carbohydrates, thus
indicated for diets to lose weight
Low in salt, contain small amounts of Na; salt-restricted regimens may be used
Act as laxatives, especially vegetables rich in ballast
With a lower energy value, vegetables can replace concentrated and high-calorie foods, thus
substantially reducing the energy level of the diet without reducing the volume of a meal
Vegetables break down uric acid, thus preventing the formation of urate-based kidney stones
Vegetables are indicated for those with anemia, they stimulate gastric secretion, promote Fe
absorption, and stimulate formation of red blood cells
Vegetables lower blood cholesterol and bile, thus preventing concentration and precipitation of in
the gallbladder
Vegetables, which are poor in carbohydrates, can be consumed by diabetics
Carrots contain a large amount of carotene and thus are good for those with diseases due to lack or
insufciency of vitamin A
Because vegetables lack lipids, they mitigate dyslipidemia and leave some of the cholesterol that
reaches gut, preventing its reabsorption
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Black radishes are good for treating chronic cholecystitis and angiocholitis accompanied by
constipation because they aid intestinal peristalsis and affect the smooth muscle of the bile
channels, facilitating secretion of bile
Tomatoes stimulate digestive secretions and are especially important in anemia and
convalescence
The sulfur derivative in white cabbage has antimicrobial properties, and salts with their antithyroid effect (prevent xation the iodine) have a healing effect on gastroduodenal ulcers
Vegetable consumption stimulates metabolism by ghting free radicals, reducing water retention,
improving tissue oxygenation and blood circulation, restoring intestinal bacterial ora, and revitalizing cells.
Vegetables do not provide a favorable environment for growing microorganisms (bacteria,
viruses, or parasites). However, via vegetables, an organism can come into contact with the parasitic
cysts of Giardia, tapeworm proglottids, and geohelminth eggs. Vegetables may be contaminated
with bacteria from the soil, from fertilizer, from infested irrigation water, or by vectors.
Vegetables are basic nutrition that keeps cells young and vital. They have an important role in the
diet because they are sources of vitamins, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, enzymes, and minerals that
protect the body from various diseases. Healthy eating requires a balanced and varied diet that
includes large quantities of vegetables, fruits, ber-rich cereals, protein, and moderate amounts of
fat, salt, and sugar. Eating vegetables helps to reduce neuronal degeneration in the elderly.
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Handbook of Food Chemistry

Chemical Composition of Vegetables and their Products

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Table 1 Stability of vitamins when exposed to certain conditions

Maximum loss from cooking (%)

U unalterable (no considerable destruction), A alterable (considerable destruction)

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

(methylthio)methane, dimethyl sulfoxide, and dimethyl sulfone (Visavadiya and Narasimhacharya

Mixtures of these phytochemicals create an odor attributed to methanethiol. The phytochemicals

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10, ubiquinone)

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

HOOC CH2 CH2 C COOH

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Carrot is a source of b-carotene as provitamin A and contains carbohydrates and minerals.

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

Cauliower contains diindolylmethane (DIM), a lipid-soluble phytochemical contained in the

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

Vitamin PP (B3), niacin, niacinamide

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated

lanosterol; 24-methylene lanost-8-en-3b-ol; cycloartanol; cycloartenol; 24-methylenecycloartanol;

Handbook of Food Chemistry

H2C CH CH2 S CH2 CH COOH

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Table 16 Chemical composition of roots oil from L. officinale

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

and naturally occurring coumarins:

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Daphnetin dimethyl ether

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Parsnip contains furanocoumarins (psoralen, xanthotoxin, isopimpinellin, angelicin, and

OCO CH CH2 CH3

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry

identical to a-solanine (substante/solatrioza). Potato is a source of complex carbohydrates

Handbook of Food Chemistry

Handbook of Food Chemistry