July15,2014

SNAPSHOT

TheEndofChristianDemocracy
WhattheMovement'sDeclineMeansforEurope
JanWernerMller
JANWERNERMLLERisProfessorofPoliticsatPrincetonUniversity.
TheEuropeoftodayisacreationofChristianDemocrats.TheywerethearchitectsofEuropeanintegrationandof
postwarAtlanticism.Andtheywerecrucialinshapingtheformofconstitutionaldemocracythatprevailedinthe
Westernhalfofthecontinentafter1945andhassteadilybeenextendedeastsincethefalloftheBerlinWallin1989.
Europesmostpowerfulpolitician,GermanChancellorAngelaMerkel,isaChristianDemocrat,asarethepresident
oftheEuropeanCommission,JosManuelBarroso,andhisdesignatedsuccessor,JeanClaudeJuncker.Inlast
MaysEuropeanParliamentaryelections,thecontinentalassociationofChristianDemocraticpartiestheEuropean
PeoplesParty(EPP)wonthemostseats.
Yetbothasasetofideasandasapoliticalmovement,Christiandemocracyhasbecomelessinfluentialandless
coherentinrecentyears.Thisdeclineisduenotonlytothecontinentssecularturn.Atleastasimportantarethe
factsthatnationalismoneofChristianDemocratsprimeideologicalenemiesisontheriseandthatthe
movementscoreelectoralconstituency,acoalitionofmiddleclassandruralvoters,isshrinking.Asthelarger
projectofEuropeanintegrationfacesnewrisks,then,itsmostimportantbackermaysoonproveincapableof
defendingit.
OLDTIMERELIGION
ChristianDemocratisadesignationthatsoundspeculiartoanyoneaccustomedtoastrictseparationofchurchand
state.ThetermfirstappearedinthewakeoftheFrenchRevolutionandinthemidstoffiercebattlesaboutthefateof
theCatholicChurchinademocracy.Formostofthenineteenthcentury,theVaticanviewedmodernpoliticalideas
includingliberaldemocracyasadirectthreattoitscoredoctrines.ButtherewerealsoCatholicthinkerswho
agreedwiththeFrenchwriterAlexisdeTocquevillesinsightthat,likeitornot,democracystriumphinthemodern
worldwasinevitable.SocalledCatholicliberalssoughttomakedemocracysafeforreligionbyproperly
Christianizingthemasses:afterall,thereasoningwent,ademocracyofGodfearingcitizenswouldhaveamuch
betterchanceofsucceedingthanonewhosesubjectsweresecular.OtherCatholicintellectualshopedtokeepthe
peopleinlinethroughChristianinstitutions,especiallythepapacy,whichtheFrenchthinkerJosephdeMaistre
envisagedaspartofaEuropewidesystemofchecksandbalances.
Mostimportant,duringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,theVaticanitselfeventuallycametoseethe

benefitsofplayingthedemocraticgameandfosteringpartiesthatwoulddefendtheconcernsofthechurch.Initially,
theydidsoinbadfaithChristiandemocraticpartiesessentiallyfunctionedasinterestgroupswithinasystem
whoselegitimacythechurchcontinuedtoreject.Byusingthetermdemocrat,theywerenotsignalingtheir
acceptanceofrepresentativedemocracybut,rather,theirambitiontoworkwithordinarypeople.Tothisday,that
approachisevidentintheprominenceofsuchtermsaspopularorpeopleintheofficialnamesofChristian
Democraticparties.
Thepartiesgrewstrongestincountrieswherechurchandstatewereevenlymatched.Therewasnoneedfor
ChristiandemocracyinadeeplyCatholiccountrysuchasIreland,forexample,butitalsofailedtotakerootin
France,whereCatholics,inthefaceofonslaughtsfromanticlericalrepublicangovernments,puttheireffortsinto
completeregimechange.Bycontrast,whereculturewarsbetweensecularforcesandthechurchwerefiercebut
eventuallyresultedinastalemate,asinGermanyandthesocalledBeneluxcountries(Belgium,theNetherlands,and
Luxembourg),Catholicsinvestedinpartybuilding.
AsthepoliticalscientistStathisKalyvashasshown,ChristianDemocraticpartyleaderseventuallydevelopedtheir
owninterests.PlayingthedemocraticgamebroughtrewardsandresourcesandChristianDemocratseventually
acceptedpoliticalparticipationaslegitimate.AfterWorldWarI,whendemocracysweptEurope,theVaticanalso
relentedsomewhat:havingcompletelyrejectedanItaliannationstateandprohibitingCatholicsfromplayingany
partinit(evenbanningvoting),thepopethrewhissupportbehindanewpartycalledPopolari.Byunitingpeasants
andthelowermiddleclasses,thePopolaribecamethecountryssecondlargestafterthesocialists.
Duringtheinterwaryears,relationsbetweenChristianDemocratsandtheHolySeecooledacrossEurope.The
Vaticansawpartiesthatitcouldcontrolasuseful,butitsidelinedthosethatwereunwillingtofollowinstructions
fromRomeandinsteaddealtwithstatesdirectly.Tothatend,theVaticanabandonedpartiessuchasthePopolariand
concludedanumberofdiplomaticagreementsdesignedtoprotectCatholicintereststhemostinfamousofwhich
wasthesocalledReichskonkordatbetweenHitlerandCardinalEugenioPacelli,wholaterbecamePopePiusXII,in
July1933.
ItwasntuntilafterWorldWarIIthatChristianDemocraticpartiesfullyfreedthemselvesfromtheVaticanandtook
aleadingroleinconstructingthepostwarEuropeanorder.Thecircumstancescouldhardlyhavebeenmore
propitious.Fascismandthewarhaddiscreditedcompetingmovementsontheright.AndChristianDemocratswere
seenasthequintessentiallyAtlanticistandanticommunistpartiesincountriessuchasItaly,WestGermany,andother
frontlinestatesoftheColdWar.Moreover,theynowendorseddemocracy,thoughwithacaveat:toavoiddrifting
intototalitarianism,theyargued,democraticgovernmentsneededtohavespiritualunderpinningssomethingbest
suppliedbythechurch.Inthissense,theChristianDemocratsrejectedbothcommunismandliberalismasformsof
materialism.Thisstancedidnotpreventthemfromeventuallymakingpeacewithcapitalismwhileinsistingthat
religionwasalsoneededtoholdtheevilsofthemarketincheck.
PartiessuchastheGermanChristianDemocraticUnionwentoutoftheirwaytoincludeProtestantsthereby
endingcenturiesofreligiousconflict.Infact,theysoughttobecomeasinclusiveaspossible,ratherthanappearingas
sectarianrepresentatives.Theirhallmarkwasacentristpoliticsofconsensusandaccommodation,basedona
Catholicimageofaharmonioussociety,inwhichevencapitalandlaborcouldcooperateandthechurchcouldplaya
crucialroleintheprovisionofsocialservices.Still,atthetime,observerssaidthekindsofthingsaboutCatholicism
thatmanyEuropeanssayaboutIslamtoday:thatitwasinherentlyilliberaland,asakindofmonarchywithakingin

Rome,incapableofgenuinelyacceptingdemocracy.TheHarvardhistorianH.StuartHughes,forinstance,wrote,in
1958,AChristianDemocratisaChristianprimarily,andademocratonlyinasubordinatecapacity.Theadjectiveis
moreimportantthanthenoun.
YetChristianDemocratskeptconfoundingtheircritics.InGermany,Italy,andtoalesserextentFrance,they
createdgenuinedemocracies.Atthesametime,however,theygovernedwithagooddealofdistrustofpopular
sovereignty.Theyessentiallysoughttoconstrainthepeoplethroughinstitutionssuchasconstitutionalcourts,make
themmoralthroughtheteachingsofthechurch,andsubjectthemtoanewsupranationalorder:theEuropean
ConventionofHumanRights,forinstance,wasthecreationofBritishToriesandcontinentalChristianDemocrats.
AnditwasthelatterwhoalsobecamethearchitectsofwhattodayisknownastheEuropeanUnion.Afterall,
ChristianDemocratslikeCatholics,internationalistsbynatureplacedlittlevalueonthenationstate.Infact,in
thenineteenthcentury,ithadbeennewlyunifiednationstatessuchasGermanyandItalythathadwagedsocalled
culturewars(whatcametobeknownasOttovonBismarcksKulturkampf)againstCatholics,whoweresuspectedof
puttingdevotiontotheVaticanaboveloyaltytothestate.ButtheChristianDemocratswerealsopluralists:theywere
contentwithafederalist,legallyfragmentedEuropeancommunitythatresembledamedievalempiremorethana
modernsovereignstate.
PARTYCRASHERS
AfterdecadesasEuropesdominantpoliticalforce,theChristianDemocratsarenowfacingtheprospectofdecline.
Someobservershaveblamedsecularizationforweakeningpopularsupport.Itistruethat,sincetheearly1960s,
churcheshavebeenemptyingacrossthecontinent.Butthepartiesthemselveshadalreadystartedtoinsistthatone
simplyhadtosubscribetohumanistidealsinordertobeagoodChristianDemocrat.Therealproblemarosewiththe
triumphoftheverypoliticalmodelthattheyhadbeenpromotingsincethe1950s.
MostcentralandeasternEuropeancountriesadoptedthismodelafter1989,butvirtuallynoneofthemdeveloped
ChristianDemocraticpartiesinthemoldofGermanysChristlichDemokratischeUnionorItalysDemocrazia
Cristiana.Insomecountries,suchasCatholicPoland,ChristianDemocraticgroupsseemedunnecessaryinothers,
theyturnedouttoberadicallydifferentfromtheirWesternEuropeancounterpartsintworespects:theywere
vehementlynationalist,andthusunwillingtoconcedemuchofthenationalsovereigntywrestedbackfromtheSoviet
Unionandtheyweremuchmorepopulist,seeingnoreasontodistrustthesimplefolkwhohadmanagedtosurvive
statesocialistdictatorshipswiththeirmoralsseeminglyintact.
Meanwhile,furtherwest,ChristianDemocratslosttheirgreatestenemycommunismandwithitmuchofthe
ideologicalgluethathadheldoftenfractiouspoliticalcoalitionstogether.InItaly,theChristianDemocratshad
participatedineverysinglegovernmentsinceWorldWarIItherationalebeingthattheCommunistParty,Western
Europeslargest,hadtobekeptout.Intheearly1990s,thehugelycorruptDemocraziaCristianacollapsed.Then
ItalianPrimeMinisterSilvioBerlusconinotamanknownforstrictadherencetoCatholicmoralsineffect
inheritedthepartysvotes.
Tobesure,Christiandemocracy,asevidencedbytherecentsuccessoftheEPP,remainsthecontinentsstrongest
politicalforceonpaper.Yetthepartyisalsodeeplydysfunctional.Thesquabblesoveritstopcandidateforpresident
oftheEUCommission,JeanClaudeJuncker,areacaseinpoint.Duringthecampaign,someEPPleaderstriedto
benefitfromantiEUsentiments.BerlusconialsoattemptedtorideantiGermanresentmentandappealtoItaliansfed

upwithausterity.Immediatelyaftertheelections,ViktorOrbn,theHungarianprimeministerandaformervice
presidentoftheEPP,attackedJunckerforbeinganoldstylepromoterofEuropeanunity,onewhofailedtorespect
nationstatesandtheirtraditions.Inrecentyears,Orbnhadalreadyraisedeyebrowswhenhedeclaredawarof
independencewhoseaimwastomakeHungariansindependentfromtheEPPsveryownpoliticalproject,
Europeanintegration.
Partoftheproblem,someobserverssay,isthattheEPPencompassingnofewerthan73memberpartiesfrom39
countriesissimplyoverstretched.Intheearly1990s,asHelmutKohl,thenGermanchancellor,andWilfried
Martens,formerBelgianprimeministerandthenpresidentoftheEPP,recruitedpoliticiansthroughoutEurope,they
maintainedrelativelylowstandards,withlittleregardtothenewadherentsrealcommitmenttopartyideals.Kohl
wasadamantthatChristianDemocratshadnotbuiltEuropejusttosurrenderittosocialists,andthattheEPPneeded
toretaincontinentslargestpoliticalgroupingnomatterwhat.
Thedeeperissue,however,concernsthemovementsideologicaldistinctiveness.LeaderssuchasKohlwerewilling
totakerisksforEurope.Today,oneishardpressedtofindanytruebelieverswhowouldputtheircareerontheline
forEuropeanintegration,leastofallthecurrentGermanchancellor.Onquestionsofmarketsandmorality,the
ChristianDemocratshadaprimeopportunitytoreinventthemselvesafterthefinancialcrisis:theymighthave
broughtbacktheiroldidealsofaneconomy,forexample,inwhichthemorallyrelevantunitisasocietalgroupwith
legitimateinterests,notaprofitmaximizingindividual.Instead,JunckerandMerkelhavefullyembraced
conventionalausteritypolicies,anditislargelyforgottenthatItalianPrimeMinisterMatteoRenzithegreathope
oftheEuropeanleftactuallystartedoutasamemberofareconstitutedPopolari(and,evenearlier,asaCatholic
boyscout).
EuropesChristianDemocratscouldalsotakeapageoutoftheplaybookofAmericanconservatives,refocusingon
socialissuesandwagingaKulturkampfoftheirownagainstsecularism.Somehavealreadytried:duringthelast
decade,theSpanishPopularPartymobilizedtheCatholicvoteagainstsocialistPrimeMinisterJosLuisZapatero,
whohadintroducedsamesexmarriage.ContrarytotheclichofreligiousAmericaandirreligiousEurope,there
remainsconsiderablepotentialforsuchcampaignsinsomesouthernandeasternEuropeancountries.Itistelling,
however,thatSpanishvotersultimatelypartedwithZapateroforhishandlingoftheeurocrisis.
POPULARITYCONTEST
ChristianDemocratsfaceadifficultdilemma.TheirpolicygoalsareonlymarginallydifferentfromthoseofSocial
Democraticpartiesoneconomicquestions.Kulturkampfisrisky,butbecomingtoomainstreamonsocialmatters
createspoliticalspaceforgroupsthatpresentthemselvesasgenuinelyconservative.Politicalpartiessuchas
GermanysAlternativefrDeutschland,whichismostlyfocusedonopposingtheEUbutincreasinglydefends
traditionalmorality,andFrancesFrontNationalarethebeneficiaries.
Mostimportant,ChristianDemocratsareunderintensepressurefromrightwingnationalistsandpopulists.And
sincetheynolongerdaretodefendambitiousplansforEuropeanintegration,theerstwhilearchitectsofcontinental
unityaremoreorlessdefenseless.Theirpoliticsofaccommodationdoesnotworkasaresponsetothepopulists,
whothriveonpolarizationandidentitypolitics.TheoldclasscoalitionthatsupportedEuropeanintegrationatthe
pollsandbenefitedfromiteconomicallythemiddleclassandfarmershasdiminishedvirtuallyeverywhere.This
longertermtransformationmakesitunlikelythatChristiandemocracywilleverregainthedominantpositionithad

inthepostwaryears.ThatleavestheEUahollowshell:theidealsthatonceanimatedintegrationhaveseemingly
beenforgotten,defendedonlybysmallpartiessuchastheGreens.
TheEuropeanUnionwillnotcollapseasaresult.Therealproblemisthehalffinishedeurozone.AsEuropeanshave
learnedatgreatcostinrecentyears,theeurozoneasitexiststodayisincompleteandincoherent:itisamonetary
unionthatdoesnotallowforthepropercoordinationoffiscalpoliciesorarealconvergenceoftheparticipating
economies.AfloodofcheapmoneyfromtheEuropeanCentralBankthecurrentsolutiontotheeurocrisishas
failedtoaddresstheunderlyingstructuralproblemsofindividualstatesandoftheeurozoneasawhole.Makingthe
euroworkinthelongrunwillrequireawillingnesstotakepoliticalrisksandmaterialsacrifices.Andthedayswhen
ChristianDemocraticidealismwascapableofgeneratingbothareover.
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