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ABSTRACT
Havelock (1929) derived an analytical solution for waves generated by
piston and flap wavemakers based on linear wave theory. Ursell et al.
(1960) and Flick and Guza (1980) experimentally verified a piston
wavemaker by using first order wavemaker theory. Ottesen-Hansen et
al. (1980), Sand (1982) and Sand and Donslund (1985) discussed
second-order effects such as long waves in experimental models.
Schaffer (1996) derived a complete mathematical model for piston
wavemakers to second order. The linear wavemaker theory has been
extended to a 3D wave basin (Liu 1994, 1996; Newman 2010). In the
implementation of wave making in the laboratory active absorption is
often applied to avoid spurious reflection (Spinneken and Swan 2009a,
2009b).
INTRODUCTION
Wavemakers are important pieces of equipment in coastal and ocean
engineering laboratory experiments to study wave interaction with
structures such as wharves, breakwaters and any other near-shore or
ocean structures. Generation of waves is one of the most significant
tasks in this kind of laboratory.
The most common way in a physical experimental flume to generate
waves is through the movement of a paddle, which is located at one end
of the flume. Paddles used in flumes can be a flap, a piston or a wedge
type, of which the piston-type is the most popular permitting simple
generation of shallow water waves according to the velocity pattern
near the paddle.
Mesh based methods include the volume of fluid (VOF) method (Hirt
& Nichols 1981, Yongs 1982, Ubbink 1997), the level set method (Gu
et al.2009, 2010; Chen 2009) and the marker and cell method (MAC)
(Harlow & Welch 1965) to capture or track the free surface together
with a NSE solver such as the projection or SIMPLE method. Another
652
( u i )
= 0
xi
(u i )
(u i )
1 ij
p
+ u j
=
+ g i +
t
x j
( ) x i
( ) x j
EQUATIONS
AND
(8)
GOVERNING
(7)
u i uin
t
= u j
1 ij
(ui )
+
( ) x j
x j
(9)
NUMERICAL
u in +1 u i
IMPLEMENTATION
where the p n +1
1 p n +1
(10)
=
+ g i
( ) x i
t
is obtained by solving the Poisson pressure equation,
~
1 p n +1 1 u i
(11)
=
(g i )
+
x i ( ) x i t x i
x i
Equation (11) is obtained by enforcing equation (7) at the time step
n+1, and (uin+1)/xi=0, ensures the velocities calculated from
equation (10) are divergence free.
= 0
(1)
ij
u i
1 p
1
=
+ gi +
x j
( ) x i
( ) x j
(2)
where i=1, 2 for 2D and i=1, 2, 3 for 3D. ui is the velocity component
in i direction, p is pressure, and ij=2()ij , ij is defined as the rate of
deformation tensor.
ij
1
2
u i
u j
+
x
xi
j
There are two major issues that need special attention in the numerical
implementation for a moving body. One is tracking the moving body
and the other is to ensure mass and momentum conservation (Lin
2007).
(3)
(ui uiB )
=0
xi
=>
(ui ) (uiB )
=
xi
xi
(12)
xi
n +1 1 p n +1 1
=
( ) xi t
n +1 ui uiB
+ (g )
i
xi
xi
(13)
It is clear that a moving body will essentially change the pressure field
around the body which consequently affects the adjacent flow. Besides
653
The advantages of the local relative stationary method are that it is very
easy to implement numerically and to deal with multiple bodies without
limitation on their number since a moving coordinate system is
established at an individual cell. No re-meshing is required and the
fluid computation is based on a fixed-grid system. The advancement of
the body is solved by a Lagrangian method and thus is free of
numerical diffusion. Its extension to three-dimensions and more
complicated motion than shown here e.g. with rotation is
straightforward.
constant, (a, b) is the normal unit vector which can be calculated from
/ . The boundary point n has coordinates (xn, yn). From the above
formula the level set value of point n can be obtained by
n = axn + byn + c
(18)
The boundary condition for the level set is also confined in the narrow
band.
Regular waves
In our implementation we only calculate the distance function within a
narrow band around the interface. The narrow band is set to a width of
about 4 to 6 times the spatial step. At each time step, the zero level set
must not pass out of this band which places a restriction on the
maximum time step. To ensure the signed distance maintains the signed
distance property, we directly solve the equation
= 1
(15)
to re-initialize the level set function. In order to obtain the solution of
equation (15) in the shortest time, the fast marching approach (Sethian
1998) is used and the particle level set method (Enright 2002) used to
correct the level set function during the calculation. Thus, the level set
calculation is confined to a narrow band around the free surface.
T ( )
X
t
(19)
where X is the position of the wavemaker, is the angular wave
frequency, is the given wave elevation, and T() is the transfer
function between the motion of wavemaker and the given wave. The
transfer function is expressed as
T ( ) =
4 sinh 2 (kd )
2kd + sinh(2kd )
(20)
where k is wave number corresponding to and d is the still water
depth.
Heaviside function
The Heaviside function is a smooth function, which makes the density
or viscosity smoothly vary from a to w or from a to w within a
narrow band of the interface. There are several expressions of
Heaviside function. They have the same role in principle. We adopt the
following formula,
< 1 .5 h
0,
1
2
H = 0 .5 +
sin
,
+
1 .5 h
(16)
3h 2
3h
> 1 .5 h
1,
in which h is the local minimum size of the spatial step.
To verify the effect of the linear wave theory, results from many test
cases are given in Table 1. In the table we listed the wave conditions in
the first three columns and calculated the parameters of wave length L0
in deep water, wave length L in shallow water, wave celerity c and
wave number k in the following columns. All the regular waves are
generated by the piston wavemaker and example wave histories are
shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. From wave time histories, a zero-upcross method (Yu 2000) was used to measure wave height, which is
listed in the final column of Table 1. Figure 2 shows the case of wave
654
height 0.05m, wave period 1.0s and water depth 0.5m. Wave heights
are almost constant after 5 wave periods. Figure 3 shows the case of
wave height 0.08m, wave period 1.5s and water depth 0.4m. Again
wave heights are almost constant after 5 periods.
Tp =
TH 1 / 3
1 0.132( + 0.2) 0.559
(23)
d(m)
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
Wave
board
x
d
water
eta (m)
10
15
20
time (s)
Figure 2: Wave time history for wave height =0.05m, water depth =
0.5m, and wave period =1.0s
0.06
eta (m)
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
0
12
16
20
24
tims (s)
Figure 3: Wave time history for wave height =0.08m, water depth =
0.4m, and wave period =1.5s
Table 1 shows that simulated wave heights are all smaller than
corresponding target ones, especially when the water depth is shallow,
wave period is long and wave height is large. The reason is that the test
cases are not completely linear waves and the non-linearity produces
errors. For highly non-linear waves non-linear wavemaker theories are
required to generate accurate waves but for weakly non-linear waves
linear wavemaker theory can give quite accurate results. In the next
section we use linear wavemaker theory to simulate irregular waves and
focused wave under conditions of small wave height, short wave period
and relatively deep water.
L (m)
1.51
1.51
1.51
2.83
2.83
2.83
4.06
4.06
4.06
1.46
1.46
1.46
2.62
2.62
2.62
3.70
3.70
3.70
1.30
1.30
1.30
2.17
2.17
2.17
3.00
3.00
3.00
L0 (m)
1.56
1.56
1.56
3.51
3.51
3.51
6.24
6.24
6.24
1.56
1.56
1.56
3.51
3.51
3.51
6.24
6.24
6.24
1.56
1.56
1.56
3.51
3.51
3.51
6.24
6.24
6.24
c(m)
1.51
1.51
1.51
1.88
1.88
1.88
2.03
2.03
2.03
1.46
1.46
1.46
1.74
1.74
1.74
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.45
1.45
1.45
1.50
1.50
1.50
k
4.15
4.15
4.15
2.22
2.22
2.22
1.55
1.55
1.55
4.29
4.29
4.29
2.40
2.40
2.40
1.70
1.70
1.70
4.82
4.82
4.82
2.89
2.89
2.89
2.09
2.09
2.09
Hc(m)
0.047
0.067
0.082
0.047
0.072
0.085
0.048
0.072
0.086
0.046
0.066
0.078
0.046
0.071
0.081
0.047
0.071
0.084
0.043
0.065
0.075
0.044
0.068
0.076
0.044
0.067
0.079
(t ) = ai cos(2fit + i )
i =1
(24)
where (t) is the water free surface elevation, N is the number of the
wave components with frequency fi and amplitude ai, and i is a random
phase of the ith wave component.
When a target irregular wave with its significant wave height and
corresponding frequency is specified, the wave spectrum can be
expressed by (21). From the wave spectrum wave component with
frequency fi and amplitude ai can be analyzed. Each wave component
can be generated by the wavemaker as a regular wave. Superposition of
all wavemaker motions for the wave components an irregular wave can
be generated.
Most natural waves are irregular. A wave train includes many waves
with different frequencies and amplitudes. Mathematically, there are
several methods to represent an irregular wave train. One of the
methods uses the wave spectrum which describes wave energy
distribution with frequency for specified conditions. Many wave
spectra have been proposed of which the modified JONSWAP (from
the Joint North Sea Wave Project) spectrum (Goda 1999) is often used.
The wave spectrum is easily described if the significant wave height
H1/3 and its corresponding frequency TH1/3 are given.
5
(exp( ( f / f p 1) 2 / 2 / 2 ))
S ( f ) = H12/ 3Tp4 f 5 exp( (Tp f ) 4 )
(21)
4
0.06238(1.094 0.01915 ln )
0.230 + 0.0336 0.185(1.9 + ) 1
Ht(m)
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.08
0.1
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.08
0.1
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.08
0.10
Irregular waves
where =
T(s)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
(22)
655
=0.3 and 0.9 with the peak frequency fc= 0.83. The focusing amplitude
A, which represents the linear sum of the component wave amplitudes
( A= ai), is set to 0.06m by adjusting input significant wave height.
The simulation ran for 20s.
is a little smaller than the target value. Based on the wave history a new
spectrum can be estimated by autocorrelation analysis, which is called
the measured wave spectrum shown in Figure 4 in a black solid line.
Comparing the measured and target spectra, the peak frequency and
spectral shape are very close to each other. The estimated spectrum has
some oscillations around the peak frequency. These may be caused by
numerical errors in the simulation and the discretisation of the target
wave spectrum. However errors are small and so the numerical model
can be used to simulate irregular waves.
A wave gauge is set at the target focus position to record the wave
profiles. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the free surface elevation with
frequency bandwidths 0.3 and 0.9 respectively. Wave profiles are
similar to results from Zhao and Hu (2010). Comparing Figure 6 to
Figure 7, the frequency bandwidth has an effect on focused wave
profiles. The wider frequency bandwidth case gives a more clearly
defined extreme wave. Therefore the wave frequency bandwidth should
be carefully selected in practical application.
0.0004
Targeted
Simulated
0.00035
spectrum density
0.0003
CONCLUSIONS
0.00025
0.0002
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
frequency f
1.2
0.8
0.4
eta/A
Focused waves
-0.4
-0.8
Nf
( x, t ) = ai cos(ki ( x x p ) 2fi (t t p ))
i =1
(25)
-1.2
5
10
11
12
13
14
15
time (s)
eta/A
0.4
0.08
0
-0.4
0.06
0.04
eta (m)
-0.8
0.02
0
-1.2
-0.02
-0.04
10
11
12
13
14
15
time (s)
-0.06
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70 80
time (s)
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