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carbonaceous particles
F. Qin and C. Brosseau
Citation: Journal of Applied Physics 111, 061301 (2012); doi: 10.1063/1.3688435
View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3688435
View Table of Contents: http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jap/111/6?ver=pdfcov
Published by the AIP Publishing
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(Received 30 November 2011; accepted 27 January 2012; published online 16 March 2012)
Carbon (C) is a crucial material for many branches of modern technology. A growing number of
demanding applications in electronics and telecommunications rely on the unique properties of C
allotropes. The need for microwave absorbers and radar-absorbing materials is ever growing in
military applications (reduction of radar signature of aircraft, ships, tanks, and targets) as well as in
civilian applications (reduction of electromagnetic interference among components and circuits,
reduction of the back-radiation of microstrip radiators). Whatever the application for which
the absorber is intended, weight reduction and optimization of the operating bandwidth are two
important issues. A composite absorber that uses carbonaceous particles in combination with a
polymer matrix offers a large flexibility for design and properties control, as the composite can be
tuned and optimized via changes in both the carbonaceous inclusions (C black, C nanotube, C fiber,
graphene) and the embedding matrix (rubber, thermoplastic). This paper offers a perspective on the
experimental efforts toward the development of microwave absorbers composed of carbonaceous
inclusions in a polymer matrix. The absorption properties of such composites can be tailored
through changes in geometry, composition, morphology, and volume fraction of the filler particles.
Polymer composites filled with carbonaceous particles provide a versatile system to probe
physical properties at the nanoscale of fundamental interest and of relevance to a wide range
of potential applications that span radar absorption, electromagnetic protection from natural
phenomena (lightning), shielding for particle accelerators in nuclear physics, nuclear electromagnetic pulse protection, electromagnetic compatibility for electronic devices, high-intensity radiated
field protection, anechoic chambers, and human exposure mitigation. Carbonaceous particles are
also relevant to future applications that require environmentally benign and mechanically flexible
C 2012 American Institute of Physics. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3688435]
materials. V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Carbonaceous materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Filled polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Microwave absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Objectives and outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. MA THEORY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Microwave interaction with absorbers. . . . . .
B. A birds eye view on dielectric
heterostructures theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Mixture laws and effective medium
approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Computational approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. CF-BASED POLYMER COMPOSITES. . . . . . . .
A. Continuous-fiber composites. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Short-fiber composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a)
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. Carbonaceous materials
cal reactions and physical interactions. Ever since the development of plastic electronics, there has been tremendous interest
in the properties of C-based materials owing to the substantial
p-electron delocalization of fullerenes and C nanotubes
(CNTs). The motivation for the miniaturization of electronics
has continuously pushed the research via the top-down
approach into nanostructures. As one of the most promising
candidates, C nanostructures, either 2D graphene57 or quasi1D CNTs,8,9 have opened entirely new perspectives toward the
C-based electronics. In many respect CNTs resemble the polymer chains used as composite matrices: both have covalently
bonded structures, similar dimensions, and mechanical flexibility. However, despite considerable interest in adding small
concentrations of CNTs to polymeric materials, what unquestionably matters is the ability to disperse them in the polymer
matrix. The difficulty to separate bundled tubes, the strong dependence of the conductivity on the CNT structure, and the
lack of techniques for observing their dynamics in molten suspensions, have slowed fundamental progress on their use in
nanotechnology. Over the last decade, through recent technological advances in nanoplasticsthe fusion of traditional
plastics and the developing field of nanotechnologymany
exciting results have demonstrated that polymers filled with
C-based materials possess unique properties, including
improved strength and durability, electrical conductivity,
flame resistance, UV absorption, and reduced permeability. In
addition to these properties, the rapid progress in the fabrication of CNTs and large area 1 cm2 graphene flakes10
makes these C structures promising for microwave absorption
(MA) applications, e.g., shielding materials for protection of
electronic devices, reduction in electromagnetic exposure, and
camouflage materials for radar and defense projects.
B. Filled polymers
FIG. 1. (Color) Some allotropes of C: (a) diamond; (b) graphite; (c) lonsdaleite; (df) fullerenes (C60, C540, C70); (g) amorphous carbon; (h) carbon
nanotube (Courtesy of Michael Strock, reprinted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon); (i) graphene (reprinted with permission from Ref.
338, copyright 2009 Wiley and Sons).
The study of the electromagnetic properties of an ensemble of filler particles embedded in a polymer matrix requires
the determination of not only the intrinsic electromagnetic
properties of the individual particles but also the type and
strength of interparticle interactions, e.g., long-range dipoledipole interactions, clustering, and matrix-particle interactions, such as multicontact chain adsorption to the surface of
the filler. It has been well established that spatial inhomogeneities, i.e., clusters of filler particles, give rise to polarization
phenomena and therefore to a frequency dependence of the
effective permittivity.11 However, understanding how electrons are distributed in these filler aggregates remains one outstanding unresolved problem in mesoscopics of disordered
materials, making it difficult to know which theoretical framework is most appropriate for understanding these compounds,
e.g., localization by disorder is a common cause of insulating
behavior in condensed matter systems.
Among the broad variety of polymers suitable for embedding carbonaceous particles for MA applications, epoxy resins
are good candidates due to their low cost, ease of mixing with
different types of fillers, resistance to oxidative photodegradation, and stability in sunlight. An epoxy polymer chain
is made up of alternating single and double carbon bonds,
which enables the formation of a spatially delocalized electron
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In the pursuit of technological advances at the nanoscale, MA of polymer composites with different allotropes
of C continues to draw substantial research interests both as
a fundamental subject and as a serious reliability concern in
nanoelectronics materials and devices. By controlling the
microstructural heterogeneities in these composites, unique
absorption responses at the macroscale can be achieved. This
necessitates developing systematic fabrication procedures to
optimize the MA. In what follows, we review the MA properties of polymer composites with C-based particles, including carbon fibers (CFs), CNTs, CB, graphene, and other
C-based materials. To our knowledge, no dedicated review
paper is available on this topic. We have endeavored to bring
together in one place diverse results so as to provide the
readers a fairly comprehensive panorama of our current
knowledge in terms of the influence of the carbonaceous
component in their composites on MA. Each of the results is
briefly described and, whenever possible, accompanied by
its implications for MA. While the descriptions here are not
extensive for reasons of space, we have provided relevant
pointers to the literature for a more in-depth study. Such a
review will be of much interest to the scientific and engineering communities, notably those working on nanocomposite
science and technology. We believe it is thus a sensible and
opportune time to revisit the claims made for high MA and
also make a comparison with other microwave absorbent
materials.
In spite of the recent advances, this research program still
presents quite a few challenges related to the following questions, such as what C-based filler properties determine the
MA features in polymer composites? How does one design
and optimize the C component to obtain the best absorption
(2.1)
where,
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dxe D 2 E
d xl D 2 E
;
u Re e0
jEj l0
jH j
dx
dx
(2.2)
(2.3)
p
p
where gi g0 li =e, ci j2pf le=c, g0 is the characteristic impedance of the free space; and li and ei are the relative
complex permeability and permittivity of the ith layer,
respectively. Considering that the metal plate is a PEC,
g0 0, the impedance of first layer reads as:
Z1 g1 tanhc1 d1 :
(2.5)
2pfd
le 1
e tanh j c
(2.6)
Zi gi
Zn g0
;
RL 20 logjCj 20 log
Zn g0
(2.4)
a Rec
p
jx le
Re
c
q
p
x
l00 e00 l0 e0 l02 l002 e02 e002 ;
p
2c
(2.7)
(2.8)
p
Usually, 2pfd
le 1, as the thickness d is much smaller
c
than the wavelength and e is also small. It follows from
Eq. (2.8) that,
2pfd 0
l jl00 1;
(2.9)
j
c
which can be reduced to,
l0 0 and
l00
c
:
2pfd
(2.10)
(2.11)
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061301-6
r
Ha ;
2p
(2.12)
2jK1 j
;
l0 Ms
(2.13)
2pfd
e 1
e tanh j c
FIG. 3. (Color online) Dielectric loss dependence of the maximum reflection loss for different values of e.
r!
u
x u
1
1
a p te00
1 2
:
tan d tan d
2c
(2.20)
p
e < 1, the best possible matching, i.e.,
As 1=e tanh j 2pfd
c
p
2pfd p
p
1=e tanh j c e , achieves maximum. As 2pfd
e 1,
c
the best possible matching condition is,
r
1
2pfd p
j
e:
(2.15)
e
c
r!
u
x u
1
1
1
:
(2.21)
1 2
a p t 00
tan d tan d
2d e
e0 0;
e00
c
:
2pfd
(2.16)
This is quite similar to Eq. (2.10). At the best matching condition, we can calculate the maximum reflection loss as
follows:
1
1
e
RLmax 20 log
(2.17)
:
1
1
e
After some transformation, we obtain,
0
4
RLmax 20 log@1
2 e00 tan d
1
1
A:
(2.18)
tan d
q
p
0
e e02 e002 :
(2.19)
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(2.22)
However, this is a special case dealing with spherical monodisperse particles. A second, alternative to the MG mixing
law, i.e., Lichteneker and Rothers law,
ek / e2 k 1 / e1 k ;
(2.23)
where k is within the range [1,1], is often found in the literature. Their validity, though widely accepted in the dilute
limit, is sometimes debated on theoretical grounds. In previous literature, mixing laws have sometimes produced (quantitatively) incorrect results in evaluating permittivity.140 The
advantages as well as the effectiveness of different mixing
laws have been discussed by Brosseau and Beroual.140
Effective medium analysis (EMA) is widely known for
being an alternate formulation of phenomenological mixing
laws, and appears in many review papers and textbooks as a
useful calculational tool for various statistical dielectric and
mechanical problems within the long-wavelength description
of the wave propagation.136,137,140,141 Once an order parameter, the CB volume fraction / in the host matrix, has been
identified, one constructs a permittivity functional
ee1 ; e2 ; / that satisfies the self-consistency requirement in
the long-wavelength physics description. Generally speaking, these approaches make use of the idea that a medium
containing inclusions of another phase can be approximated
as a homogeneous material. The underlying assumption, i.e.,
effective properties depend only on the materials constants
of the pure phases and their volume fractions, is of course an
approximation, and the quality of the theoretical predictions
can hardly be controlled.136142 A classic example of an
effective model is the Bruggeman symmetric equation which
can be written, for spherical particles, in the form,
1 /
e e1
e e2
/
0:
e 2e1
e 2e2
(2.24)
for / < /c ;
(2.25)
r r2 r2 =r1 st ;
r r2 / /c t
for / > /c ;
(2.26)
(2.27)
where s and t are critical exponents having the so-called universal values, i.e., s 0:7 and t 2 in 3D, r1 is the electrical
conductivity of the insulator matrix and r2 is the electrical
conductivity of the conductive fillers. Because the percolation
model is independent of the nature of the filler particles and
the nature of the insulating host matrix, it is possible to apply
to most polymers filled with powdery materials. At this stage
it is worthwhile stressing the fact that while such an approach
can give valuable insights into the CB volume fraction dependence of the effective conductivity, the intrinsic value of
the filling phase is generally unknown. Scher and Zallen predicted that the percolation threshold is close to 17 vol. % for
conducting spherical particles distributed randomly within a
3D dielectric matrix.156158 However, it is well established
that the CB particles form aggregates with more or less irregular and tenuous shapes. For low structure CB the aggregates
are small and regular, while for high structure CB the aggregates typically contain a few hundreds of particles. Because of
their often somewhat elongated shapes the probability of
aggregate-aggregate contact is larger than it would have been
had the aggregate been a compact sphere. Hence, the conduction threshold is usually lower than the 17 vol. % of filler particles, as is the case of the composites investigated here. In
addition, the insulator-conductor transition width is often large
due to variations in the particle aggregate size, geometry, and
orientation.158
During the past decade, different prescriptions to deal
with the problem of modeling the dielectric behavior in multicomponent percolative materials over the entire range of
phase concentration have been proposed in the literature.
Each of these methods improves one failing or another in the
EMA, but they often bear a semiempirical character, and none
can be considered universal and parameter-free. In particular,
McLachlan and co-workers159163 made an important contribution by proposing a simple two exponent phenomenological
percolation equation (TEPPE) that depends on s and t for
characterizing the effective complex permittivity e/,
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061301-8
1 /
1=~
s
1=~
s
e1 e1
1=~
s
1=~
s
e1 1 /c =/c e1
1=~t
e2 e1=~t
1=~t
e2 1 /c =/c e1=~t
0;
(2.28)
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061301-9
calculations of the property of interest, especially for continuum models, has been the lack of efficient algorithms suited
to generate collections of random packings of particles (disks,
spheres). It is perhaps fair to observe that theories that start
with similar algorithms may arrive at different descriptions of
their properties. Yet even if this disorder representation problem were solved in its entirety, the would-be composite designer would still face the formidable tasks of (i) finding the
starting entities that will maintain their structural integrity
throughout the synthesis process, and (ii) controlling the morphology he or she wished to engineer. As testimony to these
difficulties, it is not uncommon to find in the literature disagreements over the predictions of the porosity, mean coordination number, and radial distribution function.201,202
With the guidance of absorption and dielectric heterostructures theories detailed in Sec. II, we will discuss in
detail the polymer absorber with each kind of C filler. The
emphasis is placed on the description and analysis of absorption features, i.e., maximum absorption, absorption bandwidth with respect to the thickness and filler content. The
methods of tailoring the C fillers and the design of macroscopic structure are also presented. In addition to providing
the readers sufficient information for choosing and designing
C-based absorbers for a targeted MA application, an overall
evaluation of the C-filler loaded polymer composites is also
given to clearly identify their practical value. In view of the
rich class of C-based fillers that have been discovered and
produced, we lay out the following discussion in a sequence
conforming to the significance from the application point of
view. As such, we start from CF-based composites which
have been identified as the core engineering material superseding conventional metals and alloys as critical structural
components. This is followed with CNT-based polymer
composites and then with CB-filled materials. Finally, we
complete this presentation by giving a flavor of other forms
of C-based polymer materials containing C coils, C onions,
and C nanofibers. To make this review easier to follow, Table I summarizes the absorption properties for the various
composite materials discussed in this review paper.
III. CF-BASED POLYMER COMPOSITES
One of the key aspects in materials engineering is to tailor materials in terms of morphology and structure to modify
their macroscopic properties and meet the requirements of a
specific application. If the material is intrinsically nonapplicable, one can transform it to be applicable via appropriate tailoring approaches. In this regard, it is possible to
modify CFs to make them applicable for MA applications.
For example, Zhu et al.206 coated pitch-based CF (PCF)
using amino-modified polyorganosiloxane with low conductivity and surface area to increase the contact resistance.
Nonwovens with various PCF contents up to 100 vol. %
were characterized from 8 to 18 GHz. A complicated dependence of the electromagnetic characteristics depending
on PCF content was observed. For small PCF concentrations,
the absorption dominates the attenuation (reflection is rather
small), while at larger concentrations, the reflection dominates the attenuation. Quantitatively, a maximum absorption
of 18 dB was achieved at 18 GHz for a PCF concentration of
2 wt. %, with a large absorption bandwidth (818 GHz). In
this paper, absorption or reflection losses are presented in
absolute values. This absorption level is larger than that of
nonwovens containing CB, such as reported by Lopes and
co-workers,207 i.e., a 4 GHz (812 GHz) absorption bandwidth was obtained for the sample containing 33 wt. % CB.
Wu et al.208 pointed out that activated CF (ACF) is an effective way to increase MA because ACF can significantly exalt
multiple reflections with a longer propagation distance inside
the composites. This was later confirmed by Zou et al.209
who reported an enhanced absorption of 16.6 dB for composites containing ACF with a 12 GHz absorption bandwidth
(618 GHz). Because wasted CF can be regenerated for the
production of ACF,210 the excellent microwave properties of
ACF make them materials of choice for MA materials. Other
work worth mentioning is that of Zeng et al.,211 who showed
that a CuO/Co layer on the surface of CF has a significant
effect on MA, the maximum absorption is 23.0 dB for CuO/CF
and equal to 42.7 dB for CuO/Co/CF at matching thickness of
2 mm. The decoration of CFs surface by magnetic nanoparticles has also a profound impact on MA, arising from the
additional absorption mechanism introduced by these particles, such as Neel relaxation, and the interface created
between the particles and CF, which can promote interfacial
polarization. Most important, the improvement of impedance
matching when magnetic particles are present leads to an
enhanced absorption as compared to the case of pure CFs.
ACFs can also be structured in a specific design termed CFfelt screens,212 in analogy to traditional metallic frequency
selective surface, in either cross-linked (Fig. 4(a)) or vertical
manners, and embedded into an epoxy matrix. When interacting with an incident microwave field the CF-felt screens
behave as a waveguide when they are cross-linked or as an
antenna when they are vertically aligned. The MA characteristics are found to be strongly dependent on the geometric
parameters of the fiber array, such as the spacing between
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Matrix
PAN-based CF (activated)
Pitch-based CF (activated)
CF (activated)
CF
Cuo/CF
Cuo/Co/CF
CF
MT, mm
[MA]max, dB
F, GHz
A, GHz
Ref.
55.5%
2%
0.43 %
0.43 %
18.7%
4.0
10.0
4.0
4.0
1.7
2.0
18.0
30.6
18
26.8
10.2
23
42.7
31.6
12.4
18
8.2
11.9
8.2
10.8
16.5
10 (8-18)
10 (818)
12 (618)
0
2.4 (7.69)
2.7 (9.312)
10 (818)
[212]
[206]
[209]
[209]
[211]
[211]
[213]
60 %
5.0
38
6.9
4.7 (4.5-9.2)
[214]
30%
2.0
1.2 (4.35.5)
and 2.4 (15.417.8)
[217]
18.6
32.5
16
11
5.2 (12.818)
4.2 (8.212.4)
[129]
[41]
22
13.8
24.27
17
27.5
8.8
13.5
15.36
7.6
10.9
2.6 (7.510.1)
3.1 (12.015.1)
4.8 (13.218)
2.7 (6.59.2)
4 (9.513.5)
[76]
[76]
[233]
[233]
[269]
17.9
25.78
26.39
14
16
24.8
18
16
17.5
21.9
22.7
12.5
27.7
21.5
19.2
22.9
21.8
28.7
18
7.18
7.71
8
8
11
9
9
11
8.5
15.6
9
10
9.4
7.8
11.4
12.2
10
2 (16.018.0)
14 (418)
2.2 (6.89)
3 (69)
4 (59)
16 (218)
7 (6.513.5)
16 (218)
16 (218)
6 (612)
4.2 (13.417.6)
2.4 (8.110.5)
2.3 (911.3)
1.6 (8.710.3)
1.8 (7.29.0)
3 (10.113.1)
3.4 (10.814.2)
1.4 (9.711.1)
[269]
[90]
[90]
[83]
[83]
[66]
[68]
[72]
[72]
[230]
[274]
[268]
[264]
[263]
[265]
[265]
[261]
[308]
Epoxy
CF
SCF
SCF
SCF
0.2%
0.39%
SWCNT
SWCNT
MWCNT
MWCNT
Ni/MWCNT
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
5%
2%
20%
4%
15%
MWCNT
Low helicity MWCNT
Worm-like MWCNTs
MWCNT
MWCNT/Co
MWCNT/Fe
MWCNT/CoFe2O4
MWCNxNT/Fe
MWCNT/Fe
MWCNT ferrite
Fe/MWCNT
Fe/Fe3C-MWCNT
MWCNTs/Er2O3
MWCNTs/ Sm2O3
MWCNT/Ag
MWCNT
CNT/Co
MWCNT
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
15%
30%
30%
16.7%
16.7%
16.7%
16.7%
40% ferrite 18.6% CNT
10%
5%
10%
5%
0.9 6 0.07
3
2.8
2
2
1.2
1.4
2
2
2
3.5
2
2
2
1
1
1
12.9 (0.7 11.5 0.7)
Cross-linked PU
Cross-linked PU
Varnish
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
Phthalazinone ethersulfone
ketone (PPESK)
PPESK
Paraffin
Paraffin
Olefin
Olefin
Epoxy
Epoxy
Epoxy
Epoxy
Paraffin
-c
Epoxy
Epoxy
Epoxy
PU
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Sandwich, GFRC PU
foam CFRC
Configuration of composite
Epoxy
Polyester
Epoxy
Epoxy
Epoxy
Filler
061301-10
TABLE 1. Summary of the absorption properties for the various polymer composites filled with carbonaceous particles discussed in this review paper.a
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Filler
MWCNT
PU
MWCNT
Epoxy
GFRP
Rubber
Natural Rubber
Paraffin
Epoxy
poly-(ethylene oxide) (PEO)
Phenol-formaldehyde
cement (PFC)
Nomex honeycomb sandwich
Nomex honeycomb sandwich
Nomex honeycomb sandwich
composites
Epoxy
Epoxy
MT, mm
12.5 (1 10.5 0.8 0.2)
[MA]max, dB
28.5
F, GHz
9.9
A, GHz
1.2 (9.610.8)
Ref.
[308]
5%
24
9.5
3 (8.711.7)
[308]
30%
7% (1st layer),
5% (2nd layer)
10%
50% CI, 40% CB
11.1%
5% CB 50% SiC
2.6%
2
0.65 mm 1.9 mm
40
37.5
11.3
9.8
2.9 (10.113)
2.8 (8.611.4),
[294]
[128]
25%
1.9
22
6
3
1.8
1.5
2
22
23.3
22
41.5
38.8
16.5
12.7
11.6
14.5
16.2
9
16.5
12
14.5
3.9(9.613.5)
5.5 (4.56.5, 12.716.2)
5.6, 12.418
6 (713)
4.1 (13.918)
5 (1015)
4.4 (13.618)
[295]
[310]
[305]
[299]
[113]
[114]
[324]
Polyaniline (PANI)/CB
CB
Configuration of composite
Sandwich GFRC PU foam
GFRC CFRC
Sandwich GFRC PU
foam GFRC
PU foam CFRC
Single layer
Double layer
CB
CB Carbonyl iron (CI)
heat-treated carbon black
CB SiC
Chemically reduced graphene
Ni coated graphene
graphite flakes
Single layer
Double layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Single layer
Carbon microcoil
(A type, Fig. 11(a))
Carbon microcoil
(B type, Fig. 11(b))
Carbon nanocoil
Sandwich
0.007%
18
12.4
3.2 (10.814)
[108]
Sandwich
0.007%
13
12.2
3.3 (1114.3)
[108]
Sandwich
0.007%
32.23
12
9.1 (8.918)
[111]
Single layer
Single layer
4%
4%
4
4
26
22
18.4
16
1.8 (1819.8)
1.6 (15.216.8)
[107]
[107]
Matrix
PU
061301-11
TABLE 1. Continued.
a
The results summarized here concern primarily the maximum of the MA, the corresponding frequency, and the absorption bandwidth. The table includes results available from the literature up to August 2011.
MT: matching thickness, [MA]max: maximum of MA, F: frequency at [MA]max, A: absorption bandwidth over 10 dB.
b
The activation procedure is detailed in the corresponding reference.
c
Information on the matrix is missing here because the absorption results are calculated from the permittivity and magnetic permeability rather than direct measurement on planar samples.
d
Type 1 is different from type 2 in terms of dispersion techniques, which are detailed in the corresponding reference.
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enhanced. On the other hand, sandwich structure with mesophase pitch C foams215,216 and glass-fiber composite (matching layer) exhibit excellent MA.
B. Short-fiber composites
the fibers and width of the fiber strips (see Fig. 4(b)). For an
optimized configuration, 30 dB maximum absorption and
10 GHz (818) bandwidth can be achieved.212 The combination of different types of screens is shown to improve the
absorption. It should be noted that although CFs link together
to form a network, such layering of screens will not make
the composite reflective but instead will enhance MA. A
similar design concept can be found in a CFRP grid
absorber, consisting of a CFRP grid and absorbing foam.213
MA characteristics are driven by thickness and geometry of
the unit cell. An optimal geometry has been suggested and
yields a maximum absorption of 31.63 dB with a wide
absorption bandwidth, 818 GHz. Note that although the
absorber shows strong absorption, its relatively large thickness of 18 mm compromises its performance and limits its
applications.
Two final comments are in order. In Ref. 214, it has
been observed that the double layer absorber containing CF
can achieve impedance match (Fig. 5), whereas the metalbacked absorber cannot. Thus the absorption is greatly
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and the thickness of each layer. They found, both experimentally and theoretically, that a 4 mm double-layer structure shows the best absorption features with maximum
absorption at 32.5 dB and absorption bandwidth covering the
whole X-band. Within this perspective, another study which
should be highlighted here is that of Mitrano and co-workers:222 They suggested a model based on genetic algorithm
techniques and the MG formula (Eq. (2.22)) for designing a
Jaumann-type CFRP-based multilayer structure to obtain a
broadband absorption.222 The third approach is to fabricate
hybrid multilayered composite structures by mixing short
CFs and other types of filler particles. In this way, double
layer structures with lossy layers containing mixtures of ferrites and short CFs were developed.218,221,224 For relatively
small loadings of CFs, the absorption performance is significantly improved. The possibility that short CFs can act like
bridges to link the ferrite particles was suggested to explain
these observations.
The absorption behavior of composites containing short
CFs can be modeled by an appropriate effective medium
analysis, such as those described in Sec. II. In addition,
recent studies have demonstrated the ability of numerical
techniques225,226 for the design of single layer and multilayered absorbers containing short CFs.
IV. CNT-BASED POLYMER COMPOSITES
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The aspect ratio of CNTs is a crucial parameter in determining the charge and wave transport mechanisms in such
composite materials. It is generally understood that a large
aspect ratio implies a large excluded volume, defined as the
volume around an object into which the center of another
similar object is not allowed to enter if overlapping of the
two objects is to be avoided. A smaller percolation threshold
/c is expected if the aspect ratio is increased. Despite CNT
being an archetypal material, interpretations of the percolation characteristics in CNT-filled polymers vary dramatically
in the literature depending on which theoretical model is
used. The abundance of literature makes it hard to describe
universal features of the percolation characteristics, which
depend on the details of the model and/or material. Specifically, for stick-shaped fillers with large aspect ratio (l
a),
where a is the radius of the stick, and l denotes its length, the
standard EMA theory predicts that,244
/c / a=l2 ;
(4.1)
whereas the MG formula suggests that,
/c / a=l1=2 :
However, computational studies244247 revealed that,
/c / a=l:
(4.2)
(4.3)
FIG. 7. Theoretical prediction of upper and lower bounds for the percolation
threshold (in wt%) as a function of the particle aspect ratio determined from
the excluded volume approach. As a comparison, the experimentally determined percolation threshold for CVD-grown MWCNTs in an epoxy resin is
shown (reprinted with permission from Ref. 25, copyright 2004 Elsevier).
l U2x1
;
2p2 R Rc
(4.4)
3. Dispersion of particles
It is likely that the morphology of the composite material is largely dependent on the dispersion procedure of the
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CNTs. For low CNT content (smaller than the threshold concentration predicted by the kinetic theory of percolation),
dispersion is easily realized. For larger concentrations, the
aggregation mechanism will be of paramount importance to
determine the percolation transition and, hence, the maximum absorption, which is expected to occur at percolation
threshold. The best dispersion conditions do not necessarily
lead to the maximum tunneling conductivity, because it is
well recognized that a good dispersion leads to the formation
of an insulating polymer layer between the CNTs. This
absorption layer will eventually reduce the conductivity. To
minimize this polymer sheath effect, various processing
techniques, e.g., solvent processing,235 have been suggested.
The dependence of the MA characteristics on the dispersion
of particles has been reported in many experimental works;
see, e.g., Refs. 107, 233, 236, and 257. Pre-treatment258 and
stirring rate234 were found to be important steps of the dispersion process. Generally speaking, a good dispersion is
also crucial for the mechanical performance of CNT-based
polymer composites. This and recent research in stretchable
C nanoelectronics has indicated that further progress requires
multidisciplinary programs, incorporating nearly every field
of traditional study, from chemistry, materials science,
computation, and physics, to mechanical and electrical
engineering.
4. Interfacial properties
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Wu et al.294 fabricated core-shell polyaniline/CB nanocomposites and found that the maximum absorption of 40 dB
is observed within the X-band with CB concentration of
30 wt. %. However, the absorption bandwidth is quite narrow
(3 GHz). Adding 6 vol. % CB into a glass/epoxy matrix
yields a sample with a maximum absorption of 32 dB within
the X-band and 2.7 GHz absorption bandwidth.128 Kwon295
showed that CB/silicone rubber exhibits a 24 dB minimum
reflection loss within the X-band and 3.9 GHz absorption
bandwidth. Of particular interest is the observation that these
measurements concern supercolative CB-filled polymer samples for X-band absorption. These measurements can be
understood by considering that, for low CB volume fractions,
an increase of CB will increase the conductivity by tunneling, which favors MA. A large CB concentration will prevent the wave from propagating into the absorber due to the
front surface reflection. As evident from these measurements, the observed percolation threshold in CB-based
absorbers can be very rich and, as discussed in many
places,143,155,296,297 the corresponding mechanical, electronic, and transport properties of percolating networks are
strongly affected by the system percolation. It is well established that the filler dispersion becomes difficult for CB concentrations well away from the percolation threshold and this
is detrimental to the improvement of the mechanical properties observed at low CB volume fractions.298300 From a
practical perspective, we note that our work123 and recent
results by other groups indicated that improving the MA of
CB-filled composites can be realized by catalyzing the CB
particles with SiC,301 BaTiO3,302 Fe(Co)5,220,301304 nanosized Fe,305 and ferrite304,306 particles, which have better
MA performance and larger percolation threshold. On the
other hand, some experiments also showed that that the
absorption features of these composites can be precisely controlled with mechanical stress.307 The ability to control
the CB mesostructure will be instrumental in developing
CB-based polymer materials for MA.
B. Multilayer microwave absorbers
In general, a multilayer microwave absorber is characterized by a set of layers with different MA materials in
order to enhance the overall absorption features. As was
briefly mentioned in Sec. II A, one of the main issues for the
design of such absorbers lies in the minimization of the overall reflection coefficient in a specific frequency range and a
specific range of incidence angles. The front layer is
expected to give the best impedance match, while the
absorbing layer is supposed to dissipate the microwave
energy as much as possible, and the substrate layer is
expected to be reflective to prevent any escape of the microwave. In Ref. 128 (CB2), Oh et al. proposed a double-layer
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FIG. 10. (Color) RL curves of double-layer absorber containing CB particles and carbonyl iron (CI) particles #1#6, of which the thickness of the
matching layer and the absorbing layer is uniform 2 mm. (a) The mass fraction of CI in the matching layer is set to 50%, the mass fraction of CB in the
absorbing layer of samples #1, #2 and #3 are 40%, 50% and 60%, respectively. (b) The mass fraction of CI in the matching layer is set to 70%, the
mass fraction of CB in the absorbing layer of samples #4, #5 and #6 are
40%, 50% and 60%, respectively (reprinted with permission from Ref. 310,
copyright 2009 Elsevier).
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B. Onion-like C
Soon after the discovery of onion-like C (OLC) by Kuznetsov et al.,317 electromagnetic studies were performed for
shielding and MA application. OLCs are quasi-spherical
nanoparticles consisting of fullerene-like C layers enclosed
by concentric graphitic shells (Fig. 12). They are predicted
to have different properties from other C nanostructures,
such as graphite, nano-diamond, or CNTs, due to their highly
symmetric structure and may serve uses in different applications. OLCs can even serve as nanocapsules for drug
delivery systemsthe external graphite layers providing
protection to substances contained within and possibly serving as a template for the attachment of desirable functional
groups. Until recently the investigation of the unique chemical and physical properties of OLCs was limited by the lack
of a method that produced them with well-ordered structures
and in sufficiently large quantities. Several recent publications have shown that magnetic nanoparticles encapsulated
within graphite-like layers may find applications as microwave absorption materials,318 particularly in the Ka band
which covers the frequencies of 26.540 GHz.104,319 From
In analogy to CNTs, C nanofibers (CNFs) are a onedimensional nanocarbon material, characterized with a large
aspect ratio, high mechanical properties, and excellent electrical and thermal properties.321 However, because CNFs
have a higher density of defects compared to CNTs, their
mechanical properties are reduced. However, one major
advantages of CNFs is their availability and cheaper production cost relative to CNTs. The large aspect ratio of the
CNFs promotes larger conductivity and permittivity and a
smaller percolation threshold compared with CNTs. Over the
frequency range 0.518 GHz, a maximum absorption of
18 dB was found close to 10 GHz for CNF/epoxy composites.322 This is not as good as for CNT/epoxy and CB/epoxy
composites fabricated in the same conditions, but they
achieve equal absorption bandwidth of 3 GHz for smaller filler loading and matching thickness. As with other types of
nanoparticles, some experimental reports claim that the MA
features of CNF-filled composites are related to the filler
content and dispersion quality. For instance, Nanni et al.107
reported an improvement of the maximum absorption,
increasing from 0.2 to 18.3 dB over the 820 GHz bandwidth
when the CNF content is increased from 1 wt. % to 4 wt. %
for CNF/epoxy composites. Additionally, these authors
showed that a better dispersion of CNFs into the polymer
permits obtainment of a higher permittivity and a larger MA.
To improve the absorption efficiency of CNFs, researchers
also tried to mix them with magnetic absorbents.323 Both
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absorption maximum and bandwidth were found to be significantly enhanced for a specific mixing ratio. In view of the
likely economic feasibility of CNFs, these materials are viable solutions for microwave absorbers.
D. Graphite
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061301-20
Lab-STICC is UMR CNRS 6185. We acknowledge support from the Conseil General du Finiste`re post-doctoral fellowship program.
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061301-23
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[This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AIP content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to ] IP:
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061301-24
292
[This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AIP content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to ] IP:
131.180.140.56 On: Tue, 30 Dec 2014 20:12:48