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An Overview

>learningobjectives
After reading this chapter, you should understand . . .
1 Research is decision- and dilemma-centered.
2 The clarified research question is the result of careful exploration
and analysis and sets the direction for the research project.
3 How value assessments and budgeting influence the process for
proposing research and, ultimately, research design.
4 What is included in research design, data collection, and data
analysis.
5 Research process problems to avoid.

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>behindthescenes
We rejoin Visionary Insights Jason Henry as he works on the MindWriter
CompleteCare customer satisfaction project. At this stage in the MindWriter research MindWriter
process, Jason Henrys task is to help MindWriters project director, Myra Wines, define
the correct information to collect. Henry and Wines have just spent the day at the CompleteCare
facility in Austin and with other MindWriter managers who are influential to CompleteCares
success. They spent much of their time with Gracie Uhura, MindWriters marketing manager.

On the return flight from Austin, Visionary Insights Ja-

tion, and so forth. If it is, maybe collecting that infor-

son Henry and MindWriters Myra Wines are dis-

mation can be justified.

cussing their trip. That went really well, she says.

There are going to be a few problems, disagrees
Jason. Gracie, like most marketing managers, wants

So you feel we need to propose a pilot study to

whittle down the information needed to critical items,
followed by a larger study later?

the sun, the sky, and the moon. She wants to know the

A pilot study could help in other ways, too. Gracie

demographic characteristics of her users . . . their job

wants to know the customers perception of Mind-

descriptions . . . their salaries . . . their ethnicities . . .

Writers overall quality. But we have to ask ourselves,

their education; wants to know their perception of

Are these customers really qualified to form inde-

MindWriter . . . of the quality of MindWriters specific

pendent opinions, or will they simply be parroting what

models; wants to know their satisfaction with the pur-

they have read in the computer magazines or what a

chase channel and with the CompleteCare service,

dealer told them? A pilot study of a few hundred users

too.

can help determine if it is really useful to ask them their

And your point is? asks Myra.

overall impression of the product.

You and Gracie need to keep your eye on the bot-

However, with the repair problem we can be rea-

tom line. You can bet someone will want to know how

sonably sure that the CompleteCare customers know

you and Gracie can justify asking all these questions.

their own minds when it comes to evaluating their

They will ask, What is going to be the payoff in know-

firsthand experience with MindWriters service

ing the ethnicity of customers? And if you or Gracie

department.

cant explain the justification for needing the informa-

Todays tour of the CompleteCare facility really

tion, if one of you cant establish that the dollar benefit

helped me understand the context of managements

of knowing is at least as great as the dollar cost of

concerns, comments Myra. Did you or Sara have a

finding out, the question will get struck from the

chance to look over any of the customer letters from

developing research.

the service department?

Is there no way we can justify knowing everything

Gracie wants to know? inquires Myra.

Jason digs into his briefcase and extracts a small

sheaf of photocopies. Yes, and Sara reviewed tran-

We can draft a survey and do a pilot study of a few

scriptions, too, on service center phone conversations.

hundred customers and see if the ethnic background, or

She pulled a few for us. One person writes, My Mind-

the salary level, or any other item that Gracie cares

Writer was badly damaged on arrival. I could not be-

about is a good indicator of satisfaction, willingness to

lieve its condition when I unpacked it. And here, The

make a repeat purchase, postpurchase service satisfac-

service technicians seemed to be unable to understand

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>behindthescenescontd
my complaint, but once they understood it, they per-

be pilot-tested for clarity, consistency, and representa-

formed immediate repairs. You and I will collaborate

tiveness. You dont want MindWriter to pay for every-

to boil down these, and possibly dozens more like

thing Gracie says she wants, just what she wants that

them, to a couple of representative questions that can

has a payoff and is researchable.

> The Marketing Research Process

research process various

decision stages involved in a
research project and the
relationship between those
stages.

The primary purpose of

research is to reduce the level
of risk of a marketing decision.
Knowing that most new
product introductions fail, this
humorous ad from Greenfield
Online suggests that not all
new product ideas are worthy
of consideration and that wellexecuted research can save a
firm from a costly mistake.
www.greenfieldonline.com

Writers usually treat the research task as a sequential process involving several clearly defined steps. No one claims that research requires completion of each step before going to
the next. Recycling, circumventing, and skipping occur. Some steps are begun out of sequence, some are carried out simultaneously, and some may be omitted. Despite these variations, the idea of a sequence is useful for developing a project and for keeping the project
orderly as it unfolds.
Exhibit 4-1 models the sequence of stages in the research process. We refer to it often
as we discuss each stage and step in subsequent chapters. Our discussion of the questions
that guide project planning and data gathering is incorporated into the model (see the elements within the inverted pyramid in Exhibit 4-1 and compare them with the elements in
Exhibit 4-2). Exhibit 4-1 also organizes this chapter and introduces the remainder of the
book.
The research process begins much as the opening vignette suggests. A management
dilemma triggers the need for a decision. For MindWriter, a growing
number of complaints about postpurchase service started the process. In
other situations, a controversy arises,
a major commitment of resources is
called for, or conditions in the environment signal the need for a decision. For MindWriter, the critical
event could have been a competitors
introduction of new technology.
Such events cause managers to reconsider their purposes or objectives,
define a problem for solution, or develop strategies for solutions they
have identified.
In our view of the research
process, the management question
its origin, selection, statement, exploration, and refinementis the
critical activity in the sequence.
Throughout the chapter we emphasize problem-related steps. A familiar quotation from Albert Einstein,
no less apt today than when it was
written, supports this view:

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> Exhibit 4-1 The Marketing Research Process

Clarifying the Research Question
Discover the Management Dilemma

Define the Research Question(s)

Refine the
Research Question(s)

Exploration

Stage 2

Exploration

Stage 1

Define the Management Question

Research
Proposal

Research Design
Strategy
(type, purpose, time frame, scope, environment)

Sampling
Design

Chapter 6

Chapters 717

Stage 3

Data Collection
Design

Chapters 35

Legend

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Research
planning
Data
gathering
Analysis,
interpretation
Reporting

Research Reporting

Management
Decision

Stage 6 Stage 5

Data Collection and Preparation

Stage 4

Instrument Development
& Pilot Testing

Chapter 18

Chapters 1922

Chapter 23

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The formulation of a problem is far more often essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter
of mathematical or experimental skill. To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems
from a new angle requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science.1

Whether the researcher is involved in basic or applied research, a thorough understanding

of the management question is fundamental to success in the research enterprise.

> Stage 1: Clarifying the Research Question

management-research
question hierarchy process
of sequential question
formulation that leads a
manager or researcher from
management dilemma to
investigative questions.
management dilemma the
problem or opportunity that
requires a marketing decision.

Why? is a question that

drives many a company to do
marketing research. Harris
Interactive is promising that if
this guy is your customer, youll
actually understand what
makes him tickdollar-sign
medallion and allby the time
Harris finishes your research
project. 2004, Harris
Interactive Inc. All rights
reserved.
www.harrisinteractive.com

A useful way to approach the research process is to state the basic dilemma that prompts
the research and then try to develop other questions by progressively breaking down
the original question into more specific ones. You can think of the this process as the
management-research question hierarchy. You can follow the research process as it develops for MindWriter in Exhibit 4-2.
The process begins at the most general level with the management dilemma. This is
usually a symptom of an actual problem, such as:
Rising costs.
The discovery of an expensive chemical compound that would increase the efficacy
of a drug.
Increasing tenant move-outs from an apartment complex.
Declining sales.
A larger number of product defects during the manufacture of an automobile.
An increasing number of letters and phone complaints about postpurchase service (as
at MindWriter).
The management dilemma can also be triggered by an early signal of an opportunity or growing evidence that a fad may be gaining staying powerlike the growing interest in low-carbohydrate diets indicated by the number of broadcast news segments and print news stories
over an extended period of time.
Identifying management dilemmas
is rarely difficult (unless the organization fails to track its performance
factorslike sales, profits, employee
turnover, manufacturing output and
defects, on-time deliveries, customer
satisfaction, etc.). However, choosing
one dilemma on which to focus may
be difficult. Choosing incorrectly will
direct valuable resources (time, manpower, money, and equipment) on a
path that may not provide critical
decision-making information (the
purpose of good research). As a marketing manager, only practice makes
you proficient at identifying which
are real problems and which are not,
as well as correctly discerning the
scope of the dilemma to be researched. For new managers, or established managers facing new
responsibilities, developing several
management-research question hierarchies, each starting with a different

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> Exhibit 4-2 Formulating the Research Question for MindWriter

To move from the management dilemma to the management question and subsequent research questions takes exploratory research.
Such research may include examining previous studies, reviewing published studies and organizational records, and interviewing experts or
information gatekeepers.

1
Discover
Management
Dilemma
1a Exploration
An increasing number of letters
and phone complaints about
postpurchase service.

Stage 1: Pre-Austin
1. PC magazines annual survey
of service, repair & tech
support
2. Published customer
satisfaction comparisons
Stage 2: Austin Meeting
1. Production: 5,000/mo.
2. Distribution through computer
superstores and independent
mail order co.
3. CustomCare process

Stage 3: Post-Austin:
Brainstorming & company
letters
1. Possible problems:
(a) Employee shortages
(b) Tech-line operator training
(c) Uneven courier performance
(d) Parts shortages
(e) Inconsistent repair servicing
(f) Product damage during repair
(g) Product damage during
shipping
(h) Packaging and handling
problems

2
Define
Management
Question
What should be done to improve
the CompleteCare program for
MindWriter product repairs
and servicing?

3
Define
Research
Question(s)

Should the tech-support operator be

given more intensive training

Should ABC Courier Service be

replaced by an air-transport service

Should the repair diagnostic and

repair sequencing operations be
modified
Should the return packaging be
modified to include premolded rigid
foam inserts, or conforming-expandable
foam protection
Should metropolitan repair centers
be established to complement
or replace in-factory repair facilities

2a Exploration
Interviews with
Service manager
Call center manager
Independent package
company account
executive

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>snapshot
A Love-Match between Lexus and Research

If your product earns rave reviews for dependability/reliability,

quality workmanship, and manufacturer reputation, thats good,
right? If your firm delivers on the promise of your long-held promotional taglinethe Pursuit of Perfectionthats great, right?
Not good enough, claims Mark Miller, associate director of
strategic planning, Team One Advertising, when Toyota is determined to infuse the Lexus brand with passion.
Toyota faced some troubling statistics in the 19971999
model years. While the Lexus brand was setting sales records
and overall the luxury coupe category was growing, its Lexus
coupe sales were declining. And while Lexus scored well on the
rational motivators, it lacked the emotional motivators deemed
critical for luxury coupe success, especially against Corvette,
Porsche, and Mercedes. Toyota engineers had developed a concept car in Japan, the SC 430. This car was Toyotas first luxury
convertible and sported a technologically advanced, retractable
hard top rather than the more usual soft rag top.
Team One was charged with developing the communications
program to launch the SC 430. Understanding that this car was
and needed to be a departure from traditional Lexus brand imagery, Team One needed information to accomplish Toyotas
more aggressive agenda: (1) evolve the Lexus brand using the

management question the

management dilemma restated
in question format.
research question(s) the
hypothesis that best states the
objective of the research.

SC 430 convertible as the emotional flagship, (2) stimulate desire

for the Lexus brand, as well as desire for the SC 430 convertible,
(3) make a connection with luxury convertible buyers beyond the
rational, and (4) inject more passion into our Pursuit of Perfection. Using syndicated tracking studies by Allison-Fisher and innovative quantitative research by Diagnostic Research Inc.,
along with strategic marketing clinic research by the Lexus team,
and data mining Toyotas Consolidated Dynamic Study, Team
One created its innovative French-language American-aired
campaign. The Cabriolet Nouveau campaign married the association of the French with seduction, love, and romance to the
stylish, sophisticated, sexy Lexus SC 430. The results were
award-winning in numerous ways, including earning the 2002
David Ogilvy Research Award in the durables category.
Using the management-research question hierarchy, identify
the management dilemma, management question(s), and research question(s) that would drive this research. Watch for the
special icon that indicates a continuation of this research story
example.
www.lexus.com; www.teamoneadv.com;
www.diagnostic.com; www.allison-fisher.com

dilemma, will assist in the choice process. In all figures related to the research process model,
in this and subsequent chapters, we use an inverted pyramid to represent the management-research question hierarchy.
Subsequent stages of the hierarchy take the marketer and his or her research collaborator
through various brainstorming and exploratory research exercises to define the following:
Management questiona restatement of the marketers dilemma(s) in question
form.
Research question(s)the hypothesis that best states the objective of the research;
the question(s) that focuses the researchers attention.

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Investigative questionsquestions the researcher must answer to satisfactorily answer the research question; what the marketer feels he or she needs to know to arrive
at a conclusion about the management dilemma.
Measurement questionswhat participants in marketing research are asked or what
specifically is observed in a research study.
The definition of the management question sets the research task. So a poorly defined management question will misdirect research efforts. In Chapter 5, we explore this critical stage
in more detail in our search to clarify the research question.

> Stage 2: Proposing Research

Resource Allocation and Budgets
Once the research question is defined, the manager must propose research in order to allocate resources to the project. While data collection requires substantial resources, it often
takes no more than one-third of the total research budget. The geographic scope and the
number of observations, surveys, or interviews required do affect the cost of a research
project, but much of this cost is relatively independent of the size of the data-gathering effort. Thus, a guide might be that (1) project planning, (2) data gathering, and (3) analysis,
interpretation, and reporting each shares about equally in the budget.
Without budgetary approval, many research efforts are rejected for lack of resources
(see Exhibit 4-3). A budget may require significant development and documentation as in
grant and contract research, or it may require less attention as in some in-house projects or
investigations funded out of the researchers own resources. The researcher who seeks
funding must be able not only to persuasively justify the costs of the project but also to
identify the sources and methods of funding. One author identifies three types of budgets
in organizations where research is purchased and cost containment is crucial:
Rule-of-thumb budgeting involves taking a fixed percentage of some criterion. For
example, a percentage of the prior years sales revenues may be the basis for determining the marketing research budget for a manufacturer.
Departmental or functional-area budgeting allocates a portion of total expenditures
in the unit to research activities. Government agencies, not-for-profits, and the private sector alike will frequently manage research activities out of functional budgets.
Units such as human resources, marketing, or engineering then have the authority to
approve their own projects.
Task budgeting selects specific research projects to support on an ad hoc basis. This
type is the least proactive but does permit definitive cost-benefit analysis.2

Valuing Research Information

There is a great deal of interplay between budgeting and value assessment in any management decision to conduct research. The decision maker wants a firm cost estimate for a proposed project and an equally precise assurance that useful information will result from the
study. In profit-making concerns, marketing managers are increasingly faced with proving
that the research they initiate or purchase meets return-on-investment (ROI) objectives. If
such proposed research fails to help managers avoid losses or discover opportunities that can
increase sales or profits, such research may be considered wasteful and the proposed research
rejected. Even if the researcher can give good cost and information estimates, the manager
still must judge whether the benefits outweigh the costs.
Conceptually, the value of marketing research is not difficult to determine. One source
suggests that the value of research information may be judged in terms of the difference

83

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> Exhibit 4-3 Proposing Research

Revise question

Research
Question

Propose
Research

Budget and Value Assessment

Value exceeds
cost
Issue
Request for
Proposal

Obtain
Budget and
Design
Approval

Cost exceeds
value

Management
Decision
without
Research

Rejected

Approved

Execute
Research Design

between the result of decisions made with the information and the result that would be made without
it.3 While such a criterion is simple to state, its actual application presents difficult measurement problems.
Not all marketing research is contracted by profitoriented
enterprises or with profit-oriented objectives
Walt Disney
in mind. Churches, trade associations, and foundations
are examples of nonprofits that do marketing research on a regular basis. This, however, does
not eliminate the need for such organizations managers to prove the value of undertaking
marketing research. Ultimately, a marketer will be making a decision that will rely on the insights extracted from the proposed research. The value of the decision with the research
however it is measuredmust exceed the value of the decision without research.

We keep moving forward, opening new

doors, and doing new things, because
were curious and curiosity keeps leading
us down new paths.

Evaluation Methods
Option Analysis Some progress has been made in the development of methods for
assessing the value of research when management has a choice between well-defined options. Managers can conduct a formal analysis with each alternative research project judged
in terms of estimated costs and associated benefits and with managerial judgment playing
a major role.
If the research methodology can be stated clearly, one can estimate an approximate cost.
The critical task is to quantify the benefits from the research. At best, estimates of benefits
are crude and largely reflect an orderly way to estimate outcomes under uncertain conditions. To illustrate how the contribution of research is evaluated in such a decision situation, we must digress briefly into the rudiments of decision theory.
Decision Theory When there are alternatives from which to choose, a rational way
to approach the decision is to try to assess the outcomes of each action. The case of two

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>snapshot
WASSUP? from Donatos Pizza

In the food business, strategic windows remain open for limited

periods of time. Restaurants are influenced by many factors.
Some include product, message, weather, reputation, and competition, shared Donatos chief concept officer, Tom Krouse. In
Donatos WASSUP? meetings, each employee brings knowledge
of an element from popular culture and the group discusses its
possible effect on the companys 184 restaurants. Exposure
comes from articles, movies, books, TV, and daily living. Donatos
filters this less formal exploration with syndicated research. By late
July, we had research that showed 26 percent of adult eaters were
carb-aware. And Donatos had evidence that adults were incorporating low-carb habits into their diets. In its own restaurants, diners were eating the toppings from their favorite meat-loaded pizza
but leaving the crust behind. On this accumulated evidence, Donatos decided it wanted to own the low-carb position in pizza.
Donatos first step was to compact its normal new product
development process into less than six monthsto be ready for
the traditional postholiday increase in dieting. Taste tests told Donatos that the low-carb crust options available sacrificed taste
and choosing that route would have jeopardized its premium

pizza flavor positioning, which was reinforced by its Edge-toEdge toppings. Instead, Donatos chose a more expensive, but
true-to-positioning, product that incorporated protein crisps and
tested well with pizza eaters. Following the discovery of a highheat-resistant paper that could serve as both baking and serving
plate, the company did in-store trials in two restaurants. In-store
postpurchase surveys of diners told Donatos its No Dough pizza
was a winner. Donatos rolled out the No Dough pizza to its 184
restaurants in January 2004. The menu board now shows three
crust versions: original crispy, traditional, or No Dough. Diners
simply choose their favorite pizza toppings and choose the No
Dough option. Increased visits from Atkins dieters and purchases from a hidden segment, gluten avoiders, propelled sales
increases. Coverage in numerous local papers and TV segments, on the Today show, and in the New York Times helps Donatos own the low-carb position in pizza in its markets.
www.donatos.com
To learn more, read the case on your DVD: Donatos: Finding
the New Pizza.

choices will be discussed here, although the same approach can be used with more than two
choices. Youll find an example of decision theory on this books DVD.
Two possible actions (A1 and A2) may represent two different ways to promote a company,
support a cause, design a product, and so forth. The manager chooses the action that affords
the best outcomethe action choice that meets or exceeds whatever criteria are established
for judging alternatives. Each criterion is a combination of a decision rule and a decision
variable. The decision variable might be new customers captured, contribution to profits, time required for completion of the project, and so forth. For MindWriter, the decision
variable might be number of postservice complaints or the level of postservice satisfaction. Usually the decision variable is expressed in a quantifiable measure, often in dollars,
representing sales, costs, or some form of profits. The decision rule may be Choose the
course of action with the lowest loss possibility or, perhaps, Choose the alternative that provides the greatest number of retained customers. For MindWriter, the decision rule might be
Choose the alternative that provides the highest level of postservice satisfaction.
The alternative selected (A1 versus A2) depends on the decision variable chosen and the
decision rule used. The evaluation of alternatives requires that (1) each alternative is explicitly stated, (2) a decision variable is defined by an outcome that may be measured, and
(3) a decision rule is determined by which outcomes may be compared.

Prior or Interim Evaluation Some research projects are sufficiently unique that
managerial experience provides little aid in evaluating the research proposal. Additionally,
the management information need may be so great as to ensure that the research is approved. In such cases, managers may decide to control the research expenditure risk by doing a study in stages. They can then review costs and benefits at the end of each stage and
give or withhold further authorization.
Ex Post Facto Evaluation If there is any measurement of the value of research,
it is usually an after-the-fact event. Using an estimate of alternative decision choices, the

decision rule criterion for

judging the attractiveness of
two or more alternatives when
using a decision variable.
decision variable a
quantifiable characteristic,
attribute, or outcome on which
a choice decision will be made.

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preresearch likelihood that a decision choice would be selected, and a postresearch projection of the implemented decisions contribution to profitability (or some other decision
variable), a researcher can estimate the contribution value of a research project. One such
study using one manufacturers research activities reported that 40 percent of the research
actually directed the manager to the appropriate decision. Using data on profitability contribution and on direct research costs only, the researcher calculated a 312-fold return on the
manufacturers investment.4 While the postresearch effort at cost-benefit comes too late to
guide a current research decision, such analysis may sharpen the managers ability to make
judgments about future research proposals.

The Research Proposal

Exhibit 4-1 depicts the research proposal as an activity that incorporates decisions made
during early project planning phases of the study, including the management-research question hierarchy and exploration. The proposal process thus incorporates the choices the investigator makes in the preliminary steps, as depicted in Exhibit 4-3.
A written proposal is often required when a study is being suggested. This is especially
true if an outside research supplier will be contracted to conduct the research. The written
proposal ensures that the parties concur on the projects purpose, the proposed methods of
investigation, the extent of analysis, and the timing of each phase as well as of delivery of
results. Budgets are spelled out, as are other responsibilities and obligations. The proposal
may serve the purpose of a legally binding contract.
A research proposal also may be oral, where all aspects of the research are discussed but
not codified in writing. This is more likely when a manager directs his or her own research
or the research activities of subordinates.
We describe detailed research proposals in Chapter 6, and youll find a sample proposal
on your text DVD.

> Stage 3: Designing the Research Project

Research Design
research design the
blueprint for fulfilling research
objectives and answering
questions.

The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and providing the insight to
answer managements dilemma. The field of marketing research offers a large variety of
methods, techniques, procedures, and protocols. For example, you may decide on reviewing published records (a secondary data study), or studying one particular example in great
detail (a case study), or conducting a survey, an experiment, or a computer simulation. If a
survey is selected, should it be administered by mail, computer, telephone, the Internet, or
personal interview? Should all relevant data be collected at one time or at several different
points in time? What kind of structure will the questionnaire or interview guide possess?
What question wording should be employed? Should the responses be scaled (Please evaluate each of the following criteria for selecting a store for product X on a scale of 1 to 5,
where 5 is critically important and 1 is not important.) or open-ended (What is most important to you when choosing a store for product X?)? How will you ensure that the data
you collect will accurately and precisely answer the managers dilemma? Will characteristics of the interviewer influence responses to the measurement questions? What kind of
training should the data collectors receive? Is a sample or a census to be taken? What types
of sampling should be considered? These questions represent only a few of the decisions
that have to be made when just one method is chosen.
While selecting an appropriate design may be complicated by this range of options, the
creative researcher actually benefits from this confusing array of options. The numerous combinations spawned by the abundance of tools may be used to construct alternative
perspectives on the same problem. By creating a research project using diverse methodologies, researchers are able to achieve greater insight than if they adopted the most frequently

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>snapshot
Grilled Cheese Sandwiches and the Dairy Fairy

If you were Kraft and discovered that, while sales of sliced cheese
were increasing, your brands sales were decreasing, you might
turn to advertising to reverse the slide. But just what would you
sayand how? Faced with this situation, Kraft sent ethnographers from Strategic Frameworking to talk with moms aged 25 to
64 who were fixing sandwiches in their kitchens. Focus groups
then reinforced that moms feel good about giving their kids cheese
because of its nutritional value. Focus groups also revealed that
even though their kids preferred Kraft slices, a price difference
could persuade moms to purchase a competitive brand. A subsequent phone survey by Market Facts revealed moms would buy
the pricier Kraft slices due to extra calcium. Next came TV-commercial tests for two spots featuring the good-taste-plus-thecalcium-they-need message. A spot featuring a straightforward
message didnt score as high as one featuring kids scarfing down

gooey grilled cheese sandwiches, but the male-voice-delivered

two-out-of-five-kids-dont-get-enough-calcium message generated guilt, not positive purchase intentions. A revised commercial
featured the cheese-scarfing kids while the Dairy Fairy (an animated cow) delivered the calcium message. Subsequently, Millward Brown Group discovered through copy testing research that
the dual message had finally gotten through. The TV commercial
aired, delivering an 11.8 percent increase in sales and a 14.5 percent increase in base volume. Sixty-five percent of the growth in
sales was attributed to the campaign.
www.kraft.com; www.strategicframeworking.com;
www.synovate.com; www.millwardbrown.com;
www.jwt.com

used method or the method receiving the most attention in the media. Although pursuing research on a single research problem from a multimethod, multistudy strategy is not currently
the norm, such designs are getting increasing attention from marketing researchers and winning numerous industry awards for effectiveness. The advantages and disadvantages of several competing designs should be considered before settling on a final one.
Jasons preference for MindWriter is to collect as much information as possible from an
exploration of company records, interviews with company managers of various departments, and multiple phone surveys with CompleteCare service program users. Financial
constraints, however, might force MindWriter to substitute a less expensive methodology:
a self-administered survey in the form of a postcard questionnaire sent to each CompleteCare service program user with his or her returned laptop, followed by phone contact only
with those who dont return the postcard.
We discuss identifying and classifying various research designs in Chapter 8, while in
Chapters 9 through 15 we provide information on specific methodologies.

Sampling Design
Another step in planning the research project is to identify the target population (those people, events, or records that have the desired information and can answer the measurement
questions) and then determine whether a sample or a census is desired. Taking a census requires that the researcher examine or count all elements in a target population. A sample
examines a portion of the target population, and the portion must be carefully selected to
represent that population. If sampling is chosen, the researcher must determine which and
how many people to interview, which and how many events to observe, or which and how
many records to inspect. When researchers undertake sampling studies, they are interested
in estimating one or more population values (such as the percent of satisfied service customers who will buy new MindWriter laptops when the need arises) and/or testing one or
more statistical hypotheses (for example, that highly satisfied CompleteCare service customers will be far more likely to repurchase the MindWriter brand of laptops).
If a studys objective is to predict repeat purchase of laptop brands, then the target population might be defined as all laptop computer owners. In the MindWriter example, given the
speed with which technology changes, terms like laptop would need to be defined. Would

census a count of all

elements in a population.
sample a group of cases,
participants, events, or records
constituting a portion of the
target population, carefully
selected to represent that
population.

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>picprofile
The Bush and Kerry 2004 presidential campaigns had a potential new research source thanks to
Motorola and Rock the Vote. Motorola, a $27.1 billion global company in the wireless, broadband,
and automotive communications arenas, partnered with Rock the Vote, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization designed to engage the youth segment in the political process, to create the Rock the
Mobile Vote campaign. A significant element of this campaign was the polling of youths on their political awareness, knowledge, and position on political issues like education, war on terrorism, job
creation, and so on. Biweekly, polling questions were sent to mobile handsets of youths 18 to 30
who opted in via the RocktheVote.org Web site to be part of the Get Loud aspect of the campaign. Approximately 50 percent of 18- to 30-year-olds own mobile handsets. The objective of the
campaign was to drive 20 million youth voters to the polls. Freebees like ring tone and graphic
downloads and contests encouraged participation. www.motorola.com; www.rockthevote.org

handheld and notebook computers be included or excluded? The

researcher might also want to restrict the study to owners of the
major laptop brands or to owners who reside in certain parts of
the world. Because the research is designed to predict a population value from a sample of users, a probability sampling plan
would need to be developed.
If a probability sampling design is chosen, the process for
choosing the sample must then give every person within the target population a known nonzero chance of selection. If there is no feasible alternative, a
nonprobability sampling approach may be used. Jason knows that his target population
comprises MindWriter customers who have firsthand experience with the CompleteCare
laptop servicing program. Given that a list of CompleteCare program users (a sample
frame) is readily available each month, drawing a probability sample is feasible.
We describe types of samples, sample frames, how samples are drawn, and the determination of sample size in Chapters 16 and 17.

Pilot Testing

pilot test trial collection of

data to detect weaknesses in
the design or instrument and
provide proxy data for
probability sampling.

Given that thousands of dollars and hundreds of hours can be committed to a research project, the last step in research design is often a pilot test. The researcher may opt to skip pilot testing to condense the project time frame.
A pilot test is conducted to detect weaknesses in research methodology and the data collection instrument, as well as to provide proxy data for selection of a probability sample. It
should, therefore, draw subjects from the target population and simulate the procedures and
protocols that have been designated for data collection. If the study is a survey to be executed by mail, in the pilot test the questionnaire should be mailed. If the design calls for human observation, then a trained observer should collect the data with the appropriate
observation checklist. The size of the pilot group may range from 25 to 100 subjects, depending on the research method to be tested, but the participants do not have to be statistically selected. In very small populations or special applications, pilot testing runs the risk
of exhausting the supply of respondents and sensitizing them to the purpose of the study.
This risk is generally overshadowed by the improvements made to the design by a trial run.
Pilot testing has saved countless survey studies from disaster by using the suggestions
of the participants to identify and change confusing, awkward, or offensive questions and
techniques. Using pilot testing in an interview study for EducTV, an educational television
consortium, a disaster was averted. The pilot test revealed that the wording of nearly twothirds of the questions was unintelligible to the target group, later found to have a median
eighth-grade education. The revised instrument incorporated the respondents own language and was successful. We discuss one of pilot testings most common variations, the
pretesting of survey instruments, in Chapter 15 and Appendix 15b.

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> Stage 4: Data Collection and Preparation

The gathering of data may range from a simple observation at one location to a grandiose
survey of multinational corporations at sites in different parts of the world. The method
selected will largely determine how the data are collected. Questionnaires, standardized
tests, and observational forms (called checklists) are among the devices used to record
raw data.
But what are data? In the previous chapter, we described the relationship of facts to
conclusions. One writer defines data as the facts presented to the researcher from the
studys environment. Data may be further characterized by their abstractness, verifiability, elusiveness, and closeness to the phenomenon.5 First, as abstractions, data are more
metaphorical than real. For example, the growth in GDP cannot be observed directly;
only the effects of it may be recorded. Second, data are processed by our sensesoften
limited in comparison to the senses of other living organisms. When sensory experiences
consistently produce the same result, our data are said to be trustworthy because they
may be verified. Third, capturing data is elusive, complicated by the speed at which
events occur and the time-bound nature of observation. Opinions, preferences, and attitudes vary from one milieu to another and with the passage of time. For example, during
presidential elections the incumbent president is often scrutinized and voters favorability ratings are tracked with greater frequency. George W. Bush had the highest ratings
ever recorded for a sitting president since Dwight Eisenhower immediately following the
terrorist-retaliation bombing of Afghanistan.6 However, as events in Iraq progressed, and
as the election campaign year of 20032004 got under way and voters began questioning
the advisability of remaining in Iraq, his approval ratings started to fall.7 Finally, data reflect their truthfulness by closeness to the phenomena. Secondary data (data originally
collected to address a problem other than the one that requires the managers attention at
the moment) have had at least one level of interpretation inserted between the event and
its use for marketing decision making. Primary data (data the manager collects to address the specific problem at handthe research question) are sought for their proximity
to the truth and control over error. These cautions remind us to use care in designing data
collection procedures and generalizing from results. We use a summary definition for
data as information collected from participants, by observation, or from secondary
sources.
Data are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate
omissions. In the case of a survey, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear
and inappropriate responses. Edited
data are then put into a form that makes
analysis possible. Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce
the responses to a more manageable
system for processing and storage. The
codes follow various decision rules that
the researcher has devised to assist with
sorting, tabulating, and analyzing. Personal computers have made it possible
to merge editing, coding, and data entry
into fewer steps even when the final
analysis may be run on a larger system.
We address data collection in detail in
Part III.

secondary data data

originally collected to address a
problem other than the one
that requires the managers
attention at the moment.
primary data data the
researcher collects to address
the specific problem at hand
the research question.
data information collected
from participants, by
observation, or from secondary
sources.

A focus group is one data

collection metholology. This
group interview generates
primary data.

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>snapshot
Taking the Mystery Out of Mystery Shopping

When a retail salesperson receives a visit from a mystery shopper, its all about processes. Amy Davidoff, president of MarketVoice Consulting, designs a mystery shopping study by
starting with a clear understanding of the clients process priorities. Then she partners with the client to develop a shopper form,
the detailed checklist of observations that will be recorded, as
well as plenty of space for extensive written comments about the
experience in general and for all items that received scores below a pre-specified level. While a shopper might target a particular sales associate within a retail environmentbased, for
example, on an accumulation of consumer complaintsmore
often a retail manager contracts for periodic shoppings over a
specified time. For one food and entertainment facility, shares
Davidoff, the shop form was 14 pages, covering a 2-hour shopping experience. (A more typical shop form is 5 to 7 pages.) The
shop started when the shopper entered the door, included food

purchases at two different locations within the facility, restroom

checks, specific types of interactions with the facility staff and
merchandise purchases. During the shop, the researcher will
determine if dozens of processes took place and at what level
each was performed against specification. In the overall evaluation, the shop can add weight to more critical processesthose
that contribute most to the customer experience and enhance
customer loyalty. Taking multiple measures over time reveals
weaknesses in training, flaws in operations and sales processes,
and the occasional employee theft. And if its done correctly,
claims Davidoff, the sales associate may never know they participated in marketing research.
Mystery shopping takes place in many different arenas including stores, restaurants, and catalog operations. College students are often employed as mystery shoppers.

> Stage 5: Data Analysis and Interpretation

data analysis editing,
reducing, summarizing, looking
for patterns, and applying
statistical techniques to data.

Managers need information and insights, not raw data, to make appropriate marketing decisions. Researchers generate information and insights by analyzing data after their collection. Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size,
developing summaries, looking for patterns, and applying statistical techniques. Researchers then interpret their findings in light of the managers research question or determine if the results are consistent with their hypotheses and theories. Increasingly, managers
are asking research specialists to make recommendations based on their interpretation of
the data. We address data analysis and interpretation in Chapters 18 to 22.
A modest example involves a market research firm that polls 2,000 people from its target population for a new generation of wallet-sized portable telephones. Each respondent
will be asked four questions:
1. Do you prefer the convenience of Pocket-Phone over existing cellular
telephones?
2. Are there transmission problems with Pocket-Phone?
3. Is Pocket-Phone better suited to worldwide transmission than your existing cellular phone?
4. Would cost alone persuade you to purchase Pocket-Phone?
The answers will produce 8,000 (2,000
4) pieces of raw data. Reducing the data to a
workable size will yield eight statistics: the percentages of yes and no answers to each
question. When the researcher adds a half-dozen demographic questions about the participants, the total amount of data easily triples. If the researcher scaled the four key questions
(asking the participants to provide a number from 1 to 5 for each question) rather than eliciting yes-no responses, the analysis would likely require more powerful statistical analysis
than summarization.

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> Stage 6: Reporting the Results

Finally, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings, insights, and recommendations to the manager for the intended purpose of decision making. The researcher adjusts
the style and organization of the report according to the target audience, the occasion, and the
purpose of the research. As a result, most marketing researchers emphasize the need to make
the research report manager-friendly, avoiding technical jargon. The results of applied research may be communicated via conference call, letter, written report, oral presentation, Webcast, or some combination of any or all of these methods. Reports should be developed from
the managers or information users perspective. The sophistication of the research design and
sampling plan or the software used to analyze the data may help to establish the researchers
credibility, but in the end the managers foremost concern is solving the management
dilemma. Thus, the researcher must accurately assess the managers needs throughout the research process and incorporate this understanding into the final product, the research report.
The management decision maker occasionally shelves the research report without taking action. Inferior communication of results is a primary reason for this outcome. With
this possibility in mind, a research supplier should strive for:
Insightful adaptation of the information to the clients needs.
Careful choice of words in crafting interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations.
Especially when research is contracted to an outside supplier, managers and researchers increasingly collaborate to develop appropriate reporting of project results and information.
Occasionally, organizational and environmental forces beyond the researchers control
argue against the implementation of results. Such was the case in a study conducted for the
Association of American Publishers, which needed an ad campaign to encourage people to
read more books. The research project, costing $125,000, found that only 13 percent of
Americans buy general-interest books in stores. When the time came to commit $14 million to the campaign to raise book sales, the memberships interest had faded and the project died.8 We cover the research report in Chapter 23.
At a minimum, a research report should contain the following:
An executive summary consisting of a synopsis of the problem, findings, and recommendations.
An overview of the research: the problems background, a summary of exploratory
findings drawn from secondary data sources, the actual research design and procedures, and conclusions.
A section on implementation strategies for the recommendations.
A technical appendix with all the materials necessary to replicate the project.

> Research Process Problems

Although it is desirable for research to be thoroughly grounded in management decision
priorities, studies can wander off target or be less effective than they should be. As research
progresses through its various stages, the researcher needs to remain objective.

The Favored-Technique Syndrome

Some researchers are method-bound. They recast the management question so it is amenable
to their favorite methodologya survey, for example. Others might prefer to emphasize the
case study, while still others wouldnt consider either approach. Not all researchers are comfortable with experimental designs. Due to their wide range of experience and educational

>

It is the role of the

manager sponsoring
the research to spot
an inappropriatetechnique-driven
research proposal.

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training, researchers are rarely well versed in every possible methodology. Out of a need for
control or comfort, some will rely only on methods with which they have experience.
Persons knowledgeable about and skilled in some techniques but not in others may be
blinded by their special competencies. Their concern for technique dominates the decisions
concerning what will be studied (both investigative and measurement questions) and how (research design). The availability of technique is an important factor in determining how research will be done or whether a given study can be done. The marketing decision maker
sponsoring the research should be wary of inappropriate-technique-driven research proposals.
We discuss research techniques and when each is appropriate in Chapters 9 through 17.
In the MindWriter research, for example, numerous, standardized customer satisfaction
questionnaires are available to researchers. Jason may have done studies using these instruments for any number of his clients. Myra should be cautious. She must not let Jason
encourage her acceptance of an instrument he has developed for another client, even
though he might be very persuasive about its success in the past. Such a technique might
not be appropriate for MindWriters search to resolve postpurchase service dissatisfaction.

Company Database Strip-Mining

>

We discussed decision
support systems in
Chapter 2.

The existence of a pool of information or a database can distract a manager, seemingly reducing the need for other research. As evidence of the research-as-expense-not-investment
mentality mentioned in Chapter 1, managers frequently hear from superiors, We should use
the information we already have before collecting more. Modern marketing information
systems are capable of providing massive volumes of data. This is not the same as saying
modern marketing information systems provide substantial knowledge or decision-making
insights.
Each field in a database was originally created for a specific reason, a reason that may or
may not be compatible with the management question facing the organization. The MindWriter service departments database, for example, probably contains several fields about the
type of problem, the location of the problem, the remedy used to correct the problem, and so
forth. Jason and Myra can accumulate facts concerning the service, and they can match each
service problem with a particular MindWriter model and production sequence (from a production database), and, using yet another database (generated from warranty registration),
they can match each problem to a name and address of an owner. But, having done all that,
they still arent likely to know how a particular owner uses his or her laptop or how satisfied
an owner was with MindWriters postpurchase service policies and practices.
Mining marketing information databases is fashionable, and all types of organizations
increasingly value the ability to extract meaningful information. While such data mining is
often a starting point in decision-based research, rarely will this activity answer all management questions related to a particular management dilemma. In this text, we emphasize
research projects that tend to be nonroutine, nonrecurring, and complex, rather than those
that rely solely on database management.

Unresearchable Questions
Not all management questions are researchable, and not all research questions are answerable. To be researchable, a question must be one for which observation or other data collection can provide the answer. Many questions cannot be answered on the basis of
information alone.
Unresearchable questions include those for which past experience of the researcher or
experience of the greater research industry has revealed that the information does not exist
or cannot be gathered. An example is a study in which purchase information dating back 30
or more years is needed and no such records exist. It is unrealistic to assume purchasers can
recall purchase behavior that long ago with sufficient accuracy or in sufficient detail to be
useful.

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93

Just as human memory can be faulty, when we seek motivations from participants, we
may run into unresearchable questions. Sometimes customers and other participants simply dont know why they do what they do.
Questions of value and policy often must be weighed in management decisions. The multiple facets of the deliberations make many such questions unresearchable. During the early
and mid-1980s several product-tampering incidents of over-the-counter drug products resulted in deaths. Asking Should products be withdrawn if even one death is associated with
its prescribed use, even if no fault for the tampered product accrues to the manufacturer?
might qualify as an unresearchable question. While information can be brought to bear on this
question, such additional considerations as safety to society or fairness to stockholders or
an appropriate response to terrorist activity may be important value debates that add to the
decision. While we might be able to estimate a companys reputation or standing among its
stakeholders in a similar hypothetical situation, only after the fact could we determine what
people really felt about a company that was not responsive. When the managers responsible
for Tylenol faced such a question, even though they had feedback within 24 hours of the first
reported death, it was impossible to predict peoples reaction to a second death until it was reported. Johnson & Johnsons decision to replace Tylenol capsules with solid Tylenol caplets
ultimately was based on senior-level debate of such issues, not on direction provided by research that indicated that the public did not hold the manufacturer responsible for the dealths.9
Even if a question can be answered by facts alone, it might not be researchable because
currently accepted and tested procedures or techniques are inadequate. The development of
new techniques and methodologies is often the result of researchers frustration with unresearchable problems. Such problems become the motivation for innovation in methodology.

Ill-Defined Management Problems

Some categories of problems are so complex, value-laden, and bound by constraints that
they prove to be intractable to traditional forms of analysis. These questions have characteristics that are virtually the opposite of those of well-defined problems. Solving welldefined problems involves navigating from a starting point to the solution using natural
transitions in the problem sequence to shift from one problem state to another. An illdefined problem is one that addresses complex issues and cannot be expressed easily, concisely, or completely. Ill-defined problems pose a dilemma for researchers because a
solution sequence cannot be plotted if little is understood about the path or the final outcome. Certain complex puzzles (see reference note 10) illustrate ill-defined problems when
the components of their problem sequences are not fully specified, the problem description
lacks concreteness, and the goal cannot be visualized.10
Ill-defined research questions in marketing are least susceptible to attack from quantitative research methods because such problems have too many interrelated facets for measurement to handle with accuracy.11 Moreover, there are some research questions of this
type for which methods do not presently exist; even if the methods were to be invented,
they still might not provide the data necessary to solve them.12 Novice researchers should
avoid ill-defined problems. Even seasoned researchers will want to conduct a thorough exploratory study before proceeding with the latest approaches.

Politically Motivated Research

It is important to remember that a managers motivations for seeking research are not always obvious. Managers might express a genuine need for specific information on which
to base a decision. This is the ideal scenario for quality research. Sometimes, however, a research study may not really be desirable but is authorized anyway, chiefly because its presence may win approval for a certain managers pet idea. At other times, research may be
authorized as a measure of personal protection for a decision maker in case he or she is criticized later. In these less-than-ideal cases, the researcher may find it more difficult to win
the managers support for an appropriate research design.

ill-defined problem one

that addresses complex issues
and cannot be expressed
easily or completely.

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>summary
1 Research originates in the decision process. A manager
needs specific information for setting objectives, defining
tasks, finding the best strategy by which to carry out
the tasks, or judging how well the strategy is being
implemented.
A dilemma-centered emphasisthe problems origin,
selection, statement, exploration, and refinementdominates the sequence of the research process. A decision to
do research can be inappropriately driven by the availability
of coveted tools and databases. To be researchable, a problem must be subject to observation or other forms of empirical data collection.
2 How one structures the research question sets the direction
for the project. A management problem or opportunity can
be formulated as a hierarchical sequence of questions. At
the most general level is the management dilemma. This is
translated into a management question and then into a research questionthe major objective of the study. In turn,
the research question is further expanded into investigative
questions. These questions represent the various facets of
the problem to be solved, and they influence research design, including design strategy, data collection planning, and
sampling. At the most specific level are measurement questions that are answered by respondents in a survey or answered about each subject in an observational study.
Exploration of the problem is accomplished through familiarization with the available literature, interviews with experts, focus groups, or some combination. Revision of the
management or research questions is a desirable outcome
of exploration and enhances the researchers understanding
of the options available for developing a successful design.
3 Budgets and value assessments determine whether most
projects receive necessary funding. Their thorough docu-

mentation is an integral part of the research proposal.

Proposals are required for many research projects and
should, at a minimum, describe the research question and
the specific task the research will undertake.
4 Decisions concerning the type of study, the means of data
collection, measurement, and sampling plans must be made
when planning the design. Most researchers undertake sampling studies because of an interest in estimating population
values or testing a statistical hypothesis. Carefully constructed delimitations are essential for specifying an appropriate probability sample. Nonprobability samples are also
used.
Pilot tests are conducted to detect weaknesses in the
studys design, data collection instruments, and procedures.
Once the researcher is satisfied that the plan is sound, data
collection begins. Data are collected, edited, coded, and
prepared for analysis.
Data analysis involves reduction, summarization, pattern
examination, and the statistical evaluation of hypotheses.
A written report describing the studys findings is used to
transmit the results and recommendations to the intended
decision maker. By cycling the conclusions back into the
original problem, a new research iteration may begin, and
findings may be applied.
5 Several research process problems can diminish the value of
research. Included in these are using a technique that is inappropriate for the information needed, just because it is familiar or the researcher has experience with it; attempting to
substitute data mining for marketing research; focusing on
an unresearchable question; failing to correctly define the
management problem; and conducting politically motivated
rather than management dilemmamotivated research.

>keyterms
census 87

ill-defined problem 93

pilot test 88

data 89

investigative questions 83

research design 86

primary data 89

management dilemma 80

research process 78

secondary data 89

management question 82

research question(s) 82

management-research question
hierarchy 80

sample 87

data analysis 90
decision rule 85
decision variable 85

measurement questions 83

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>discussionquestions
Terms in Review
1 Some questions are answerable by research and others are
not. Using some management problems of your choosing,
distinguish between them.
2 Discuss the problems of trading off exploration and pilot
testing under tight budgetary constraints. What are the immediate and long-term effects?
3 A retailer is experiencing a poor inventory management situation and receives alternative research proposals. Proposal 1
is to use an audit of last years transactions as a basis for
recommendations. Proposal 2 is to study and recommend
changes to the procedures and systems used by the shipping/receiving department. Discuss issues of evaluation in
terms of:
a Ex post facto versus prior evaluation.
b Evaluation using option analysis and decision theory.
Making Research Decisions
4 Believing that every employee contributes to marketing in an
organization, the president of Oaks International Inc., when
confronted by low productivity and rising customer complaints, is convinced by a research supplier to study job satisfaction in the corporation. What are some of the important
reasons that this research project may fail to make an adequate contribution to the solution of management problems?

5 Based on an analysis of the last six months sales, your boss

notices that sales of beef products are declining in your
chains restaurants. As beef entre sales decline, so do profits. Fearing beef sales have declined due to several newspaper stories reporting E. coli contamination discovered at area
grocery stores, he suggests a survey of area restaurants to
see if the situation is pervasive.
a What do you think of this research suggestion?
b How, if at all, could you improve on your bosss formulation of the research question?
Behind the Scenes
6 What are the benefits to MindWriter if they implement the
pilot study Jason recommends?
7 How can MindWriters existing database be used to
accumulate service problem information in advance of
the proposed research? What information should be
sought?
From Concept to Practice
8 Using Exhibit 4-1 and case examples from marketing firms
Web sites, discover how favored technique approaches to
research design dominate many firms strategies.
9 Refer to stage in Exhibit 4-1, then find a research example
where a clear statement of the management dilemma leads
to a precise and actionable research question.

>wwwexercise
Learn more about business intelligence from industry leader MicroStrategy. Visit its Web site and participate in a free Web seminar on
a current case study. (http://www.microstrategy.com/events/online_seminars/index.asp)

>cases*
Calling Up Attendance

Mastering Teacher Leadership

Donatos: Finding the New Pizza

NCRCC: Teeing Up a New Strategic Direction

Goodyears Aquatred

Outboard Marine Corporation

Inquiring Minds Want to KnowNow!

Ramada Demonstrates Its Personal Best

KNSD, San Diego

State Farm: Dangerous Intersections

* All cases, both written and video, are on the text DVD. The film icon indicates a video case. Check the DVD Index to determine
whether a case has data, the research instrument, or other supplementary material.