ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING II

UnitII: Air Pollution Control Methods Particulate Control Devices General Methods of
Controlling Gaseous Emission

2.0. Air Pollution Control Methods:

The treatment facilities designed by the environmental engineer are based on the
principles of self-cleansing observed in nature; but the engineered processes amplify and
optimize the operations observed in nature to handle larger volumes of pollutants and to treat
them more rapidly. Therefore, it becomes necessary to understand the atmospheric selfcleansing processes before studying the approaches to air pollution control.

2.1 Atmospheric Self-Cleansing processes:

The atmosphere, like a stream or river, has natural built-in-self-cleansing processes.
Dispersion, gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption, rainout, and adsorption are some of
the most significant natural removal mechanisms at work in the atmosphere.
Though not literally a removal mechanism, dispersion of pollutants by wind decreases
the concentrations of pollutants at any place. Gravitational settling is one of the most important
natural mechanisms for removing particulates from the atmosphere, especially particles larger
than 20m in size. It also plays an important role in several of the other natural atmospheric
cleansing processes. In flocculation, larger particles act as receptor for smaller ones to form a
unit, and the process is repeated until a small folc is formed, which is large and heavy enough
to settle under gravity. In the natural absorption process, particulates or gaseous pollutants are
collected in rain or mist and then settle-out with moisture. This phenomenon is known as
washout or scavenging, it takes place below cloud level. Rainout is another natural cleansing
process that occurs within the clouds, when sub-micron particulates serve as condensation
nuclei around which drops of water may form. This phenomenon has resulted in increased
rainfall and for formation in urban areas. Adsorption occurs primarily in the friction layer of the
atmosphere, i.e., the layer close to the earths surface, such as soil, rocks, leaves or blades of
grass, where they are concentrated and retained.
When the various natural atmospheric cleansing mechanisms are overwhelmed by
emissions, the effects of air pollution become increasingly more evident and requirement or
need is felt to establish control procedures or to install control devices.

2.2 Approaches to Air Pollution Control:

Basically, there are four approaches available for the control of emissions discharged into
the atmosphere. They are:

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i. Dispersion of source locations: Air pollution can be controlled/checked by dispersion of

the sources of air pollutants, through allocation of land, i.e., by proper planning and
zoning of industrial areas.
ii. Dilution: By using tall stacks for industries or thermal plants, the emissions or pollutants
can be discharged at a sufficient height from the ground, where the air movement, both
horizontal and vertical, is more and chances of downward movement of air (i.e.,
inversion conditions) are less. This will help in dispersion of pollutants over a larger area
in less time, and hence dilute the concentrations of pollutants near the source.
iii. Reduction at source by process changes: This can be achieved by:
a) Substitution of raw materials; e.g., the use of low-volatile coal in place of highvolatile coal, eliminates smoke and soot.
Substitution of fuel; e.g., desulphurization and de-ashing reduce emissions of SO2,
SPM (suspended particulate matter) and ash. Similarly, natural gas can be used in
place of coal, to minimize emissions.
b) Modification of the process; e.g., in case of disposal of combustible refuse,
sanitary landfill can be used instead of incinerators.
c) Modification of the process equipment, or repair and maintenance of existing
equipment helps in reducing atmospheric pollution.
iv. Reduction at source by using control equipment: This is the most effective method for
reducing air pollution at source. Various control devices are used for controlling different
types of pollutants emitted from different sources.
Since there are only a very few devices which are effective in the control of both
particulate and gaseous contaminants, therefore, the control devices are normally
designed to control either one or the other. In terms of volume of pollutants, the control
of gaseous air pollutants is of primary importance; however, in actual practice, greater
emphasis is toward the control of particulate contaminants, perhaps because they are
more easily seen. Therefore, control of particulate from stationary sources is discussed
first; while the control of gaseous contaminants from stationary sources is discussed
after.

2.3 Control Devices for particulate contaminants

The various types of control devices or equipments used for the removal of
particulate matter from stationary sources are briefly discussed as under:
Settling Chamber:
Of all the control equipment, gravity separator, commonly known as settling chamber
is the simplest and cheapest. However, today settling chamber is not used as standalone
control equipment. It cannot fulfill the present day emission norm because of its low

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efficiency. Settling chamber or baffle chamber, a modified form of settling chamber,

however, are often used as a Pre-collector placed upstream of high efficiency collector like
fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator.
A Pre-collection is used:
When dust loading is very high or it is required to separate the large particles before
the gas enters into main collector like fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator;
In applications where glowing particles are envisaged in the gas stream, baffle
chamber is used proceeding fabric filter to prevent glowing particles to enter into the
fabric filter, and this takes care of probable damage of bags from burning;
When the dust is abrasive it is often necessary to remove the coarser portion to
avoid damage to the bag material in a fabric filter; and
When there is a possibility that dust may contain foreign objects like nails, etc. which
may cause damage to the bag material.
Gravity collector can efficiency collect particles over 100m, Baffle chamber is
slightly more efficient than settling chamber. Since collection is solely dependent on
gravitational force the size of the collector becomes very big requiring large space.

Fig 2.1 Settling Chamber

Fig 2.2 Baffle Chamber

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Working Principle: Due to inertia, dust in a gas stream has a tendency to move in the
same direction of the gas stream. If the gas velocity is reduced substantially then the
dust is acted up on by the gravity and it settles down at the bottom. This principle is
applied in settling chamber. Cross sectional area of the chamber is several times more
than the dust area thereby velocity in the chamber is reduced substantially to a fifth or
sixth of dust velocity. Given a sufficient time dust settles at the bottom of the chamber
and is collected in the hopper below.
In case of baffle chamber a baffle is placed after the entry. Dusts impinge/impact
on the baffle and the gas flow changes direction. Baffle helps in collecting larger particles
on impaction. Change of direction also causes efficient dust to fall out. After the battle,
area again expands and velocity falls drastically. Combination of all three makes the
baffle chamber a little better efficient collector than settling chamber.
Parameters Affecting Efficiency of Settling Chamber: These include
Particle diameter: Efficiency varies directly with the square for the diameter.
Larger the diameter greater the collection.
Density of the particle: Higher the density higher is the efficiency.
Temperature of the gas: Gas viscosity increases with increase in temperature.
Drag force is more at higher viscosity and thereby collection is less. The total
efficiency will be reduced to 66.953% from 73.789% due to temperature
increases from 200C to 2000C.
Gas Velocity: Lower the velocity higher is the collection. Low velocity allows the
particles to settle quickly and also the re-entrainment loss is less.
Design Criteria for Settling Chamber: The design parameters required are:

Gas Velocity in the chamber < 2m/s

Residence time = 2.4 to 3.0 seconds

Overall efficiency of the settling chamber = 65 75%

Pressure drop = Negligible

Merits: Various merits of settling chambers are:

Low initial cost

Simple construction (in brick or stone masonry or concrete)

Low maintenance cost

Dry and continuous disposal of solid particulates

Demerits: Various demerits of settling chambers are:

Large space requirement

Comparatively larger size (>10m) particles can be collected.

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Cyclone:
Efficiency of a dust separator is greatly enhanced if gravitational force. Principle
of separating dust by centrifugal force is used in cyclone. Cyclone is the most common
type of dust collector. There is no moving part and therefore it is almost maintenance
free. In spite of its simplicity cyclone has lost its yesteryears usefulness as control
equipment because of todays stringent pollution control norms. Therefore, today cyclone
is not used as stand alone control equipment. It is used as an excellent pre-collector
preceding fabric filter.
Cyclone is effective in removing much smaller particles than settling chamber can
and occupies less space to handle the same gas volume. Cyclone can collect occupies
less space to handle the same gas volume. Cyclone can collect particle diameter down to
10m very effectively. Where dust loading is very high like in pneumatic conveying or
coarse particles are required to be separated before fabric filter or electrostatic
precipitator, cyclone is effectively used.

Fig 2.2 Cyclone

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Working Principle: Fig 2.2 shows the principle of separation of dust from the gas
stream in a cyclone. Gas enters the cyclone tangentially. Tangential entry imparts a
centrifugal force to the gas and causes it to spin. Particles are thrown outwards from the
spinning gas by the centrifugal force tot eh cyclone wall. Within the cyclone, incoming
gas spirals down and at the point close to the dust discharge, reverse towards the outlet,
creating a double vortex. Dust once reaches the wall loses its inertia and thus slides
down to the lower cone of the cyclone only to be discharged.
Performance Parameters of Cyclone: The Performance of cyclone depends on the
following parameter:
Particle size: Performance increases with increase of particle size.
Cyclone diameter: Performance decreases with increase in diameter.
Cyclone body length: A higher body length means more retention time for the
gas inside the cyclone and hence better efficiency.
Ratio of cyclone diameter to cyclone outlet diameter: Performance is directly
proportional to the ration D/De.
No of gas revolutions: More the number of revolutions of gas better is the
performance. This necessitates longer cyclone.
Inlet velocity: Dust removal efficiency of cyclone increases with the increase of
gas flow, i.e. gas velocity to the extent when excessive turbulence is induced in
the cyclone. A velocity beyond 26m/s causes the efficiency to fall. In a practical
cyclone velocity ranging from 12m/s to 22m/s is considered to be suitable for good
efficiency.
Particle density: Cyclone efficiency is directly proportional to particle density.
Gas viscosity: Increase of viscosity causes the fluid drag to increase and thus the
performance decreases.
Gas temperature: Temperature has a direct effect on the viscosity. Viscosity
increases with temperature which increases drag force and reduces the efficiency
of cyclone.
Inlet dust concentration: With the increase of inlet dust concentration the
separation in cyclone changes from individual particle collection to collection
separation. Even for a fine dust a moderate increase in dust concentration does
have a significant effect on separation. Cyclone, thus, is very effective in collecting
conveyed

dust

in

pneumatic

conveying

system

having

very

high

dust

concentration.
Design Criteria for Cyclone separator: The design parameters required are:

Gas Velocity within cyclone = 12m/s

Particle size effectively removed = > 10m

Overall efficiency of the cyclone = 75 85%

Page 6 of 38

Pressure drop = 0.45 0.5 Kpa

Merits:

It has Low initial and running cost

There are no moving parts and hence practically it has no maintenance

Has moderate pressure drop

Low space requirements

Can handle high dust loading and

Has a possible use in high temperature and pressure

Demerits:

Problem with abrasive dust;

Difficulty in removing light and fluffy dusts;

Tendency of outlet clogging because of tickly and hydroscopic dusts;

Clogging of outlet possibility due to dew point problem; and

Low collection efficiency for smaller particles less than 10m;

Multicyclone: Mutlicyclone is resorted to when gas volume to be handled is high and

number of parallel cyclones becomes unpractical or higher efficiency is in demand.
Multicyclone consists of a number of highly efficient small cyclones and therefore it offers
a higher efficiency than an unit cyclone of same capacity. Small cyclones often called
cells are arranged in arrays. Mutlicyclone finds its application as an excellent precollector before fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator. It cannot be used as a stand
alone dust control equipment since it is unable to limit the emissions as per norms.
Cells are arranged in rows (array) and mounted to a plate which can be vertical,
horizontal or stepped depending on the design. Cell diameter varies from 150mm to
250mm. material of construction is generally alloy cast iron having hardness of 430
450 Brinell. Alloy cast iron gives wear resistant property. However for applications where
severe erosion is not expected, mild steel cells are also used.
Axial entry reverse flow cyclone cell is equipped with a fixed spinner designed to
give the incoming gas a spinning effect. This creates necessary centrifugal force within
the cell. Many times outlet recovery vanes are used to recover the rotational energy of
the exit gas. It is, however, not recommended to use where sticky dust is encountered.

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Fig 2.3 Multicyclone

Fabric Filters: Fabric filters, also known as Bag filter is most widely used among the
high performing dust collectors like electrostatic precipitator and scrubber because of its
simplicity, low initial cost and its achieving a very low outlet emission.
Working Principle: The principle of fabric filtration is conceived in a simple way. Dust
laden gas is drawn by a fan through a fabric either woven or non-woven. Dust in
suspension is arrested on the surface of the fabric and clean gas exhausted through the
fan and stacked into the atmosphere. In the process of filtration a dust cake layer is
formed on the fabric and the pressure drop increases across the fabric. If the pressure
drop increases to an extent that fan is incapable of drawing gas anymore, then the
filtration process becomes ineffective. To continue the filtration process, it becomes
necessary to remove the accumulated dust and a suitable cleaning method is employed
to clean the fabric. Once cleaned, the fabric is restored for the filtration cycle. To include,
the fabric filtration consists of the following aspects.

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(1) The filtration Process

(2) Fabrics and
(3) The cleaning of fabric

Fig 2.4 Principle of fabric filtration

Filtration Process: Fabric filter often captures particles much smaller than the fabric
pore size which shows that the mechanism of capture goes beyond simple sieving.
Capture of particles on a fabric element thus follows one or combination of the following
capture mechanism:

Inertial impaction

Direct interception

Sieving

Electrostatic attraction and

Diffusion

Fabrics materials: The heart of fabric filter is fabric. Varieties of fabrics, natural like
cotton, wool, etc. or manmade like polyester, polypropylene, acrylic, polyamides,
aramide, PTFE et., woven or felted are available. Each has their merits for use for
specific purpose. The main purpose of the fabric is to capture particulates and create
dust layer on the surface of the fabric which acts as filter media to collect particles even
smaller than the equivalent pore size of fabric itself (25-50m).

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Application

resistance
F

Relative place

solvents

Organic

agents

Oxidizing

Chemical
alkalies

Organic acids

Mineral acids

Hydrolysis

G G

Flexing

Shaking

Physical

resistance

Abrasion

80

Dry heat

temp (0C)

Maximum moist

temp (0C)
80

Moist heat

Cotton

Maximum operating

Fabric type

Table 2.1 Properties of Fabric Material:

Mining, cement, iron

Polyster

150

100

F/G

and

steel,

ceramic,

wood,

plastic

and

pigment
Nylon

110

100

G G

Polyacrylic

125

120

P/F

polypropylene

90

90

(polyamide)

G G

1.6

Asphalt, spray dryer,

lime, plastic
Food

industry

(milk

powder, sugar flour),

detergent
Asphalt, iron, cement,

Nomex

190

170

P/F

lime,

metal,

alloy

smelting, ceramic
Carbon
Teflon

260

260

P/F

15

black,

coal

fired boilers (stoker)

refuse

incineration

extreme chemical
Wool

Glass

90

260

105

260

P/F

P/F

2.5

Coal

fired

boilers

(FBC,

PC),

electro

smelting oven, cupolas

Coal
Polyphenylene
sulphide-ryton

190

150

fired

boilers

(FBC, PC), chemical,

application at elevated
chemical attack

Polyimide
P84
CeramicNextel 312

140

1150

1150

E=Excellent, G = Good, F = Fair, P = Poor

Principle of Fabric Cleaning: As dust start accumulating on the surface of the bag the
pressure drop across the bag also starts building up until it reaches a value which is
unacceptable for the operation of the plant. The fan in the system fails to extract any more gas

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and ceases to work. Therefore, cleaning of fabric becomes necessary at regular intervals to
regenerate the fabric for continuing the filtration process.
A cleaning mechanism is considered to be most effective when:
Energy requirement is low;
There remains a residual pressure drop across the fabric or in other words a residual
layer of dust so that there is no appreciable reduction in efficiency of the cleaned fabric in
next cycle of filtering. A completely cleaned fabric is most inefficient.
The required time of cleaning is minimum; and
The effect of cleaning on fabric like wear, etc. is minimum. Wear may happen due to
excess or poorly distributed cleaning energy.
Cleaning, basically, is resorted to in three ways:
Mechanical shaking
Reverse air and
Pulse jet
Mechanical Shaking Cleaning: The concept of mechanical shaking is to give vertical and
horizontal motion to the filter elements. The filter elements in the form of bags are hanged from
a top frame and fixed at the bottom. The frame is given a forward and backward or up and
down motion through an eccentric which is connected to a motor.
Figure 2.5 shows the principles of off-line cleaning for compartmentalized design with
mechanical shaking. The figure shows three compartments with mechanical shaking, each
having one shaking mechanism. One compartment in turn is shut for cleaning while the others
are under filtration. On receipt of an impulse from the timer (T) at the solenroid of pneumatic
cylinder, the damper (D) at the outlet of the chamber, taken under cleaning, closes. At the
same time solenoid of shaking motor receives the signal and the shaking motor (M) of the same
chamber starts. The dust is shaken off and drops into the bottom hopper. When the bags are
cleaned, after a pre-set time, the damper reopens for filtration and the next compartment is
taken into the same process of cleaning.

Fig 2.4 Off-line cleaning with mechanical shaking

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Reverse Air Cleaning Bag Collapse: Bag collapse reverse air cleaning is employed for
inside-to-outside filtration like mechanical shaking. Ambient air is made to pass through the
fabric in the opposite direction to the gas flow. Thereby the bag deflates or collapses
(Figure 2.6).

Fig 2.6 Reverse air cleaning-bag collapse type

Fig 2.7 Off-line cleaning with reverse air-bag collapse type

Pulse Jet Cleaning: In Pulse Cleaning, compressed air at a pressure varying between 26kg/cm2 depending on the design and size of the pulse value, is used. A sort quick pulse of
air is applied to a row of bags through a solenoid operated diaphragm value.

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Fig 2.8 Low pressure pulse jet cleaning process

Parameters Affecting Fabric Filter Performance: Fabric filter is often called as constant
emission machine because of its immunity of variation in operating parameters. However
operating data from filters at elevated temperature show performance change due to change
in physical and chemical behavior of gas and dust.
The most significant parameter is dynamic viscosity. Dynamic viscosity increases with
higher temperature and leads to a higher pressure drop. Dust deposition rate is diminished
with higher viscosity. This leads to dust suspension for fine particulates which are reentrained resulting into higher pressure drop.
For an individual application the gas and dust parameters can affect the performance,
such as; (i) Temperature, (ii) Dew point and moisture, (iii) Particle size distribution,
(iv) Chemical composition of dust, and (v) Operating pressure of the system
To avoid corrosion, operating temperature must be at least 10 0C 150C or to form may
lead to blinding of filter element. Since the condensation often takes place during start up
and shut down care must be taken not to invite condensation.
Density of gas decreases with increasing temperature. For a pulse jet filter pulse are
generally less effective in low density air.

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For an effective capture of dusts in low gas density higher filtering velocity is needed
which in turn makes the cleaning difficult.
Hygroscopic or deliquescent dusts attract moisture and agglomerates which affects the
effectiveness of cleaning.
Possibility of corrosion is increased when presence of moisture is associated with elevated
temperature. It becomes still acute when condensed water combines with acid forming gas
components.
Particle shape and size plays important role for re-entrainment and pressure drop.
Some dusts are cohesive in lower temperature but becomes tacky at higher
temperature.
Design Criteria for bag filters: The design parameters required are:

Rate of filtration = 50 60m/hour = 50 60 m3 / m2

Particle size effectively removed = > 0.5m

Overall efficiency of the bag filters = 97 99%

Pressure drop = 1.4 to 1.6 Kpa

Merits:

High collection efficiency for particles less than 10m in diameter

Simple construction and operation

Normal power consumption

Collection of particulates in dry form

Relatively low pressure drop

Demerits:

High maintenance and fabric replacement cost

Large size of equipment

Operating limits are imposed by high temperature of carrier gas and high
humidity

High construction cost

There application only to process temperatures generally below 285 0C.

Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs):

Electrostatic precipitator is used to separate dust particles from flue gases is many
industrial processes. Due to its many-fold advantages like low pressure drop, low sensitivity
to high temperature and aggressive gases, high collecting efficiency well in excess of 99%,

Page 14 of 38

and low maintenance, electrostatic precipitator has gained popularity over other dust
collectors.
An electrostatic precipitator, commonly called as ESP, is basically an electrical equipment
where DC voltage is imparted through an electrode creating an electrical field around it. Dust
particles carried by the gas while passing through the electrical field is charged to saturation
and electrical force causes the charged particles to migrate towards the grounded electrode of
opposite polarity where they are deposited as dust layer. By suitable rapping mechanism dust
layer is dislodged.
Working Principle: The working principle of an ESP may be studies with a single stage
tubular model as shown in fig. Dirty gas enters from the bottom and flows upwards through
the electrical field generated by high voltage imparted to an electrode called discharge or
emitting electrode. Gas around the discharge electrode is ionized and the region is filled with
negative ions in the order of 10 9ions/cm3. Dust particles get charged to saturation within a
few milliseconds immediately after entering into the ionized space. Amount of saturation
charge is proportional to the surface area of the particle and the strength of the electrical
field. Typically a particle diameter of 1m gets a saturation charge equivalent to 250
electrons. After being charged the particles migrate towards another electrode that is earthed
and called collecting electrode. Movement of particles is opposed by the viscous drag of the
medium and a resultant velocity called migration or drift velocity is attained by the particles.
For a typical population of particle diameter varying between 1m to 30m, migration velocity
may vary from about 0.03 to 0.5m/s. particles on reaching collecting electrode get deposited,
discharged and adhered to. Deposited dust cake is periodically dislodged by rapping collecting
electrode.
The principles of electrostatic precipitation have four distinct phases as follows:
Ionization or corona formation
Charging of particles
Migration and precipitation of particles, and
Removal of deposited dust

Page 15 of 38

Fig 2.9 Single stage tubular model precipitator

Removal of Deposited Dust: Process of electrostatic precipitator of dust is considered to be
complete only when the deposited dust layer is removed effectively without impairing
precipitator performance. The dislodging of dust is most effective when the dust is removed
from the collecting plate in the form of cake and not in disintegrated form. With disintegration,
dust is again dispersed in and carried by the gas. This causes the dust to penetrate though
the precipitator if not collected in the downstream. This phenomenon is known as
re-entrainment. It is therefore, of utmost importance to remove the dust layer by very
effective means which is physically done by rapping the collecting electrode curtain in case of
a dry precipitator. In case of wet precipitator collecting curtain is irrigated or flushed with
water and thus no re-entrainment occurs whereby almost 100% deposited dust is collected in
the form of slurry.
Rapping is a mechanical process by which acceleration both in plane and normal to
collecting plate is produced. Rapping is resorted to by means of energy giving mechanical or
electro-magnetic or hydraulic hammers which rams on an anvil or anvil beam connected to a
collecting plate curtain. Rapping or water flushing is also applied to discharge electrodes for
removing deposited dust on the same.
Effectiveness of removal of dust depends on the following:
The plate behavior due to rapping blow
The dust layer response
Dust layer strength

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 Fall phase of dislodged dust

Process parameters affecting ESP performance: According to the ESP efficiency,
migration velocity is a critical factor on which the size of ESP depends. Besides the particular
application process, migration velocity depends on factors like temperature, moisture content,
gas velocity, dust resistivity, and particle size.
Dust Resistivity: For high resistivity dust, electrical field strength is very high in the
dust layer and it can cause back corona. Force with which the dust layer is adhered to in
this case is very high and thus is difficult to dislodge by rapping.
Gas Temperature: Gas temperature has a great influence on the ESP performance
either directly or indirectly through resistivity.
Moisture

Content:

Moisture

content

directly

influences

the

voltage

current

characteristics, i.e. at higher moisture content higher voltage can be impressed into the
ESP which will create stronger electrical field. Higher field strength helps better charging
of particles and consequently higher precipitation.
Particle size: Theoretically precipitator performance increase with increased particle
size because larger particles receive charges more quickly and saturation charging.
Design Criteria for Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP): The design parameters required are:
L/H ratio of plate = > 0.8 (L = Total Length of field and H = Height of the field)
H/B ratio of plate = < 2.0 (B = Breadth of field)
Gas velocity with in ESP = 0.4 1.2m/s
Maximum collection area per field = 3000 4000m2
Collecting electrode spacing = 300mm
Current density = 0.35 0.5 ma/m2
Efficiency of ESP = 99.0 99.8%
Power input = DC (rectifier which converts A.C. to D.C)
Merits:

Pressure drop and hence power requirement is small compared to the other
devices; economical and simple to operate

99%+ efficiency obtainable. Very small particles can be collected, wet or dry

Can handle both gases and mists for high voltages volume flow

Few moving parts; can be operated at high temperatures and pressures

Demerits:

Relatively high initial cost and large space requirement

Sensitive to variable particulate loadings or flow rates

Safeguarding operating personnel from high is necessary

Collection efficiency can deteriorate gradually

Page 17 of 38

Scrubbers or Wet collection:

Scrubbers are used in variety of applications from foundry to iron and steel, non-ferrous
metallurgy, fertilizer, chemicals, etc involving collection of dust of sub-micron level as well as
absorption of gases. Liquid scrubber has manifold advantages such as collection of particles
and gas simultaneously, handling of high temperature gas, handling of corrosive gases, no fire
or explosion hazards. In spite of so many advantages, major problem that is associated with
liquid scrubber is handling and treating of slurry. This disadvantage outweighs the advantages.
In fact air pollution control creates water pollution and adds to the overall cost of the plant for
providing additional equipment for water pollution control.
Working Principle: In liquid scrubber gas and liquid are made to come in contact intimately
so that dust or gas or both can be collected or absorbed. Gas and liquid may be concurrent or
counter current depending on the type of scrubber. In case of counter current flow gas is
generally introduced from the bottom and water from the top through spray nozzles as in case
of spray tower or packed bed scrubber. In case of concurrent flow, like in venture scrubber,
water is sheared or shattered by the gas stream and thereby fine liquid droplets are formed. In
case of particulate scrubber liquid droplets collect dust is collected either by gravity or
centrifugal force or both. In case of gas absorption scrubber resistance at the interface offered
either by the gas or liquid as the case may be is the governing force for absorbing the gas.
Scrubber is broadly divided into:
Particulate scrubber, and
Gas Absorption scrubber
Particulate Scrubber: When the particulate matter to be collected is wet, corrosive, or very
hot, the fabric filter will not work while liquid scrubbing may be highly effective. Typical
scrubbing applications include control of emission of talc dust, phosphoric acid mist, foundry
dust, and open hearth steel furnace fumes.
As shown in fig a scrubber will have three main components:

A gas liquid contactor

A gas liquid separator and

A gas solid separator

In many scrubbers the gas liquid separator will be a simple cyclone and the liquid, solid

separator will be a gravity settler.

Page 18 of 38

Fig 2.10 particulate scrubber

These scrubber works on the same principle of the removal of particulate matter from
the atmosphere by the rain drop in the process of rain.
Collection Mechanism in Particulate Scrubber: There are various types of collection
mechanism like inertial impaction, interception, Brownian diffusion, electrostatic force, etc.
which are essentially the same as that in fabric filter. The inertial force by far is the most
predominant collection mechanism in the liquid atomizing zone. At lower velocities
electrostatic forces may be important. Brownain diffusion occurs when particles diameter is
less than 0.1m and relative velocity between the dust particles and droplets is small.
Spray Tower: Spray tower is the simplest type of scrubber. A set of nozzle bank with nozzles is
used to produce liquid droplets. Droplets are allowed to fall due to gravity that interacts with
the countercurrent gas flow coming from below. Dusts carried by the gas are intercepted by the
liquid droplets. The predominant collection mechanisms are inertial impaction and interception.

Fig 2.11 Spray tower with multiple spray header for particulate collection

Page 19 of 38

Speed of the droplets must be greater than the gas velocity so as not to be entrained by
the gas and hence the droplet size has to be sufficiently large. Droplet size of about 1mm gives
a good result. Proper nozzle is selected accordingly for producing the correct droplet size.
Slurry that is generated after collection of dust is generally taken to a slurry tank and a
portion of water is re-circulated. In practice about 30-35% liquid is re-circulated. Re-circulation
has s risk that water carries some amount of dust, which may cause erosion, and clog the
nozzles. However it is believed that solid content in the scrubbing liquid reduces surface
tension, improves wetting characteristics resulting into better collection.
Design parameters:

Velocity of gas is recommended to be 0.6 1.2m/s

Liquid gas ratio may be considered as 3.5 4.0 litre / m3

Collection efficiency that can be achieved in spray tower is not very high. Fig shows a
relation between outlet concentration and specific water consumption at various inlet
dust burden. The curves can be utilized for designing a spray tower.

Centrifugal Spray Scrubber: Like in cyclone, the collection efficiency is enhanced over
settling chamber; scrubber efficiency is also increased from that of simple spray tower by
employing centrifugal force. Velocity for both scrubbing liquid and gas is increased. Fig shows a
typical centrifugal scrubber where liquid is introduced from a centrally located header. Gas
enters tangentially at the bottom of the scrubber giving spinning motion to the gas. Water is
directed towards the periphery of the cyclone casing and care is taken so that no core of liquid
is formed. To accomplish the same a core buster disc is provided. Because of centrifugal force
of the gas dusts are thrown away towards the wall where they impact with liquid droplets only
to be captured and collected.

Page 20 of 38

Fig 2.12 Centrifugal spray scrubber Pease Anthony type

Design parameters:

Droplet size of about 100m is most effective.

The commercial scrubber of this type works with velocities between 15 and 60m/s.
Centrifugal scrubber is an effective and low cost alternative having reasonably good
collection efficiency. Table shows the performance data for few applications.

Table 2.2
Application

Type of dust

Particle

size

Dust loading g/m3

Efficiency

range (micron)

Pulverized coal fired

Fly ash

Inlet

Outlet

>2.5

1.1-5.8

0.04-0.1

88-98.8

0.5-20

6.7-53.5

0.07-0.18

99

boiler
Blast furnace

Iron ore coke

Lime kiln (kraft mud)

Lime

1-25

17.2

0.56

97

Lime kiln (Raw stone)

Lime

2-40

20.5

0.18

99

Page 21 of 38

Reverberatory lead

Lead

0.5-2.0+

1.1-4.5

0.05-0.09

95-98

furnace

compound

Rotary dryer

Ammonium

Large unstable

99+

nitrate

agglomerate

Superphosphate den

Fluorine

Mist

0.31

0.007

97.8

and mixer

compound

Air bodying of castor

Castor oil

Mist

0.006

0.0013

78

oil
Impingement Scrubber: This type of scrubber employs the principle of impingement and selfinduced spray. The dust laden gas is made to impinge on to a pool of water and pass between
the lip of venture and the surface of water as shown in fig.

Fig 2.13 self induced or impingement scrubber

This is generally used for the separation of particulate matters generated from grinding
operation, foundries, coal handling plant, mining operation, etc.

Page 22 of 38

Design parameters:

This type of scrubber is basically a medium energy scrubber. Pressure drop across the
scrubber varies between 150 and 300mm WG

Impingement velocity may be 15m/s which creates a droplet size of 300-400m

It can achieve collection efficiency as high as 99% even with particle size of 0.5m

Power requirement range between 1.0 and 1.3 kW/1000m3/hr of gas flow

Selection of Equipment
For selecting a particular collector from various equipments available, the following
factors must be taken into consideration:
i. Particulate size, shape and density
ii. Particulate loading, in mg/m3
iii. Efficiency required
iv. Capital and operating cost of equipment
v. Ease of maintenance and reliability
vi. Flow rate and variations in flow rate of the carrier gas
vii. Specific properties of the contaminants like composition solubility, combustibility,
reactivity, toxicity etc.
viii. Properties of the carrier gas, i.e., composition, temperature, pressure, density,
viscosity, humidity, reactivity, combustibility etc.
Venturis Scrubber:
Venture Scrubber is the most efficient particulate scrubber amongst all and most
commonly used. Very high efficiency even for particle size of 0.5m is achieved by
venture scrubber. There are applications such as for sticky and corrosive dusts where
venture scrubber is the only solution over fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator.
In venture scrubber gas is allowed to pass through a narrow throat where water
is introduced. Water is disintegrated by the high velocity gas producing liquid droplets.
Energy alone for disintegration is coming from the velocity of the gas. The narrow throat
is called venture section. It is preceded by a convergent section and succeeded by a
divergent section. The throat can be rectangular or circular in cross section depending on
the design.
Design Criteria for Venturi Scrubber: The design parameters required are:

Throat Velocity = 60m/s

Liquid-gas ratio = 0.87 liters / m3 of gas

Pressure drop = 1400 - 1500mm W.G.

Page 23 of 38

Gas Absorption Scrubbers: In gas absorption scrubber, scrubbing liquid is employed to

absorb more or less soluble pollutant gas (Table 2.4). Gas absorption scrubber may be of two
types, (i) Spray Tower (Fig 2.11), and (ii) Packed Bed Tower
Spray tower: Spray absorption towers are used for removal of highly soluble gases such as
hydrochloric acid (HCl), Ammonia (NH3), Hydrofluoric acid (HF) etc. Spray tower is not very
efficient one and as such is only used where inlet concentration of the toxic gas is very low and
high efficiency is not demanded or an inexpensive solution is preferred.
Design parameters:

Recommended velocity in the tower is 0.5 to 1.0m/s

Recommended liquid gas ratio is 3.5 4.0 litre/m3

Packed Bed Tower: When sparingly soluble gases like Sulphur dioxide(SO 2), Hydrogen
Sulphide(H2S) etc are to be removed from the gas it is necessary to increase the contact area
between gas and the scrubbing liquid. One of the most convenient way to do this is to allow the
gas and liquid to come in contact counter currently through randomly packed bed. Packing of
various designs are commercially available for the purpose. Packed bed tower is also used for
highly soluble gases to achieve high removal efficiency. Gaseous pollutants like Acetic acid,
Alkaline fume, Ammonia, Amines, Chlorine, Chromic acid, Cyanide, Hydrochloric acid,
Hydrofluoric acid, Hydrogen Sulphide, Sulphur dioxide, Sulphuric acid mist can be removed
effectively by packed bed tower to the efficiency as high as 99.5%.

Fig 2.14 Gas Absorption packed bed tower

Page 24 of 38

The characteristics of packing material shall be:

Packing must provide good contact between the solute gas and the solvent liquid

Packing must be chemically inert so as to not to react with the liquid or gas

Packing must allow adequate passage of both gas and liquid without any hold up or
excessive pressure drop

Packing must be light weight so as not to burden the distribution plate and thereby
overall cost

Design parameters:

Velocity of gas through the tower is recommended to be 5-8ft/s (1.5 2.5m/s).

Liquid-gas ratio is recommended to be 3.5 4.0 litre / m3 of gas flow or 2-8gpm/ft2

(80-325 lpm/m2) of tower cross sectional area

Pressure drop is recommended to be 15-150mm W.G/m of packed bed height

Maximum inlet concentration 5000 ppm by volume

Choice of control equipment with respect to particle size:

Fig 2.15 Particle diameter in micron

Table 2.3 Guidelines for selection of control equipment

Low operating cost

+ +

Dry collection

Low initial cost

+ + -

Electrostatic

Explosive

+ + +

Agglomerating

+ H

Difficult to wet

Dry cyclone /

Build Up

Abrasive

hygroscopic

Higher viscosity

Op. temp near dew poir

+ +

Corrosive

Combustible

+ + -

Temp 3500C

Temp 150-3500C

+ + +

temp1500C

+ L

Pressure drop

Settling chamber

Flow variation

High resistivity

Others
< 10 particle diameter

Dust characteristics
1-10 particle diameter

conditions

>10 particle diameter

condition

Fluffy

Gas

Sticky

Operating

Page 25 of 38

mutlicyclone
Wet cyclone

+ H

+ + + -

Fabric filter

+ + + +

+ -

+ L

+ + -

+ L

+ H

Dry electro static

precipitator
Wet electrostatic
precipitators

+ +

+ + -

+ + + +

X +

+ + + +

+ -

X X +

+ + -

X +

+ + -

X + -

Particulate scrubber
-

Low energy

- High energy

V
H

= suitable; + = Special attention; - = Generally to be avoided; x = unsuitable; L = Low; H =

High; VH = Very High
Parameters affecting the Scrubber performance:
Particle size: Efficiency increases with larger particle size.
Gas velocity at throat: Efficiency increases with increased velocity.
Suggested velocities range between 50-180m/s.
Pressure drop: Efficiency increases with increased pressure drop, the increase specially
rapid for pressure drop over 10W.G (250mm W.G).
Inlet

dust

concentration:

Efficiency

decreases

with

decrease

in

inlet

dust

concentration and increases with the increase. Increased inlet dust concentration has
little effect on pressure drop.
Nature of dust: A soluble or hydrophilic dust is easily attached to the water droplet
while hydrophobic dust is difficult to collect and thus requires more direct contact with
the droplets.
Water flow rate: low velocity with high water rate may give desired efficiency than
high velocity and low water flow. However, very low velocity is ineffective for
atomization. At low liquid-gas ratio i.e. below 2gal/1000cft, there is an increase in the
effectiveness of water.
Spray system: Liquid velocity and number of spray nozzles affect performance. For
optimum collection efficiency injection velocity of 20ft/s (6m/s) or below appears
desirable. Method or position of liquid introduction is important in so far as it prevents
channeling of gas and liquid. Pressure drop across the venture varies with the amount
and method of water injection.
Power input: High efficiency is associated with high power input. Power requirement
increases as particle size decreases.
Scrubber design: Efficiency has little relation with scrubber design.

Page 26 of 38

Merits:

Low initial cost

High collection efficiency for small particles

Applicable for high temperature installations

Demerits

High power consumptions for higher efficiency

Moderate to high maintenance cost due to corrosion and abrasion

Wet disposal of the collected material

2.4 CONTROL DEVICES FOR GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS

The principal gases of concern in air pollution control are So x, NOx, oxides of carbon
(particularly CO), HCs, and organic and inorganic acid gases. The treatment processes for the
control of these and other gaseous emissions include adsorption, absorption, condensation and
combustion.
Adsorption:
Adsorption involves passing of a stream of effluent gas through a porous solid material
(called the adsorbent) contained in an adsorption bed. The surface of the porous solid material
attracts and holds the gas (the adsorbate) by either physical or chemical adsorption.
Physical adsorption is the condensation of gases and vapors on solids at temperatures above
dew point, and depends upon vander walls, force. In chemical adsorption (or chemisorptions),
the contaminant gas molecules from chemical bonds with the adsorbent.
Some of the widely used adsorption (materials possessing adsorptive properties) for the
control of gaseous air pollutants are listed in Table 2.4 along with their major uses.
Table 2.4 Adsorbents and their major uses
S. No

Adsorbent

Major use

1.

Activated carbon

For

eliminating

odours,

purifying

gas,

and

recovering solvents
2.

Activated alumina

For drying air, gases and liquids

3.

Bauxite

For treating petroleum fractions, and drying gases

and liquids

4.

Bone char

For decolorizing sugar solutions

5.

Fullers earth

For refining vegetable oils, animal oils, fats and

waxes

Page 27 of 38

6.

Molecular
silicate

sieves
or

zeolite

(synthetic,
molecular

For controlling and recovering Hg, SO2 and NOx

emissions

sieves)
7.

Silica gel

For drying and purifying gases

8.

Strontium sulphate

For removing iron from caustic solutions

The equipments that contain the adsorbent solid through which the effluent gas must
pass are called adsorbers. They can be of fixed, moving or fluidized beds type. The container for
a simple fixed-bed adsorption unit can be vertical or horizontal cylindrical shell fig 2.15 shows in
multiple fixed bed adsorber, in which the adsorbent (say activated carbon) is arranged on beds
or trays in layers. When the adsorbent becomes saturated with adsorbate, then the adsorber
must be regenerated or renewed. If the collected gas can be easily desorbed, then the
adsorbent can be reused; otherwise, the absorbent has to be replaced regeneration of an
adsorbent can be accomplished by the use of superheated steam or circulating hot air. It should
be noted that the bed must be cooled before reuse.

Fig 2.16 Multiple fixed-bed adsorber

The recovery of ethyl alcohol vapors from a whisky warehouse and the recovery of
methyl chloroform from a movie-film processing plant may be economical. Organic vapors that
can be controlled by adsorption processes include those discarded from the following industrial
processes: solvent extracting, dry-cleaning, metal-foil coating, paint spraying, etc. emissions

Page 28 of 38

from chemical pharmaceutical, plastics, rubber, and many more manufacturing processes can
also controlled by adsorption.
Absorption:
A mass transfer in which a gaseous pollutant is dissolved in a liquid is known as
absorption.
Control devices based on the principle of absorption attempt to transfer the pollutant from a gas
to a liquid phase. This is a mass-transfer process in which the gas dissolves in the liquid. The
dissolution may or may not be accompanied by a reaction with an ingredient of the liquid. Mass
transfer is a diffusion process where in the pollutant gas moves from points of higher
concentration to points of lower concentration. The removal of the pollutant gas takes place in
three steps:

Diffusion of the pollutant gas to the surface of the liquid

Transfer across the gas-liquid interface (dissolution)

Diffusion of the dissolved gas away from the interface into the liquid

Structures such as spray chambers and towers or columns are two classes of devices
employed to absorb pollutant gases.

Fig 2.17 Absorption system

Page 29 of 38

Table 2.5 Absorption liquids for various pollutant gases

Pollutant gas
Sulphurdioxide

Absorption liquids
Sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphite, magnesium oxide, calcium carbonate,
calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide solutions.

Oxides of nitrogen

Ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium bisulphate, calcium hydroxide,

magnesium hydroxide, and sodium hydroxide.

Hydrogen sulphide

Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide solutions.

Hydrogen chloride

Water, ammonia, calcium and magnesium hydroxide solutions.

Chlorine

Solutions of sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphite, sodium thiosulphite, and

water.

Phosgene

Sodium hydroxide and water

Ammonia

Sulphuric acid, nitric acid

Mercaptans

Sodium hypochlorite solution

Condensation:
The process by which water changes from water changes from vapour state into the
liquid or solid state. It is the reverse of evaporation. In cases where pollutants have low vapour
pressures, condensation is effective for removing a significant part of the vapour. The
condensation process works on the principle of cooling the pollutant gas stream to a
temperature below the dew point. Organic vapours, hydrocarbons including solvents are
removed by condensation process. A typical condensation process applied for industrial organic
vapours purification is shown in fig 2.18.

Fig 2.18 Direct contact condenser used as a pollution control device

Page 30 of 38

Combustion:
Combustion is chemical oxidation accompanied by the generation of light and heat.
When the gaseous pollutants are oxidizable to an inert gas. Combustion is a possible
alternative method of control. Typically, Co and hydrocarbons methane gas, organic vapours
and hydrogen gas fall into this category. Both direct flame combustion by after burners and
catalytic combustion have been used in commercial applications.
Direct flame combustion: Direct flame combustion for any combustible gaseous pollutants
can be applied, if it has a heating value of above 900 Kcal/m3. A typical direct flame
combustion process is presented in fig 2.19.

Fig 2.19 Duct Type burner

Catalytic combustion:
Some catalytic materials enable oxidation of combustible gaseous pollutants below
900K Cal/m3. Platinum or palladium compounds are used on catalysts. Catalytic combustion
process is successfully employed to printing press, varnish cooking, and asphalt oxidation
emissions. A typical catalytic converter combustion process is shown in fig 2.20.

Fig 2.20 Catalytic Combustion

Sufficient oxygen is to be supplied in the form of air for conversion into inert gases.
The reactions of combustion are represented as below:

Page 31 of 38

Reactions:

2.5 REMOVAL OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE: The major source of Sulphurdioxide are

1. Sulphuric acid plants
2. Combustion of coal or fuel oil in boilers
3. Thermal power plants
4. Petro chemical units and oil refineries
5. Metallurgical industries such as sponge iron plants, blast furnaces, pellet plants, and
non-ferrous smelting plants
(i)

From Sulphuric acid plants: The sulphuric acid plants release about 7 9% of SO2
gas. Other impurities may be absent. SO2 is removed by double-conversion and
doubleabsorption. The sulphur dioxide is converted into usable product of sulphuric
acid. The sulphur dioxide removal process in sulphuric acid plants is presented in fig
2.21.

Fig 2.21 Double-conversion double absorption (DCDA) system in the manufacture of

sulphuric acid
(ii) Combustion of coal and Limestone mixtures in fluidized bed combustion or limestone
coal pellets as fuel may reduce the SO2 emissions.
(iii) Desulphurization of Fuels: These may be accomplished by 1. Coal gasification, 2.
Coal liquefaction.

Page 32 of 38

a. Coal gasification: Coal gasification means any processes that are used to convert
solid coals to gaseous, fuels for cleaner combustion. Sulphur is recovered in this
process with hydrogen complexation followed by partial oxidation with oxygen.
b. Coal Liquefaction: Coal Liquefaction is a process for changing coal into synthetic oil.
It is similar to coal gasification. Two basic approaches for liquefaction are used. One
involves using a gasifier to convert coal to carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane,
followed by condensation to convert the gases to oils. The second approach uses a
solvent or slurry to liquefy pulverized coal and then processes this liquid into a heavy
fuel oil. Some processes produce both a synthetic gas and synthetic oil. Hydrogen is
used to convert sulfur in the coal to hydrogen sulfide gas. Hydrogen sulfide is partially
oxidized to form elemental sulfur and water. More than 85% of the sulfur is removed
from coal by liquefaction.
(iv) Flue gas desulphurization: Flue gas desulphurization (FGD) may be carried by Wet
scrubbing process or dry scrubbing process.
Dry flue gas desulphurization offers a cheaper solution since elaborate sludge handling
is absent. In this process flue gas is desulphurized before it enters into the particulate
collector. However pre-collector is often used for the collection of dry, clean fly ash when it
is meant to reuse like it cement-making. Dry/semidry process is very much suitable for
retrofit. It is also a preferred choice for new plants as a cheaper solution.
In this system flue gas enters into an absorber where calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 slurry
is injected and the reaction takes place in liquid phase. Water is evaporated in the
absorber and dry product is forced into a collector. Calcium hydroxide or slaked lime
Ca(OH)2 reacts with sulphur dioxide (SO2) to form calcium sulphite (CaSO3) and water.
Calcium sulphite (CaSO3) reacting with Oxygen (O2) transforms into Calcium sulphate
(CaSO4).

The advantage of this process is that, it does not produce any waste water. Plant is
fairly simple and no waste water treatment plant is necessary. Part of collected product is
put back into the system due to its high absorbent capabilities.

Page 33 of 38

Fig 2.22 Dry / Semi dry FGD process

Wet Process: Wet Process generally installed after the particulate collector, consist of
counter current spray absorber having several levels of nozzle banks for injecting lime and
water.
Collected sludge is then passed through hydrocyclone / thickener to vacuum filter /
filter press for dewatering. Absorber may be with forced oxidation arrangement for
obtaining full formation of calcium sulphate, otherwise separate arrangement may also be
accomplished.

Lime or Limestone dissolves slowly in water and react with Sulphur dioxide (SO2) to
form calcium sulphate (CaSO4) or sukphite (CaSO3) in solid particles or crystals. Solids
are removed by thickening process and dewatered through vacuum filter to produce a
moist sludge having 10 to 15% water and 90 to 50% solid. The sludge then is mixed with
dry fly ash from preceding particulate collector and lime to make a stable land fill
compound.
If there is a market for gypsum, slurry from the absorber is oxidized in a forced
oxidation tank to convert all calcium sulphite (CaSO3) to calcium sulphate (CaSO4) in the
form of gypsum crystals. This commercial grade gypsum is the raw material for wall board
manufacture. Utilization of waste material is thus possible.

Page 34 of 38

Fig 2.23 Wet FGD process

(v) Dilution using Tall Stacks: Dilution by tall stacks will have to be widely practised
until direct control methods are employed for the removal of SO 2. It is quite common
practice to curtail operations during adverse meteorological conditions so as to keep
the ground level concentration of SO2 within acceptable limits.
For industries where SO2 emission is estimated as w kg/hr then the stack height (h) is
calculates as:
H = 14 (w)0.3 (Less than 200MW coal based thermal power plants)
H = 220m (200 to 500MW coal based thermal power plants)
H = 275m (500 MW and above coal based thermal power plants)
From structural point of view the height shall not be less than 20 30 times diameter
of the stack.
2.6 CONTROL OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN:
They include absorption in solutions; adsorption and catalytic oxidation improved
design of combustion engines / furnaces, as well as their proper maintenance and operation
also help reduce pollution due to NOx.
(i) Absorption: For absorption of gases containing NOx from boilers and process industries,
aqueous solutions of magnesium hydroxide, magnesium carbonate, calcium hydroxide
and ammonia, or their combinations, are used.

Page 35 of 38

(ii) Absorption in Calcium Hydroxide Solution: The gases containing nitrogen oxides are
absorbed in calcium hydroxide solution obtained from the slaking of lime.
NO + NO2

N2O3

N2O3 + Ca(OH)2

Ca(NO2)2 + H2O

4NO2 + 2Ca(OH)2

Ca(NO3)2 + Ca(NO2)2 + 2H2O

2H2SO4 + 3Ca(Na2)2

2CaSO4 + 4NO + Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Fig 2.24 Removal of Nox by absorption system

(iii) Adsorption of NOx: For adsorption of NOx, NO is first oxidized to NO2 which can be
adsorbed by silica gel, activated carbon, etc. The adsorbent is regenerated by heating
and NO2 evolved is reused for HNO3 manufacture.
Natural zeolites can be employed to remove NOx levels up to 200ppm. Their capacity
for removal is, however, limited to about 2.2kg / 100kg of zeoloite.
(iv) Catalytic reduction of NOx: NOx can be reduced using methane gas. In the first
stage NO2 is reduced to NO. In the second stage all formed NO is reduced to elemental
nitrogen (N2). The reactions are follows:
CH4 + 4NO2

4NO + CO2 + 2H2O (first stage)

CH4 + 4NO

CO2 + 2H2O + 2N2 (second stage)

Page 36 of 38

Fig 2.25 Catalytic reduction of NOx using methane

(v) Selective catalytic Reduction: In SCR system, ammonia is injected in the gas stream
which reacts with nitrogen oxides at reasonably high temperature above 3000C in the
presence of a catalyst like active phase of vanadium pentoxide and tungsten trioxide on
a carrier of titanium to produce nitrogen and water.
8NH3 + 6NO2

7N2 + 12H2O

4NH3 + 6NO

5N2 + 6H2O

Fig 2.26 SCR Process high-dust installation in boiler plant

(vi) Combustion Modification Process: Temperature, oxygen concentration and length
of time of combustion are important parameters for deciding the NOx levels in the flue
gases. NOx can be controlled by choosing proper operating conditions for the combustion
process.

Page 37 of 38

(a) Recirculation of Flue gases: In this method a part of the flue gas is recirculated and
used for combustion. This makes the combustion deficient in oxygen with the result
that the peak combustion temperature is reduced. As much as 90-95 percent of NOx in
the exhaust gas is reduced.
(b)Low Excess Air Utilization: Less excess air is used here. This increases the N/O
ration and reduces the formation of NOx. Better control of combustion is necessary,
otherwise fuel is left unburnt and there is a possibility of CO formation. Burners using
gas or oil use less excess air for combustion.
(c) Two stage supply of Air: Here, about 90 percent of the stoichiometric requirement of
air is supplied to the burner. The rest of the air required for combustion is supplied at a
location above the burner flame. This reduces the NOx formation due to reduced flame
temperature and slightly reduced levels of oxygen where it matters most. Reductions
in the NOx concentration by 40 percent have been observed in gas-and oil-fired
furnaces by this modification.
(d)Tangential Firing: The burners here are located tangentially around the combustion
chamber radiating heat to a concentric cooling area. The peak temperature, as a
result, are reduced, thus reducing NOx emissions.

Page 38 of 38