Power Systems I

Assignment

H.N.T. Wijesekara
120716-U
Department of Electrical Engineering

Generation of Electricity
The main method of generation of electricity in Sri Lanka is hydropower electricity generation.
Coal power plants and diesel power plants are also used to produce electricity in Sri Lanka. Let
us talk about them in details.
Hydro Power Generation
There is a huge amount of energy in stored in water as potential energy which is available in
reservoirs in central hills. This water is sent through tunnels to power stations and then sent
through penstocks to rotate turbines. Now the turbines have a kinetic energy. This kinetic energy
is then converted into electrical energy by using generators. The electricity produced is then
added to the national grid with suitable voltage and current modifications using a transformer.
Hydro power generation is very economical environmental friendly way to generate electricity.
This is said to be the cleanest method of generating electricity. But it needs comparatively large
capital to initiate. It is categorized in to 3 stages,

Large hydro power stations Connects directly to the national grid (Typically to 132kV
or 220kV)

Mini Hydro power stations Connects to the medium voltage line (Typically 33kv/66kv)
lower than 10MW of generation.

Micro Hydro power stations. For industries or housing schemes isolated by the
network. It is not connected to the national grid.

Generally a hydro power station has the following parts in it.

Dam , Penstock , Surge chamber, Wicket gates, Turbine, Draft tube, Generator, Governor,
Bearings, Main shaft, excitation generator, Control panel, Protection schemes, switch yard,
transformers, Tail raise.

Coal power generation

In a coal-fired steam station water is turned into steam, which is used to drive turbine generators
to produce electricity. Heres how the process works.
1. Heat is created
Before the coal is burned, it is pulverized. It is then mixed with hot air and blown into the
firebox of the boiler. This allows coal to burn with maximum efficiency.
2. Water is turned to steam using the produced heat
Purified water is pumped through pipes inside the boiler and turned into steam by the heat. The
steam reaches high temperatures and pressures.
3. Steam turns the turbine
The large pressure of the steam is pushed against a series of giant turbine blades turns the turbine
shaft. The turbine shaft is connected to the shaft of the generator, where magnets spin within
wire coils to produce electricity.
4. Steam turns back into water
After doing its work in the turbine, the steam is drawn into a condenser, a large chamber in the
basement of the power plant. In this important step, millions of gallons of cool water from a
nearby source (such as a river or lake) are pumped through a network of tubes running through
the condenser. The cool water in the tubes converts the steam back into water that can be used
over and over again in the plant.

The cooling water is returned to its source without any contamination, and the steam water is
returned to the boiler to repeat the cycle.

Diesel Power station

A Diesel power station uses a diesel engine as prime mover for the generation of electrical
energy.
This power station is generally compact and thus can be located where it is actually required.
This kind of power station can be used to produce limited amounts of electrical energy. In most
countries these power stations are used as emergency supply stations.
The diesel burns inside the engine and the combustion process moves a fluid that turns the
engine shaft and drives the alternator. The alternator in turn, converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
This type of electricity generating power station will probably be used a long time into the
future, due to a need for reliable stand-by electrical source for emergency situations.
However, diesel power plants emit greenhouse gases that pollute the environment and also
require frequent servicing.

Power Transmission
Usually the electricity produced at power stations is not transmitted at the produced voltage. If
we do so a large amount of current will flow through transmission lines and the losses will be
very high. Due to this reason the voltage of the electricity is increased and the current is reduced.
Now the losses will be low. Also transmitting electric power at a high voltage will reduce the
amount of material used in transmission lines, i.e. the cross-sectional area of transmission lines
can be minimized. Now these transmission lines can be put over towers far apart with a
minimum amount of sagging. Below diagram explains how power distribution and transmission
system which is available in Sri Lanka.

Power can be distributed using 2 ways. They are namely overhead distribution and underground
distribution. Both these methods have their pros and cons. Lets compare the two methods.
Overhead System
In this system, the transmission of electrical power is by using overhead transmission lines
over long distances. In such system, the appropriate spacing is provided between the conductors,
at the supports as well as at the intermediate points. This spacing provides insulation which
avoids an electric discharge to occur between the conductors. The transmission by overhead
system is much cheaper than the underground system. The overhead transmission lines are
subjected to the faults occurring due to lightening, short circuits, and breakage of line, but
overhead lines can be easily repaired compared to underground system. It is also true that though
such faults are rare, if occurred it is very difficult to find exact point of fault as transmission lines

are very long. In the overhead system, the insulation must be provided between the conductor
and supporting structure.
Underground System
The cables are generally preferred in underground system. All the conductors must be
insulated from each other in the underground system. As voltage level is high, insulation required
is more. Hence due to insulation difficulties, the voltage level used in underground system is
below 66 KV while the voltage level used in overhead transmission lines can be as high as 400
KV. The maintenance cost of the underground system is less compared to overhead system. In
crowded areas, overhead system using bare conductors is not practicable where underground
system using cables is preferred. The line surges are suppressed by using the cables hence cable
must be used for the last part of the connection which can save transformers and generators from
the damage due to line surges.
In the underground system, the maximum stress exists on the insulation between the conductors.
Lets compare these two.
Overhead

Underground

Poles and wires are visible

Some vegetation can remain near lines

No poles, wires or support anchors are visible

Steel termination poles are visible
Vegetation must be completely removed along
route
Outages are less frequent

Outages are more frequent

Repairs can typically be made within a day

Construction entails setting poles and stringing
Repairs can take up to several weeks
wire
Environmental impacts include tree removal
Substantial trenching is required
and removing dirt for pole foundation
Environmental impacts include tree removal
Costs are covered by all ratepayers
and removing dirt for cable trench
Cannot be used for long distances due to
Highly flexible
higher shunt capacitance
Fault detection is easier
Have low interference
Establishment cost is very low relative to UG
High life time
systems

General Construction of a Distribution Cable

The figure above shows the general construction of a cable. The cable shown is a single
conductor underground cable. Its various parts are,
Conductor or core: This section consists of single conductor or more than one conductor. The
conductors are also called cores. A cable with three conductors is called three core cable. The
conductors used are aluminium or annealed copper. The conductors are stranded in order to
provide flexibility to the cable.
Insulation: Core is covered by insulation of proper thickness. The commonly used insulating
materials are varnished XLPE, PVC, cambric, vulcanized bitumen and impregnated paper.
Metallic sheath: The insulated conductors are covered by lead sheath or aluminium sheath. This
provides the mechanical protection but mainly restricts moisture and other gases to reach to the
insulation.
Bedding: The metallic sheath is covered by another layer called bedding. The bedding consists
of paper tape compounded with a fibrous material like jute strands or hessian tape. The purpose
of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath from corrosion and from mechanical injury caused by
stresses resulting due to armouring.
Armouring : This layer consists of the layer of galvanized steel wires which provide protection
to the cable from the mechanical injury.
Serving : The last layer above the armouring is serving. It is a layer of fibrous material like jute
cloth which protects the armouring from the atmospheric conditions.

Classification of Transmission and Distribution Systems

Nowadays, the electric energy generated is transmitted and distributed in the alternating form.
This is because the alternating voltages can be raised or lowered in magnitudes by the use of
transformers. But still DC systems are used at some instances.

Hence in general, the transmission and distribution system can be classified as,
1. AC systems
2. DC systems
AC systems
In earlier days, DC systems were used for the transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
But in case of DC systems the voltage level cannot be changed easily unless we used rotating
machinery which is not economical in many cases. This is the main disadvantage with DC
systems. Later on with the development of transformer, AC systems have become predominant.
Nowadays large power systems in the world are using AC system rather than DC.
The transmission of electrical energy generated in the power station is done at a very high
voltage with the use of 3 phases, 3 wire systems. These voltages are stepped down for
distribution at the substations. There are mainly two parts of the distributor system. They are
primary distribution and secondary distribution. The voltage level of primary distribution system
is higher than general utilization level. The secondary distribution systems receive power from
primary distribution systems through distribution transformers. By distribution transformer
voltage is stepped down to the normal working level and the consumers get the power with the
voltage 400/230 V.
DC systems
The feeders are used to feed the electrical power from the generating stations to the substations.
The distributors are used to distribute the supply further from the substations. The service mains
are connected to the distributors so as to make the supply available at the consumers premises.
Below given is the simplest two wire distribution system used to supply the consumers.

Types of Transmission and Distribution Systems

There are mainly 3 types of distribution systems. They are

Radial systems
Ring systems
Interconnected systems

Radial systems
Below given is a radial system. When the distributor is connected to substation on one end only
with the help of feeder, then the system is called radial distribution system. The feeders,
distributors and service mains are radiating away from the substation hence name given as radial
system. There are combinations of one distributor and one feeder, connecting that distributor to
the substation.

Due to such system, if the fault occurs either on feeder or a distributor, all the consumers
connected to that distributor will get affected. There would be an interruption of supply to
all such consumers. Similarly the end of the distributor nearer to the substation will get
heavily loaded than the end which is too far away from the substation. Similarly the
consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to the voltage
variations and fluctuations, as the load on the distributor changes. The system is
advantageous only when the generation is at low voltage level and the substation is
loaded at the center of the load.
The fault on a feeder or a distributor causes interruption in supply to all the consumers
connected to the distributor. This can be avoided by modifying the radial system as
shown in the below given diagram. In this system, the distributor is fed at number of
points with the help of feeders.

Advantages of Radial System

Simplest as fed at only end.
The initial cost is low.
Useful when the generating is at low voltage.
Preferred when the station is located at the centre of the load.
Disadvantages of Radial System
The end of distributor near to the substation gets heavily loaded.
When load on the distributor changes, the consumers at the distant end of the
distributor face serious voltage fluctuations.
As consumers are dependent on single feeder and distributor, a fault on any of
these two causes interruption in supply to all the consumers connected to that
distributor.

Ring systems
Another system of distribution which eliminates the disadvantages of the radial system is used in
practice is the ring main distribution system. In such system, the feeders cover the whole area of
supply in the ring fashion and finally terminate at the substation from where it is started. The
feeder is in closed loop from and looks like a ring hence the name given to the system as ring
main system. A sample diagram is given below.

The feeder in the ring fashion is divided into number of sections as AB, BC, CD, DE and EA.
The various distributors are connected at A, B, C, D and E. Each distributor is supplied by the
two feeders and hence the design is similar to the two feeders in parallel on different paths.
Hence if there is any fault on any part of the feeder, still the consumers will keep on getting the
continuous supply. For example, if the fault occurs at point P in the section AB of the feeder can
be isolated and repaired. The feeder can be fed at one or more feeding points. Thus the
disadvantages of radial system are eliminated in this system. The great saving in copper is
another major advantage of the ring main system.
Interconnected systems
It has been mentioned that in ring main system, the cable is arranged in the loop or ring fashion.
In most simple case, the ring distributor is fed at only one point. But sometimes the ring main
system is used to supply a large area and hence voltage drop across the various sections may
become large in such case. Hence to compensate for such excessive voltage drops, the distant
points of ring distributor are joined together by a conductor. This is called an interconnector. The
below diagram is a ring main system with an interconnector.

The necessary requirements of a good distribution system are,

The continuity in the power supply must be ensured. Thus system should be reliable.
The specified consumer voltage must not vary more than the prescribed limits. As per
Standard Electricity Rules, the variation must not be beyond 5 % of the specified
voltage.
The efficiency of the lines must be as high as possible.
The system should be safe from consumer point of view. There should not be any
leakage.
The lines should not be overloaded.
The layout should not affect the appearance of the site or locality.
The system should be economical.

Mechanical design of overhead lines

Main components of overhead lines

Conductors which carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving end
station.
Supports which may be poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable level above
the ground.
Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the ground.
Cross arms which provide support to the insulators.
Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti-climbing
wires etc.

Electrical Considerations for Transmission Line Design:

Voltage drop should be low.

Minimum power loss in lines and high efficiency of power transmission.
The line should have sufficient current carrying capacity so that the power can be
transmitted without excessive voltage drop or overheating.

Mechanical Considerations for Transmission Line Design:

The conductors and line supports should be mechanically strong enough to withstand
conductor weight, Conductor Tension and weather conditions such as wind and rain.
The Spans between the towers can be lengthy.
Sag should be small.
Reducing the number and height of towers and the number of insulators.

Conductor Materials
There are certain desired properties in conducting material. Some of them can be listed as
follows.

High electrical conductivity.

High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses.
Low cost so that it can be used for long distances
Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small.

Also different materials are used to produce conductors. Some of them are

Copper
Aluminium
Steel-cored Aluminium
ACSR
Galvanized steel
Cadmium copper

Types of line supports

Wooden poles

Steel poles

RCC poles

Lattice steel towers

Insulators and insulating materials

The overhead line conductors should be supported on poles or towers in such a way that currents
from conductors do not flow to earth through supports, i.e. Line conductors must be properly
insulated from supports. This is achieved by securing the line conductors to supports with the
help of insulators. The insulators provide necessary information between the line conductors and
supports and thus prevent any leakage current from conductors to earth. In general, the insulators
should have the following desirable properties:

High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents to earth.
High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is high.
The insulator materials should be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks otherwise
the permittivity will be lowered.
High ratio of puncher strength over flashover.

The most commonly used material for insulators of overhead line is porcelain, steatite and
special composition materials are also used to a limited extent.
Types of insulators
Pin type insulators

Strain insulators

Suspension type insulators

Shackle insulators

Cap type insulators

Advantages of suspension type insulators

Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltage beyond 33kV.
Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage, usually 11kV.
Depending upon the working voltage the desired number of discs can be connected in
series.
If any disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the damaged
disc can be replaced.
The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection at the
cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can take up the
position where mechanical stresses are minimum.
In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to
supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of
conductors. The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily
obtained in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
The suspension type of insulators are generally used with steel towers .As the conductors
run below the cross-arm of the tower, therefore this arrangement provides partial
protection from lightning.

Disadvantages of suspension type insulators

Not economical for low voltage distribution

Heavy and difficult to install.

There are certain methods to increase the efficiency of insulations. They can be listed as follows.

By using longer cross bars

By grading the insulators
By using a Guard ring

Tariff
A tariff is the pricing structure a retailer charges a customer for energy consumption. PUCSL
(Public utility commission Sri Lanka) is the local government body which has the authority on
tariff. The cost of electricity for a consumer is paid using a tariff structure. There are four main
objectives of tariff. They are

Recover capital investment

Recover maintenance cost
Recover generation cost
To gain a profit.

Its divided into two parts:

the fixed charge for supply of energy to your premises

the variable charge for the amount of energy you use

The variable charge relates directly to how much you consume. Tariffs vary depending on your
energy distributor.
The three types of energy tariffs

standard offer set by the retailer, published

market retail offer set by the retailer, not published

government regulated offer set by the government with input from the retailer

Not all offer types are available in all countries

Types of tariff structure for electricity

single rate(simple tariff) no variation in usage rates no matter what time of day or year
it is

flat rate has a unit price and it differs according to the category

block rate a usage rate calculated based on blocks of usage

off-peak rates change in low usage periods, such as overnight

time of use different times of day incur different rates; same goes for different times of
year

feed-in tariff paid to the customer based on the amount of energy they feed in to the
grid, mainly made possible by generating solar power using solar panels. It is only
applied on top of one of the other usage tariffs

two part tariff- charges for kVA demand and unit charge

Maximum demand tariff- It is similar to two-part tariff with the only difference that the
maximum demand is actually measured by installing maximum demand meter in the
premises of the consumer. This removes the objection of two-part tariff where the
maximum demand is assessed merely on the basis of the ratable value. This type of tariff
is mostly applied to big consumers. However, it is not suitable for a small consumer (e.g.,
residential consumer) as a separate maximum demand meter is required.

Characteristics of tariff

proper return

fairness

simplicity

reasonable profits

Load curve, Diversity factor, Load factor

Average Load
LOAD FACTOR Maximum demand

Always LF is less than 1. It's better to this value get closer to one.

DIVERSITY FACTOR=

of individual maximum demands

maximum demand of the power plant

Diversity factor is always greater than one. And it's better it get further form 1. When
it is equal to one it mean peaks of individual consumers occurs at the same time
which is not good.

Load curve represent the variation of load with time. It is important factor of designing power
plants. In the graph,

time usually is placed on the horizontal axis

load placed on the vertical axis

Daily, monthly and yearly load curves are used by power stations to determine the amount of
generators needed. Daily load curves look at a 24-hour period of time to find the load
requirements every half-hour or hour. A monthly curve records load changes during a one month
time period versus the number of days recorded, and a yearly load curve establishes the
variations in power requirements throughout one year based upon the monthly load variations.
Consumers use this energy to various kinds of activities. But utilization of electric energy differs
with their activities. So following type of load curve is obtained.

Importance of a load curve

The load curve gives an idea about the energy consumption of a country with time. In the load
curve there are three peaks, morning peak, day peak and night peak. Although it is desirable to
have a flat load curve those peaks disturb the flatness of the curve. The most undesirable factor
as far as load curve is concern is the night peak. In order to supply maximum demand which is
occur in between 6:30 pm-8:00pm diesel generators have to be run which cost more than 60
rupees per unit.
Its useful to determine the total installed capacity of the plant required,which should be capable
of meeting peak load. It also helps to decide the operating schedule of the power plant. Since to
shut down the generator sets and to restart them involves certain loses and allow sets to run at
partial loads also involves loses. So load curves help to take decisions whether to shutdown
certain generation sets or continue them at reduce loads.Observing data from load curve will
help to optimize the power generating units in the most efficient manner as possible.
Other than that, the area under a curve shows the amount of units that were generated during that
period of time and Average load also can be found from the load curve
How to identify good loads using load factors??
Load factor is the ratio between the average load and the maximum load which is always less
than one as maximum load is always greater than or equal to average load. Its a measure of the
uniformity and efficiency with which electrical energy being used.
A good load factor implies a more constant rate of electrical use. A Bad load factor means that
high variation of consuming energy that implies there are peaks in shorter period of time.

Advantages of Having Better load factor (utility point of view and customer point of view)
In utility Point of View
Higher the load factor, its better. Load Factor is used for determining the overall cost per unit
generated .Higher the load factor, lesser will be the cost per unit. The plant has the ability to
provide greater outputs more efficiently.so the demand can be supplied properly.
In Consumer Point of View
When considering the consumer point of view, the load factor will play a key role in determining
the unit cost. The higher the load factor, the lesser will be the average unit cost.

Advantages of Having Better Diversity factor (in consumers point of view)

Diversity factor is the ratio between the sum of individual max demands and maximum demand
on power station. A power station supplies power to various consumers whose maximum
demands do not occur at the same time. Therefore the diversity factor is always greater than 1. If
the diversity factor is higher, the demand on the power station is much lesser than the sum of
individual max demands. So the power station has to generate less amount of power and the
generated power is used most efficiently. So the production cost of electricity is low. Therefore
the unit cost will be less. That is, when there is high diversity factor, it will be more economical
for the consumers.
Methods of saving maximum demand

Power factor correction

Power factor measures how efficiency is converted of useful work.
Low power factor causes larger copper losses. (Low PF High currentI2R loss)
Higher cost of equipment (As KVA Rating increases with low PF)
Higher demand cost for the consumer (Tariff is increases)

Power factor correction

This is achieved by addition of capacitors. There are two types of power factor correction
capacitors.

Fixed capacitors-For constant loads

Automatic capacitor banks

Calculation of capacitor value bank requirement. Let the 2 angles be

1 >

Now the required capacitor;

and

P
(tan 1tan 2)
C = 2 f v 2
Most economical power factor is the power factor at which the net annual saving is maximum.

References
http://electrical-engineering-pics.blogspot.com/
- E.A.
http://engineering.electrical-equipment.org/
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/small-business/electricity-and-gas/understanding-plans/whatis-a-tariff
Power Systems Metha
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering
http://yourelectrichome.blogspot.com/