Growing Good Tropical Trees For Planting

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GROWINGGOODTROPICALTREESFORPLANTING
Producedby:ForestryDepartment
Title:GrowingGoodTropicalTreesforPlanting...
Moredetails
Microorganisms,nutrientsandtreegrowth
C30
introduction:closeassociationswithroots
Howdomicroorganismsinfluencetrees?
Alltreesareaffectedbymicroorganisms.Someofthem,forinstance:
1. aredecomposers,helpingtobreakdownlitterandreleasenutrients(C14andD13in
Manual4)
2. liveimmediatelyoutsidethefinerootsor
3. growonthesurfaceofleaves.
Whatarecloseassociationswithroots?
Otherkindsofmicroorganismsinthesoilhavemuchcloserrelationshipswithtrees,enteringthe
rootsandchangingtheirstructure.
Aretheycommon?
Yes,closeassociationswithwoodyplantsappeartobewidespreadthroughouttheworld.Thegreat
majorityoftropicaltreesarethoughttohaveatleastonesuchassociation.
Howimportantarethey?
Theyarevital,especiallyonpoorsoils(C62C,D).Mostofthemicroorganismscloselyassociated
withtropicaltreesplayaparticularlyimportantpartin:
a. thenutritionoftheindividualtree(C14),andsohowwellitgrows
b. quantitiesandcyclingofnutrientsintheecosystem(D13,D32inManual4)andprobably
c. improvingtheuptakeofwater(C11,C13).
NOTE:Manysoilimprovingtreesandshrubs,whichcanreclaimdegradedsites(D22inManual
4),haveatleasttwotypesofspecialassociationswiththeirroots.
Whatkindsofmicroorganismsformcloseassociations?
A. Fungi
B. Bacteriaand
C. Afewothergroups,suchastheactinomycetes.
Butaren'tthesethethingsthatcausedisease?
Afewkindsoffungiandbacteriacancausedisease(C45)
Mostofthemjustbreakdownlitter,andarenotharmfuland
http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad228e/AD228E04.htm
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Somespeciesformthesespecialassociations,withdirectbenefitsforthemselvesandtheirhost
trees.
Whatdotheusefulmicroorganismsgain?
1. Areadysupplyofsugarsandotherorganicsubstancesforenergyandgrowth
2. Aprotectedplacewheretheycanliveand
3. Extraopportunitiesofspreadingandmultiplying.
Butwon'tthatreducethegrowthofmytrees?
Notnecessarily.Itisoftenshortageofnutrientsthatlimitsthegrowthoftreesinthetropics,though
manyotherfactorsmayalsobeinvolved(D1016inManual4).Exceptwhereyoungtreesare
heavilyshadedorunhealthy,plentyofsugarscanbeavailableforthistradeoffwiththefungusin
exchangefornutrients.
Thegeneralprinciplesarebecomingcleareraboutcloseassociationswithroots(C62),butsofar
onlyalimitedamountofresearchhasbeendoneonspecificdetails.
Aretherenamesfortheseassociations?
Mycorrhizasarecloseassociationsbetweenfungiandtreeroots(C31)
Rootnodulesarecloseassociationsbetweenbacteriaandtreeroots(C32)and
Actinorhizasarecloseassociationsbetweenactinomycetesandtreeroots.
Whataremycorrhizaelike?
Mycorrhizalrootscontainfungaltissueandhaveanalteredstructure.Therearetwodifferentkinds:
a. Ectomycorrhizas,inwhichfungalthreadsformasheathoutsidefinerootletsofthetree,and
penetratebetweentherootcells.
b. Arbuscularmycorrhizas(endomycorrhizas,vesiculararbuscularmycorrhizasorVAMs),
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wherethefungigrowinsidethecellsoftheroots.Theyoccurintheouterpartofrootsthat
havenotyetthickenedandbecomewoody,thoughnotintheconductingcellswithin(C10
11).
Thefungiformingbothtypesofmycorrhizaalsoproduce:
1. averyextensivesystemofveryfinethreads(hyphae)runningandbranchingthroughthesoil
and
2. verylargenumbersofrestingspores.
Canyouseeectomycorrhizasquiteeasily?
Yes,theycanusuallybespottedwiththenakedeyeorahandlens.Ectomycorrhizalrootletsare
oftenshortandrelatively,thickwithbluntends.
Mostofthefungiinvolvedformlargefruitingbodies(mushrooms)thatareeasilyseenatcertain
timesofyear,thoughconnectiontoatreeisdifficulttoestablish.
Isithardertoseethearbuscularmycorrhizas?
Yesitis,fortheycannotbeseenwithahandlens,nordothefungiinvolvedformlargefruiting
bodies.However,infectedrootsareverycommon,andcanbedetectedbyusingasimplestaining
techniqueandthenlookingatsamplesunderamicroscope.
Howdomycorrhizasbenefitthetree?
Throughnutrientsandprobablywaterbeingpassedtoitfromthefungus.
Butsurelyatinyfunguscan'thelpthegrowthofabigtree!
Surprisinglyitcan,because:
a. itsthreadscanbeveryextensive,providingalargesurfaceareaforsubstantialamountsof
nutrientsandwatertobetakenupfromthesoil
b. someectomycorrhizalfungicanbreakdown,absorbandpassonnutrientsfromthesoilthat
otherwiseareunavailabletotreeroots.
Infact,thesefungimaybesoimportantthatsometreescannotthrivewithoutthem(C31,C60),
andmycorrhizascanevenformasubstantialpartoftherootsystemsofsometropicaltrees.
Equally,manyofthefungicannotthrivewithoutthetrees.
Whichnutrientsarepassedtotropicaltreesbymycorrhizas?
Manykindsofnutrientsareprobablytransferred,butphosphorusisespeciallyimportant.Thisis
oneofthethreeelementsneededinlargeamountsbytrees(C14),butintropicalsoilsitisoften
scarceorlockedawayinanunavailableform.
Howcanmycorrhizalfungiutiliseunavailablenutrients?
1. Theextensivenetworkoffungalthreadsmayreachimmobilesubstances,suchas
phosphorus,moreefficientlythanatreeroot(oneestimatesuggeststheymayreach400
timesmoresoil)and
2. Someectomycorrhizalfungiproducespecialenzymes(C14)thatcanbreakdownresistant
organicsubstancesinthelitterorsoil,whichotherdecomposerscannotdo.
Whataboutrootnodules?
Thesearemodified,roundishbodiesontheroots,afewmmindiameter,inwhichlargenumbersof
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bacteriaoccur.Suchnodulesareeasilyseenandarewellknownontherootsofleguminouscrop
plantslikebeansandgroundnuts.Theyalsooccuronmany(thoughnotall)leguminoustrees,
particularlythoseinthefamiliesMimosaceaeandPapilionaceae(C32,C62D).
Whichnutrientaretheymainlyinvolvedwith?
Nitrogenthenutrientrequiredinlargestquantitiesbyplants(C14),butoftenreadilylostandnot
freelyavailableintropicalsoils.
Howdothebacteriahelp?
Nitrogengasformsabout80%oftheatmosphere,butinthisformitisunavailabletoplants.
However,bacteriabelongingtothegroupcalledrhizobiaareabletoturnnitrogengasintosoluble
nutrients.Thesenitrogenfixingmicroorganismscanthereforeaddtothetotalamountofnitrogen
thatisavailable.
Cantreesgetholdofthisextranitrogeneasily?
Yes,bysolublenitrogenpassing:
A. directlyfromthenoduleintotherestofthetreeand
B. indirectlywhennodulesdecay,sothatthenutrientsarereleasedintothesoilbydecomposers
andcanthenbeabsorbedbythetree'sroots.
Soyougetafreefertiliser!
Yes,that'sright.Thisisoneofseveralreasonsforplantingmixturesofdifferentspecies(D30,D53
inManual4).Ifnitrogenfixersareincluded,thetotalamountofnitrogenthatiscyclinginthe
ecosystemisincreased,whichmeansthatothertreesandcropswithoutrootnodulesmaygrow
better,especiallyonpoorsoils.
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Isthatespeciallytrueofsoilimprovers?
Mostofthesespecies,besideshavingnitrogenfixingrootnodulesandmycorrhizas,arequick
growingcolonisersthatcanbecomeestablishedonopenordegradedland(D22,D32inManual
4).
SomeexampleswithconfirmednitrogenfixingabilityareassociationswithCalliandracalothyrsus,
Gliricidiasepium,Ingajinicuil,Mimosascabrella,Leucaenaleucocephala,Sesbaniagrandifloraand
speciesofAcacia,AlbiziaandErythrina.
Whataboutactinorhizas?
TheseoccurasrootnodulesontherootsofsoilimprovingtreessuchasAlnus,Casuarina,
AllocasuarinaandCoriaria.ThemicroorganismsbelongtoakindcalledFrankia,andlikerhizobia
theyhelpthetreetoacquirenitrogen.
Researchhasshownthateffectiveformationofnodulescanvaryconsiderablyfromoneprovenance
ofatreespeciestoanother(C5).
C31
mycorrhizas:fungiplustreeroots
Whathavemycorrhizasgottodowithtreenurseries?
Agoodnurseryrootsystemisoneofthekeystogrowingandplantingtreessuccessfully(C4,C11,
C34).Iftherootsystemsoftheplantingstockarealreadymycorrhizal,theyoungtreesarelikelyto
establishbetter.
Whichkindsoftropicaltreesproduceectomycorrhizas?
a. Alldipterocarps,forexampleDipterocarpus,HopeaandShorea.
b. Someleguminoustrees,likeAfzelia,Brachystegia,Eperua,Gilbertiodendron,Intsia,
MicroberliniaandTetraberliniainthefamilyCaesalpiniaceaeandAldinia,Pericopsisand
SwartziainthePapilionaceae
c. Manyconifers,suchaspinesandspeciesofAraucaria
d. Afewotherbroadleavedtrees,includingsomeeucalyptsandoaks.
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Andwhichtreesformarbuscularmycorrhizas?
Around95%ofalltropicalforesttreesarethoughttodoso.AfewspeciesofAcacia,Afzelia,
Eucalyptus,HopeaandIntsiacanevenformbothtypesofmycorrhiza.
Aretheresomegroupsoftreesthatdon'tformmycorrhizas?
ItisthoughtthattreesinthefamiliesLecythidaceae,ProteaceaeandSapotaceaedonotdoso.
Doesitmatterwhichfungusformsthemycorrhiza?
Itoftenseemstomakequitealotofdifference,becauseparticularspeciesoffungiappeartobe
associatedwithcertaingroupsoftreespecies.Forexample,ectomycorrhizasformedbythefungus
PisolithustinctoriusandtheconiferPinuscaribaeahavebeenstudiedbyseveralworkers(see
LapeyrieandHgberg,1994inC62C).
Inectomycorrhizas,differentgroupsoffungiappeartobeinvolvedasthetreegetsolder.
Istheremuchvariationwithinonekindoffungus?
Yes,therecanbe.Somestrainsofafungusmayformmoreeffectivemycorrhizasthanothers,
justlikesomeclonesoftreesmakebettergrowth(A11inManual1).
Thereissomeevidencethataspecificstrainofafungusmightcombineparticularlywellwitha
particulartreeclone.
CanItellwhichkindsoffungiarepresent?
Matsofthreadscansometimesbeseenamongstwetlitterorinthetopsoil,butthesecouldbelong
tononmycorrhizalfungi,andaretoofragiletotracefar.
Identifyingthefungalspeciesinthesoilorthetreerootsispossible,butitrequiresdetailed
microscopicstudyofroots,threadsandspores,andsometimesthecultureofindividualfungiinthe
laboratory.
Soit'snotmuchusetome!
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Yes,itcouldbe.
Whyisthat?
Althoughidentifyingspeciesmaybedifficult,itisrelativelystraightforwardto:
a. detectthepresenceorabsenceofmycorrhizasand
b. estimatethefrequencyofinfectionofrootswithmycorrhizas.
ButhowcanImakeuseofthat?
A. Byknowingwhetheryouryoungtreesareinfectedand
B. Byinoculatingthemwithmycorrhizalfungi,which:
1. isnotdifficultand
2. mightmakeasubstantialdifferencetotheirperformance.
Ectomycorrhizas
Howisinfectionwithectomycorrhizasdetectedandassessed?
Bycollectingsamplesoffineroots,and:
a. findingoutwhatpercentageshowthecharacteristicgroupsofshort,slightlyswollenendsto
fineroots(C30)and
b. checkingunderthemicroscopeforthepresenceofthenetworkoffungalthreadscoveringthe
rootlets.
Andwhataboutarbuscularmycorrhizas?
Infectionischeckedbycollectingsamplesoffineroots,treatingthemwithaclearingagentthat
makesitpossibletolookthroughthem,andusingacolouredstaintoshowupthefungalcells.The
proportionofrootscontainingfunguscanthenbeestimatedunderamicroscope.
Whatdoesoneusetoinoculatetherootsystemsoftrees?
Therearefourpossiblesourcesofmycorrhizalfungi,whichuseaninoculumfrom:
1. topsoilcontainingfineroots,collectedundertreesoftheparticularspeciesthataregrowingin
naturalforest,savannaorawellestablishedplantation
2. nurseryorcontainersoilthathasrecentlybeenusedtogrowthattreespecies
3. sporesorpiecesofthefruitingbodiesproducingthem,orculturesofkindsoffungithathave
beenshowntomakeeffectiveectomycorrhizaswiththetreespecies.
4. soilculturesofanarbuscularmycorrhizalfungus.Forinstance,strainsofGlomusare
beginningtobecomeavailable.
Whichsourceisthebest?
Source(1)isausefulstartingpointifthrivingstandsofthetreespeciesareavailable
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Source(2)isconvenientifthereisanexistingnurseryproducinggoodplants
Source(3),whereavailable,islikelytoprovethebestwayofobtainingectomycorrhizasthatcan
improvetreeestablishment,reliablyandsubstantially.
Source(4)simplemethodshavebeendevelopedformultiplyingthequantitiesofinoculumfor
arbuscularmycorrhizas.Theseconsistofgrowingcropplantssuchascowpea,millet,sorghumor
maizeforafewmonthsinasterilised(C4445)andinoculatedpottingmixinlargecontainers.
Theseenrichedsoilculturescanthenbeaddedtosoilmixesasrequired.
Note:nationalregulationsandinternationalcertificatesgoverntheimportofsoilandroots
fromonecountrytoanother,becauseofthedangersoftransferringpestsanddiseases.
Inoculatingsoilwithsporesfromthefruitingbodiesofectomycorrhizalfungi.
Isn'tithardtoinoculatetheyoungtrees?
No.Onejustmixesasmallamountoftheinoculumintothetopsoilofseedbeds(C23)orwiththe
soilmixusedtofillseedtraysorpots(C6,C42).Failingthis,itispossibletoputalittleinoculum
intotheholewhenatreeisplantedinthefield(Manual5).
Whichmethodislikelytobebest?
Ideally,onewouldinoculatethegerminationorpottingsoilwithamixtureofknownstrainsof
fungi.Thentheyoungseedlingsorrootedcuttingsshouldformparticularlyeffectivemycorrhizas
earlyinlife,beforetheyareexposedtotheextrastressesofhardening(C47),transport,planting,
competitionandbrowsing.
HowwouldIknowthatinoculationhaddoneanything?
Bydoingasmallexperiment(C7,C15)inwhichyoupottedupcomparableplantsinthesamesoil
mix,withandwithoutafungalinoculationofabout5%byvolume.
Bothsetswouldneedlabelling(C54)andlookingaftercarefully(C40,C48).
Forthelayout,youcouldkeepthetwotreatmentsinsimilarconditionsneartoeachother,though
notsoclosethatsporescouldeasilybetransferredbywatersplashingontothesoil.
Similarly,thecontainerscouldberaisedclearofthegroundtopreventseepageofwaterfrompotto
pot.
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Iftheresultswerepositive,youmightdoamoredetailedexperimenttocompareseveralsources.
Howbigadifferencecanmycorrhizasmake?
Forectomycorrhizas,introductionsofpines,cypressesandotherspeciesintonewareashave
sometimesfailed(C60)withoutafirstinoculationofnurseryorforestsoilfromthecountryoforigin,
followedbytransferofinfectedsoilfromnurserytonursery.Increasedgrowthofinoculatedpines
hasalsobeenfoundinseveraltrialsduringthefirst12yearsafterplanting.
Forarbuscularmycorrhizas,asuitablelocalfungusmaymoreoftenbeavailable,thoughinoculation
canoftenstillbebeneficial.Forexample,inestablishmenttrialswithTerminaliaprunioidesinKenya
morethantwicethenumberofplantsgivenamixedinoculationinthenurserysurvivedthroughthe
firstlongdryseasonthanintheuninoculatedcontrols.
Whatothertreeshavebeenstudied?
Amongthekindsoftreesthathaverespondedtoarbuscularmycorrhizalinoculationare:
1. Cedrela,Gmelina,KhayaandTabebuia
2. manyleguminoustrees,includingAcacia,Albizia,Calliandra,Cassia,Gliricidia,Leucaena,
Pithecellobium,Prosopis,SesbaniaandTamarindus
3. variousfruittrees,includingavocado,papayaandmangoand
4. shrubssuchascassava(Manihotesculenta).
ArbuscularmycorrhizalinoculationisstandardnurserypracticeforlargeCitrusplantationsinsome
countries,butmoreresearchwillbeneededbeforethisstagecanbereachedwithothertropical
treespecies.
Whenisinoculationespeciallyneeded?
Itislikelytobemostimportantwhen:
a. introducingspeciesfromadifferentpartofthesamecountryorregion,orfromanotherpart
oftheworld(especiallyforectomycorrhizas)
b. thesoilisnaturallypoorinnutrients(suchasinfertilesandyareas)
c. plantingisbeingdonetorestoredegradedland(D22,D32inManual4)
d. theplantingsitehasbeenrecentlydisturbed,forexamplebyfrequentcutting,burningor
farmingornearmines,buildingsandroads(especiallyimportantwhenmostorallofthe
originaltreeshavegone,andtherearealotofweeds)and/or
e. sitepreparationistobedonewithheavymachinery(particularlyifthesurfacesoilislikelyto
becompacted,brokenuporburied).
Whyisthisso?
Inallthesecasestherightkindsofmycorrhizalfungimaybeabsentorinshortsupply.Theirgrowth
andspreadareusuallyinterruptedbytheremovalofmanytrees,whichexposesanddisturbsthe
soil.Otherfungi,associatedforinstancewithpersistentweeds,mayhavebecomecommon.
Plantingintroducedcolonisers(D14,D32inManual4)couldhelplocalspeciestoregenerate
naturally(D2inManual4),byrestoringnumbersofarbuscularmycorrhizalfungi.
Whenwouldinoculationbelessimportant?
A. Forfertileplantingsites,wheremycorrhizasmayplayalessprominentrole
B. Whenthenurseryhasalreadybeenproducingthrivingyoungtreesthataremycorrhizal
C. Ifwildings(C2)arecollectedwithsomeofthelocalsoil,especiallydirectlyundertheseed
tree.Ithasbeenfoundthatnaturallyregeneratingseedlingscanevenbesustainedindark,
dryandnutrientpoorconditionsthroughectomycorrhizalbridgeswiththeparenttree.
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Collectingwildingsandsoil.
HowlongcanIkeeptheinoculum?
Itisgenerallybesttocollectfreshmaterialeachtime.However:
1. fruitingbodiesofectomycorrhizalfungicanbestoreddryforayear,ascansporesextracted
fromthemand
2. nurserysoilinfectedwitharbuscularmycorrhizascanbemultipliedrepeatedlytoprovide
inoculum.
WhatshouldIdoifIrunintoproblemswithmycorrhizas?
Youmightcontact(C53):
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A. growersnearbytoseewhethertheyhavesolvedasimilarproblem
B. thenearestforestryoragriculturedepartmentforadviceor
C. alocalnongovernmentalorganisationforhelpinfindingoutwhethertheproblemhasbeen
studied.(SeealsoC62CandD71inManual4.)
Doanynurseryproceduresaffectmycorrhizas?
a. Soilsterilisation:sterilisingthenurserysoilgenerallykillsallthebeneficialmycorrhizalfungi
anddecomposersaswellasanydiseasecausingagents,insectpestsandweedseeds(C
4445).Soifthesoilshouldneedtobesterilised(byheatingorbychemicals),inoculation
withmycorrhizalfungimightwellbeneededafterwards.
b. Controlofplantdiseases:specialcareisneededwithfungicides,orthemycorrhizalpartner
willbedamagedoreliminated.However,theyarenotallequallytoxictofungi.Forinstance,it
hasbeenfoundwithcitrusthatthiazoleshouldbeavoided.
c. Insecticides:avoidexcessivespraying,andtryandpreventthechemicaldrippingdownonto
thesoil.Ifanysystemicinsecticidesaretobeappliedasasoildrench,youmightdoan
informaltrialfirst,andperhapsanexperimenttocomparedifferenttechniquesand
concentrations(C15).
d. Fertilisers:usesparinglyornotatall(C33),oryoumayreducethelikelihoodofsuccessful
mycorrhizasforming,orofthosethatdobeingeffective.
Restoringdegradedlandwithapurestandofasoilimprovingtree,Acaciamangium.
C32
nitrogenfixingrootnodules
Whatarenitrogenfixingnodules?
Theyaremodificationstosomeofthefinerootsofatree,inwhichcloselyassociatedmicro
organismslive.Generallythesearebacteriacalledrhizobia,orsometimesactinomycetescalled
Frankia.Bothofthemhavetheabilitytochangeatmosphericnitrogenintoavailablenutrientform(C
30).
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Aren'trootnodulesfoundmainlyinannualcropplants?
Theyhavebeenwidelystudiedinlegumessuchasgroundnutsandsoybean,andintemperatezone
grazingandcropplants.However,thereare18,000orsoleguminousspecies,mostofwhichare
trees,manyofthemtropicalspecies.
Whichkindsoftreeshavenodules?
1. Leguminoustrees:currentresearchsuggeststhat90%ormoreofthehundredsofgenera
oftropicaltreesintheMimosaceaeandPapilionaceaemaybefoundtohaverootnodulesthat
fixnitrogen.However,lessthanaquarteroftreesintheCaesalpiniaceaemaydoso,though
inChamaecrista,forinstance,effectivenodulationistherule.
2. Nonleguminoustrees:afewgeneraareknown,includingCasuarinaandParasponia.
Arethoseusedinagroforestrynitrogenfixers?
Manyofthem.ForinstanceEgliandKalinganire(1988)(C61D)listthefollowingforRwanda:
Acaciaalbida,A.sieberiana,Albiziachinensis,A.lebbek,Calliandracalothyrsus,Leucaena
leucocephala,PithecellobiumdulceandProsopischilensisintheMimosaceaeCajanuscajan,
Erythrinaabyssinica,Gliricidiasepium,SesbaniasesbanandTephrosiavogeliiinthePapilionaceae
withAlnusacuminataandA.nepalensisnodulatingwithFrankia.
Whichlegumetreesdon'tformnodules?
Amongstthosesofarstudied,thefollowingarethoughtnottodoso:
Caesalpiniaceae:Bauhinia,CaesalpiniaandsomespeciesofSenna(Cassia)
Mimosaceae:Adenanthera,andperhapscertainspeciesofAcaciaandParkia
Papilionaceae:Vatairea,VataireopsisandBrazilianPterocarpus.
Soareleguminoustreesspeciallyimportant?
Yes,theyare.Themanykindsthatformeffectivenodulesplayuniquerolesthrough:
A. addingtothetotalamountofnitrogenavailablewithinmosttropicalecosystems(C30and
D10,D13inManual4)
B. actingassoilimproversinfarmlandandforreclaimingdegradedsoil(D2122inManual4)
and
C. improvingthegeneralsoilfertilityinnurseries(C23)whenusedashedges(C46),shade
trees(C41)orwindbreaks(C25andD41inManual4).
Doestheplantingstockitselfneedrootnodules?
Havingnodulesontheyoungleguminoustreesislikelytomakeaconsiderabledifferenceif:
1. theyareeffectiveinfixingnitrogen
2. thepottingmixes(C6)andnurserybeds(C23)arenotveryrichorheavilyfertilised(C33)
and
3. thetreesarebeingwelllookedafter(C40).
Researchsuggeststhatboththenitrogencontentandthegrowthratesofnurserytreescanbe
increasedbyrootnodules.
Howaboutwhentheyoungtreesareplantedout?
Alreadyhavingeffectivenodulesshouldaddtothelikelihoodofplantingstocksurvivingand
establishingwell.Suchtreesmightgrowwelleveninpoorsites,andcouldsooncontributetothe
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growthandyieldsofothertreesandcrops.
Isiteasytotellwhetheratreehasnodules?
Oftentheycanbeseenwithoutdifficultywhennurseryplantsarepottedup,orbycheckingthe
outsideoftherootball.However,especiallyinthefield,youcouldmissnoduleseventhoughthe
treedoesformthem,becausesometimesthey:
a. maybreakoffveryeasily(asinAcacia)
b. canbeformeddeepinthesoil,especiallyinaridareas
c. mightbefoundonlyatcertaintimesofyear.
Doyoungtreesneedtobeinoculated?
Likeotherbacteria,rhizobiaaresosmallthattheyarespreadbythesmallestcurrentofair.Someof
themarethereforelikelytobepresentinmostsoil,unlessithasjustbeensterilised(C4445).
However,inoculationcanoftenbeuseful,because:
A. numberspresentinthesoilvaryalot.Sincethemicroorganismsgenerallydonotsurvivein
thesoilforlongperiods,fewmaybepresentindegradedsites,forinstance
B. differentstrainsofrhizobiaandFrankiaapparentlyvaryconsiderablyintheirabilitytoform
effectivenodulesand
C. aswithmycorrhizas(C31),theremaynotbeinoculuminthelocalsoilthatwillproveeffective
withintroducedtreesandshrubs.
Forinstance,inoculatingwithrhizobiahasbeenrecommendedforAlbizialebbek,Pithecellobium
dulceandProsopischilensis.
AddingcertainstrainsofFrankiatopottingmixesinthenurserytrebledthewoodproductionof
Casuarinatreesinthefield(SeeReddelletal.,1989inC62D).
Whatisthebestsourceofinoculum?
Youcouldtry:
a. addingsoil(andanyrootnodulesyoucanfind)fromathrivingplotofleguminoustreestoyour
seedbedsandpottingsoil
b. ifpossible,usingstrainsofmicroorganismsalreadydevelopedfortropicalcrops.Theseare
likelytobemoreeffectivethanthoseforthetemperatezoneor
c. ifavailable,usingstrainsthatarerecommendedfortheparticulartreespecies(already
developedforLeucaenaandcertainspeciesofAcacia).
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Rootnodules.
Howdoesonedotheinoculation?
Eitherby:
A. thoroughlymixingaround5%ofsoilandchoppedrootswithnodulesintheseedorpotting
mixor
B. dustingseedswithaverysmallamountofpowderedinoculum.
Whataboutdoinganexperiment?
Apotplantexperiment(C15)couldbeveryuseful,comparingtreatmentssuchas:
1. controljusttheordinarypottingmixture
2. thesamepottingmixture+aninoculumofrootnodulesfromgroundnutsmixedintoit
3. thesamepottingmixture+aninoculumofsoilfromunderthrivingplotofthedesiredtree
species
4. thesamepottingmixture+aninoculumofsoilfromunderadifferent,localleguminoustree
species.
Youmightuse1520potsforeachtreatment,givingatotalof6080pots.Keeptheseundersimilar
growingconditions,butslightlyapartfromeachotherandraisedoffthegroundtoreducetheriskof
spreadingbacteriafromonetreatmenttoanother.Avoidfertilisersoraveryrichpottingmix.
Dotreesvarymuchwithinaspeciesinnoduleformation?
Yes,thisseemstobelikely.Considerablevariationhasbeenrecordedbetweendifferent
provenances(C5andManual2)andalsowithinaprovenance.So,ifclonalcuttingsareavailable
(A11inManual1),thesemightbethebestexperimentalplants.
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Cantreeshaverootnodulesandmycorrhizas?
Yes,someofthemdo(C30)forexampleAcacianiloticaandLeucaenaleucocephala.Thereis
evidencethat,withoutthemycorrhizas:
a. therootnodulesmaynotdevelopwelland
b. nitrogenfixationmayberestricted.
Itislikelythatthephosphoruscollectedbythemycorrhizasallowsnormalproductionandfunctioning
ofthenodules.
A(above)baresoilindegradedfarmland.
B(below)soilrestored18monthsafterdirectsowingofLeucaena.
C33
wastes,compostsandfertilisers
Whydowasteshaveanythingtodowithtreenurseries?
Somewastescanbeusefulinvariousways,forexamplebyproviding:
1. containersofvariouskinds
2. suitablecomponentsforsoilmixes(C6)androotingmedia(A35inManual1)thatarefreeor
cheap
3. valuableinputsofnutrientsand/ororganicmattertoimprovethefertilityandstructureofthe
nurserysoil(C23)
4. mulchforseedandtransplantbedstoreducesoiltemperaturesanddryingout
5. shadeandshelterforyoungtrees(C41).
Wastewaterandrainfallcanalsobecollectedorencouragedtoremaininthenurserysoil(C24)
ratherthanquicklydisappearingbyevaporationorrunoff.
Whatsortofoldcontainerscouldbeuseful?
Forinstance:
a. cleanedoildrumsforstoringwater(C24)
b. plasticcontainers,cutandgivenholessothattheycanbeusedasplantpots(C6)and
c. usedfertiliserorotherlargepolythenebags,forpurposeslikestoringsoilmixesorcarrying
plants.
Whichwastematerialscangointosoilmixesandrootingmedia?
A. Townwastesthathaverottedintoblacksoilcanprovideorganicmatterandnutrients
B. Sawdustthathasweatheredforaboutayearandricehullsaddorganicmatterandimprove
thesoilstructure,thoughtheycontainfewernutrients
C. Fibrefromcoconutsandfromtheinsideofrottingpalmstemsareuseful,richercomponents
and
D. Composts,preparedinthenurseryoutofmostkindsofplantandanimalwaste,canbethe
mostvaluableofalladditions.
Whatcanbeusedtoimprovethenurserysoil?
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Aswellasthewastesjustmentioned,youmightimprovethesoilintransplantbedsby:
1. digginginleafletsfrombranchesofleguminoustrees(C32)whenfinishingthebeds
2. growingagreenmanureoranitrogenfixingcropinthebedbeforeputtingintrees(C26)or
3. puttingonamulchwhenaparticularbedisnotinuse.
Freshsawdustmightbeusedtobuildupawet,lowlyingpartofthenursery(C23).
Mulchingabedwhenplantsareremoved.
Howshouldamulchbemade?
Variouskindsofsoilcoveringcanbeused(seeGoorandBarney,1968inC61AandManual5),
includingcutgrass,otherkindsofleaves,sawdust,barkchippingsorpiecesofblackpolythene
sheet.
Whichwastesareusefulforshadeandshelter?
Cutpolesandpalmfronds,bananaleavesortallgrassescouldbeusefultoputuploworhigh
shadeoveryoungtrees(C41).
Piecesofstrongclearorwhitepolythenesheetingfromthecoversoffurnitureandbeddingareoften
suitableforbuildingpolypropagators(A31inManual1),orprotectingdelicateseedlingsfromrain
andwind(C41).
Mightsomewastesbeharmful?
Yes,theycouldbe.Herearesomeexamplestoavoid:
a. materialsthatcouldpollutethenurserysoil(C23)orthewatersupply(C24)
b. brokenglass,thornsorspines,whichcancausecutsandinfectionsiftheygetintothepotting
mixorthenurserytopsoil
c. weedsthathaveripeningfruitsorpersistentundergroundorgans(C44)
d. plantsandsoilthatarecontaminatedwithsporescarryingdiseases,orwiththeeggsor
restingstagesofinsectpests(C45)or
e. waterthatcontainsalotofnutrientsandisfullofbacteriaoralgae.
Isthereanythingthatcanbedoneaboutthesethings?
1. Somesharpitemscanbesievedout(C51)fromcomponentssuchasblacksoil,and
disposedofcarefully
2. Soilandplantmaterialcontaminatedwithpollutants,weeds,pestsordiseasescouldbe
sterilised(C4445),burntortakenfarawayfromthenurseryand
3. Watercanbecleanedbyrunningitthroughgravelorsand.
Whatarecomposts?
Theyaremadebymixingtogetherplantandperhapsanimalwastestorot,inapile,alarge
containerorapit(say1.5mdeep).
Theheatgivenoffbythemicroorganismswhichbreakdowntheseorganicwastescanmakethe
composthotenoughtokillsomeweedseeds,sporesandinsecteggs.
Howdoesonemakeagoodcompost?
Itisimportantto:
A. mixseveraldifferentkindsofmaterialtogether
B. keepthecompostheapmoistbywateringitindryweatherand
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C. turnitoverfromtimetotime,especiallyifitbecomesverywet.
MoredetailscanbefoundinGTZ(1976)andNapierandRobbins(1989)insheetC61A).
Whenisacompostparticularlyvaluable?
Beingrichinnutrientsandorganicmatter,wellmadecompostisanespeciallyusefuladditionwhen:
a. thenurseryorpottingsoilishard,verysandyorfullofclay(C23)
b. itisnaturallyinfertile,orhasbeendegraded(D22inManual4)
c. thereareenoughpeopleatthenurserytocollectthematerialstomakeitand
d. alternativematerialsareunavailable,toodistantortooexpensive.
Foranynursery,compostisasimplewayofreplacingsomeofthecontinualoutflowofnutrientsin
plantingstock.
Doesamulchdothataswell?
Yes,itisoneofthereasonsforusingit.Besidesaddingorganicmatterandnutrients,mulching
couldalsohelpinthenurseryby:
1. suppressingweedgrowthin:
a. seedbedsbeforeandaftersowing,andtransplantbedsbeforeandafteruse
b. containersinwhichyoungtreeswillstayforsometime
c. plantedstockplantlinesthatarebeingrepeatedlyharvestedforcuttings(A27inManual
1)
2. protectingseedbedscontainingfairlylargeseedsagainst:
a. overheatingandrapiddryingoutofthesurfacesoil
b. thedirectimpactofheavyraindropsongerminatingseedlings
c. washingand/orblowingawayoffinesoilparticlesand
3. reducingthedepositionofsiltonnurserypathsandroads.
Mulchisalsoveryusefulwhenyoungtreeshavejustbeenplantedout(Manual5).
Compostheap.
Wouldn'tmulchingencourageyoungseedlingstorot?
Itmightdoif:
a. itwasappliedduringverywetweather
b. large,thickleaveswereusedand
c. themulchcontainedalotofsporesofthedampingofffungus(C45).
Butitwouldbeunlikelytowhen:
1. usedindrierweather
2. lighter,choppedmaterialwasusedand
3. themulchwasliftedtoaerateitafterheavyshowers.
Wouldn'titbesimplerjusttoaddfertilisers?
Yes,thiscanbeaneasywayofaddingnutrientsbutmostfertilisers:
A. donotprovidetheotherbenefitsofcompostsandmulchingand
B. dependonexternalinputs,ratherthansustainablemanagementbyrecyclingexisting
nutrients.
Butsurelyfertilisersmightbeneededtogetgoodgrowth!
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Yes,sometimestheycertainlycouldbe.However,itisimportanttorealisethatfertiliserscanhave
severaldisadvantages,suchas:
a. costingalottobuy,andbeingheavytotransporttothenursery
b. causingdamagetotherootsoftheyoungtreesiftoomuchisapplied
c. oftenbeingquicklywashedawayduringwateringandbyheavyrainfalland
d. endingupcontaminatingwatersupplies(C24).
Whatwouldbegoodreasonstoaddfertilisers?
Theycouldbeaddedto:
1. growingnurseryplants,ifthereareproblemsbecauseofnutrientshortageoraneedto
changethepH(C6,C23,C60)
2. pottingmixtures(C6),especiallywhenitisknownthatthe:
a. componentsalllackaparticularnutrient(C14),ormorethanoneofthem,sothattree
growthwouldbeseriouslyhampered
b. youngtreesneedtogrowinthesamepotsforaconsiderabletimeor
c. ratesofgrowthneedtobeincreased,sothattreeswillbelargeenoughatplantingtime
(C34)
3. stockplantsthatarebeingrepeatedlycutback(A27inManual1)and
4. researchtrees,tomaintaingood,uniformgrowth(C7)orastreatmentsinexperiments(C
15).
acompost
bold
sawdust
cloamy
topsoil
dcoarse
sand
Whichwayscantheybeapplied?
A. Asordinaryfertilisersinthepottingmixorscatteredlightlyoverabed
B. Asslowreleasepelletsinthesoil,whichlastlonger
C. Dissolvedinwater,whichisoftenuseful,because:
1. itcanbedoneduringtheregularwatering(C43),forexampleevery14weeks
2. nutrientscanbeappliedattimeswhenrapidgrowthisdesiredand
3. feedingwithnutrientscanbestoppedorchangedwhenthetreesaretobehardened
(C47)or
D. Asafoliarfeedofverydilutemicronutrients(C14),sprayedonthefoliage.
Whichevermethodisused,thefertilisersshouldbebalanced(C14)andnottoorichinnitrogen(C
34).
HowmuchfertilisershouldIadd?
Thisdependsagreatdealonwhatisalreadybeingsuppliedtotheyoungtreesinthenurserysoilor
pottingmix,inthewatersupplyandbycloselyassociatedmicroorganisms(C3032).Littleand
oftenisusuallyagoodmottoforapplyingfertilisers.Thedosesfortreenurseriesaregenerallyless
thanthoserecommendedtoincreasetheyieldsofagriculturalcrops.Aroughguidetostartwith
mightbe:
a. Pottingmixes:15gofsolidfertiliserperlitreofsoil,or1.5g/lforslowreleasefertiliser
b. Nurserybeds:2550gofsolidfertiliserperm2,workedintothetop20cm
c. Dissolvedinwater:3050milligramsoffertiliserin1025mlwaterpercontainer(or35g/lin
awateringcan),washedofftheleavesimmediatelyafterwards.
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HowdoIfindoutwhatsuitsmyconditions?
FurtherinformationonfertiliserscanbefoundinCarter(1987),GoorandBarney(1968),GTZ
(1976)andPancel(1993)inC61A,andfromlocalmanuals.Ifyouthinkthatfertilisersmightbe
beneficialinyournurseryyoucoulddoanexperiment(C15),inwhichforinstanceyoumight
compareadding0,10,25and62.5gNPKperm2.
Sampleresults:averagegaininheightofexperimentaltreesafter6weeks.
Treatmentnumber
NPKaddedtobed(g/m2)
0.(control)
10
Gaininheight(weeks06) 3.4
Significanceofdifferences
***
15.6
25
62.5
16.7 13.9
n.s.
(SeesheetsC55andC69forassessingandanalysingyourresults)
WhenshouldInotusefertilisers?
Avoidaddingthem:
1. whenthepottingornurserysoilisrichenoughanyway,forthiswouldbeunnecessary
2. ifaddingmycorrhizalorrootnoduleinoculations(C3032),becausethisislikelyto
discourageinfection
3. totherootingmediumwhenrootingcuttings(A35inManual1),sinceforsometimethereare
norootstoabsorbthem
4. tothegerminationmedium(Manual2),asseedsusuallycontainenoughstorednutrientsto
lastuntiltheyaretransplanted
5. totheleaveswhentheyarewet,fortheycouldbedamagedunlessitiswashedoffatonce
6. ifyoungtreesareunderwaterstress,orareactuallywilting,sincefertiliserscouldincrease
thestressstillfurther(C41)
7. justaftertransplantingorrepotting,astherootsshouldgrowintothenewsoilfirstor
8. justbeforeplantingout,becausethiswouldstimulaterapidshootgrowthataninappropriate
time(C34,C47).
Aretheresomecheapersubstitutesforcommercialfertilisers?
Yes,thereareseverallocallyavailablesources,suchas:
fornitrogen:theleaves,roots,twigsandsmallbranchesofnitrogenfixingcropplants,bushes
andsoilimprovingtrees(C32)
forphosphorus:bonemeal,madebygrindingupanimalbonesand
forpotassium:ashfromrecentwoodorcharcoalfires.
HowwouldIusethem?
Fortransplantbeds,youcouldapply:
nitrogenasacompostduginormulchlaidonthesoilbygrowingagreenmanureanddigging
itinorbylettingleavesofsuitableshadetreesorhedgesfallonit
phosphorusworkedintothetopsoileveryyearortwoand
potassiumasatopdressing.
Forpottingmixtures,anappropriateNPKsupplementcouldbeaddedwhereneeded.
C34
sizeofplantingstock
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HowbigshouldIgrowmynurserytrees?
Thisdependsagreatdealon:
A. thetreespecies,andsometimestheparticulargeneticoriginused(C45)
B. theconditionsyougrowthemunderinthenurseryand
C. whatwillbetheclimate,terrainandsoiltypeoftheplantingsite(D1112inManual4),and
whatotherplantswillbegrowingthere(D14).
DoIwantthemaximumpossiblegrowth?
Generallyno,becauseveryvigorousgrowthinthenurseryusuallymeans:
a. largerleavesthatlosealotofwaterandareeasilytorn(C1213)
b. tallerstemsthatmaybeinconvenienttohandleandmoreliabletodamageand
c. largecontainerstoaccomodateverybigrootsystems,whichwillbeheavytocarryand
perhapsdifficulttoplant(C6,C47)though
Occasionallyyes,forexamplewhen:
1. tryingtogetyoungtreesquicklytothedesirablesizeforplanting
2. speedinguptheearlystagesinmultiplyinganewclone(A20inManual1)and
3. incertaintypesofexperiment(C15),whenstudyingthepotentialforrapidgrowth.
Forenrichmentplantingofwoodland(D24inManual4)withtreessuchasPterocarpus,success
hasbeenachievedinIndiabygrowingnurserytreesrapidlyinveryrichsoilinlargecontainers,and
plantingthemwhen34mtall.
Arethereanygeneralguidelines?
1. Inmostcases,biggerdoesn'tnecessarilymeanbetterplantingstock.
2. Rootsystemsneedtobemoreextensivethanshootsystems(C4).
3. Thegreaterthelikelyclimaticstress(C41)afterplanting,thebetterthequalityoftheyoung
treesneedstobe.
Whyshouldtherebemorerootsthanshoots?
Becausewhentreesgototheplantingsite:
a. theirstemsandleaveshaveawaxyprotectionagainstdryingoutontheirsurfaces,andthe
smallholesinthemcanbeclosed(C12).Thustheirstructureallowsthemtotoleratea
certainamountofwaterstress(C41)
b. thesurfacesofyoungrootslackprotection,andwhendisturbedtheyarelessableto
withstanddryingout(C11)and
c. unlesstherootscandeliverenoughwatertopreventseverewaterstressintheshoot(C13),
thenewlyplantedtreewillsufferaseverechecktogrowth,shrivellingofleaves,diebackof
shoottipsordeath.
HowcanIcontroltreesizeinthenursery?
Primarilybychoosinganappropriatesowingdateforseeds(Manual2)andthedateoftaking
cuttingsforrooting(Manual1),sothattheyoungtreesshouldhavegrowntothedesiredsizebythe
expectedtimeofplanting
Secondarilyby:
A. choosingthesizeofthecontainersused(C6,C15)
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B. usingaricheroralessrichpottingmix,andnurserysoilforbedsand
C. discouragingrootsfromgrowingoutofcontainers,androotpruningyoungtreesgrowingin
beds(C4).
Can'tIalterthesizejustbeforeplanting?
Well,thiscouldbedone,forinstanceby:
1. cuttingoffsomeorallofthefoliage
2. pruningbacktheshootsystemand/or
3. breakingorchoppingoffsomeoftherootsystem.
Isn'tthatabitdrastic?
Yesitis,particularlyreducingtherootsystemjustthen,foritisthekeytosuccessfulestablishment
(C4,C11).Aiminsteadtocontrolthewayrootsgrowinthenurseryratherthanhavingtodoa
hackingjobatplantingtime.
Nevertheless,somecommonlyusedtypesofplantingstockdoinvolveconsiderablepruningatthe
lastminute(C47).
Whatconstitutesagoodnurseryrootsystem?
Onethatisofasuitablesizeandtype(C4)tosustaintheyoungtree:
A. whileinthecontainer:
1. beinggrownoninthenursery
2. transportedtotheplantingsite
3. waitingtobeplantedand
B. afterplanting:
1. withouttheattentionpreviouslygiveninthenursery
2. whilemakingnewrootgrowthrapidly,tobecomeestablishedand
3. soonbeingabletosupportnewshootgrowth.
Isitmainlyaquestionofsize?
Well,thenumberandlengthoftherootsaretwooftheimportantpoints.Iftherootsystemis:
toosmall,itisunlikelytobeabletoprovideenoughwater(C13)ornutrients(C14)fortheyoung
treetosurvive,letalonegrowwellbutifitis
toolarge,thetreemaybedifficulttoplantproperly(Manual5).
Ingeneral,therootsystemshouldbeasbigascaneasilybeplantedwell.
Whatelseisimportantabouttheroots?
Thetypeofrootspresentisasimportantasthesizeoftherootsystem.
Inthegreatmajorityofspecies,goodplantingstockneeds:
a. alotofshortroots,insteadofafewlongones
b. abushyrootsystem,ratherthanasingletaproot(C4)
c. manyfine,absorbingrootletsaswellassomethickeronesthatcangrowintostructuralroots
(C11)
d. acompactrootballholdingagooddealofsoil,orasoilblock,ratherthanbareroots
e. fairlystraightroots,insteadofonesthatgoroundandroundtheinsideofacontainer(C6).
Inoculationwithcloselyassociatedmicroorganisms(C3032)mayalsomakeaconsiderable
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differencetohowwellarootsystemgetsestablished.
ButhowcanIknowwhatisgoingon?
A. Bycheckingregularlytoseeiftreesarerootingthroughfromcontainersintothesoil
B. Bygentlytappingoutafewplants,iftheyaregrowingintaperedcontainers(C6),examining
therootsontheoutsideoftherootball,andthenputtingthetreebackintoitspot
C. Bywashingouttherootsystemsofafewsampleplantsfromtimetotime,iftherearesome
sparetrees,andthebatchisnotspeciallyvaluableandifnot
D. Bylookingatsomerootsystemswhenthetreesarebeingpottedortransplanted(C42).
DoIneedtoprunetherootsbackatthisstage?
Sometimesno,forexampleif:
a. pottingupseedlingsfromshallowtraysorsmallpotsintolargercontainers
b. transferringrootedcuttingsfromtherootingmediumtopots(A35,A53inManual1)
c. growingtreespeciesthatnaturallyformabushyrootsystem
d. handlingspeciesthatrespondbadlytorootdamageor
e. thereisaseriousriskofrootrottingdiseases(C45)but
Sometimesyes,forinstancewhen:
1. pottingupseedlingswithlongrootsoutofaseedbed
2. handlingolderwildings(C2andManual2)
3. growingspeciesthattendtomakeastrongtaprootandfewbranchrootsor
4. longrootsaregrowingoutofcontainersintothesoilbeneath.Hereyoucould:
a. twistthepotsround,ormovethem,every13weeks
b. setthecontainersonflatstones,pavingslabsorconcreteor
c. raisethemclearofthegroundonwiremeshorboards.
WhatelsecouldIdoiftherootsaren'tasIwantthem?
Youmighttrydifferent:
1. datesofpottingup(C42)
2. typesorsizesofcontainer,forexampleroottrainers(C6,C61B)
3. pottingmixes
4. amountsofshade,andratesofreducingit(C41,C47).
Won'tallthatmeanalotofwork?
Notnecessarily.Aswellasfollowingthesuggestionsinmanuals(C61A),youcould:
a. checkwithothertreegrowersastohowtheyobtaingoodrootsystems
b. comparethesetechniqueswithyourexistingmethodsinaninformaltrialor
c. doaformalexperimentlookingatvariouspossiblemodifications(C7,C15).
Itisworthagooddealofefforttofindwaysofgrowingreallygoodplantingstock.
Howbigshouldtheshootsystembe?
1. Nobiggerthantherootscansupportduringthefirstfewweeksafterplanting
2. Nottootalltobetransportedconvenientlyand
3. Nottoothinandspindly,ortheplantsmayfalloverandbeblownaboutinthewind.
Asturdy,shortishshootsystemmayoftenbethebest,evenwhenthereareweedproblemsinthe
plantingsite(Manual5).
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Whatabouttheleaves?
Aimforapottingmixandgrowingconditionsthatgiveplentyofmoderatesized,darkgreen
leaves.Alotofnutrientsinthepottingsoil(C6,C33)generallymeanvigorousstemgrowthand
largeleaves(C12),whichmay:
a. losealotofwater,puttingtheyoungtreeunderextrastress(C13,C41)
b. bemoreliabletogetdamaged.
Sobigleavesarebestavoided,exceptwhen:
1. thenumberand/orsizeofleavesistobesharplyreducedbeforeplanting(C47),orthetrees
aregoingtobeplantedwhennaturallyleafless
2. growingstockplants,wheretheleaveswillbetrimmedbeforetakingthecuttings(A41in
Manual1)or
3. experiencehasshownthattheycanbevaluableonaparticularspecies.
Andwhataboutthebudsandbranches?
Insometreespecies,itisimportanttohaveagoodbudatthetipoftheleadingshoot,because
lateralbudsandbranches:
a. donotreadilyreplaceleaders(asforexamplepalmsandpines)or
b. growatanangle,ratherthanformingagoodreplacementleaderbut
Inmanyothercases,specifictypesofbudareunimportantbecause:
1. newverticalleadersareproducedfreelyfrombranchesorthelowerpartofthestemafter
damageorcuttingbackor
2. abushyshoothabitisdesired.
Inspecieswhichgrowbyflushes,itispreferableforthebudstobeinactiveorgrowingslowlywhen
thetreesareplantedout.
Doesthemainstemneedtobestraight?
Yes,thisisgenerallybestfor:
a. treesbeinggrownfortimberorrawmaterials(D3637inManual4)
b. tallshadeorornamentalavenuetrees(D41)but
Itmaynotmatterfor:
1. fruittrees(D33)andornamentalshrubs(D41)
2. treesforforageorfirewood(D3435)
3. plantsforhedges(C46)orshelterbelts(D41).
HowcanIkeeptheleaderstraight?
Inseveralways,including:
a. selectinggeneticoriginsthatarenaturallystraighter(C5)
b. choosinganurserysitethatisshelteredfromthewind(C20,C25),andifnecessarytrying
eachplanttoasmallcane
c. avoidingoverrichpottingsoils(C6)
d. cuttingoutoneleaderifthetreeforksand
e. trimmingbackallbutonereplacementbranchafterdamage.
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Whatotherthingsinfluencethebalancebetweenrootsandshoots?
Theinternalcontrolsystemsofthetree(C14)areaffectedby:
A. Overheadshade:youngtreeskeptinveryheavyshadetendtohaveelongatedstemsanda
poorrootsystem.
NOTE:thisdoesnotapplytotemporaryheavyshadingforaweekortwoafterpotting
up(C41)
B. Selfshading:naturallybushyandfastgrowingspeciescaneasilybecomespindlyifthey
shadeeachotherandtheirownlowerleaves.Spacingoutthepotsistheanswer,inaway
thatstopsthemfallingover
C. Potsize:treesgrowninverysmallcontainerscaneasilyhavemoretopthanroot
D. Nutrients:plantsgrownwithalotofnutrientsoftenhaveasmallerrootsystemrelativetothe
shootsystemthanthoseinlessrichsoilsand
E. Closelyassociatedmicroorganismsthatformmycorrhizasornodules(C3032)mayin
somecasesmeanthatthetree'sshootsystemisrelativelylargerthanitsactualroottissue.
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