Ramem - 2014

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014
Proceedings of
National Conference on
Recent Advances on Mathematics,

Engineering and Management
RAMEM-2014
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the institute.
2014 Bengal Institute of Technology & Management, Santiniketan
ISBN 978-93-83303-58-8
Published and printed by Mudranik Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
1|Page
National Conference on
Recent Advances on Mathematics,

Engineering and Management
RAMEM-2014
Editor
Dr. Arup Kumar Baksi
organized by
Bengal Institute of Technology & Management,

Santiniketan
(sponsored by AICTE-IIPC)
2|Page
Editorial Board
1. Professor Sukhendu Dey,
Dept. of Computer Science & Mathematics, India School of Mines University, Dhanbad.
2. Professor Bivraj Bhusan Parida,

Dept. of Tourism Management, The University of Burdwan, West Bengal.
3. Professor Tapas Ray Mahapatra,

Dept. of Mathematics, Visva Bharati University.
4. Professor Ashok Kumar Mukhopadhyay,

Principal, DIMS and in-charge BCET (Management Division), Durgapur, West Bengal
5. Professor Dulal Pal,

Dept. of Mathematics, Visva Bharati University.
6. Professor Arup Kumar Bhaumik,

Director. Bengal Institute of Technology & Management, Santiniketan, West Bengal
7. Professor T.K. Chatterjee,

Dept. of Electrical Engineering, India School of Mines University, Dhanbad.
6. Professor Kisalaya Chakroborty,

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Bengal Institute of Technology &
Management, Santiniketan, West Bengal
3|Page
Preface
The National Conference on Recent Advances on Mathematics, Engineering and
Management [RAMEM -2014] focuses not only on isolated domain specific research
sharing but also will delve into the convergence of this trilogy and its possible triangulation.
The conference will be an endeavour to track the current research trends in Mathematics,
Engineering and Management and will reveal avenues for aspiring researchers to expand the
existing body of knowledge. The conference papers are expected to throw light on the
applications of the triangulation and its possible impact in academia and industry.
The conference has been organized by Bengal Institute of Technology and Management,
Santiniketan under the banner of the Industry Institute Partnership Cell (sponsored by All
India Council for Technical Education, New Delhi) and patronization of Camellia Group,
Kolkata. I, on behalf of the Organizing Committee of RAMEM-2014, welcome all the invited
guests, dignitaries, keynote speaker, session chairs, paper presenters and students to make this
conference a grand success.

Conference Convener
RAMEM-2014
&
Chief Coordinator-IIPC (AICTE sponsored)
4|Page
Dr. Hiranmoy Mondal

Conference Convener
RAMEM-2014
Contents
Preface---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1. Sufficiency and duality for interval-valued optimization problems with generalized invex functions
Jonaki Banerjee-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
2. Recurrence relations for radial matrix elements
Pritam Prasad Ray and Arun Kumar Bag-------------------------------------------------------- 17
3. Mathematical study of Love wave propagation in an irregular boundary surface homogeneous
medium over an inhomogeneous half-space
Santimoy Kundu, Santanu Manna and Shishir Gupta--------------------------------------22
4. Scheduled Tribe and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers: In Search of their Identity and rights.
Sukumar Pal and Ramprasad Das-------------------------------------------------------------31
5. Overall Satisfaction of the LICI customers vis--vis their convenient transaction with the insurer
Partha Sarathi Choudhury------------------------------------------------------------------------ 38
6. Transmission Coefficient of Double Quantum Well Triple Barrier Structure with Parabolic
Geometry in presence of Electric Field
Arpan Deyasi---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
7. Intervening effect of CRM dimensions on service quality perception-tourist satisfaction-destination
loyalty link: Hypotheses and model development
Arup Kumar Baksi and Bivraj Bhusan Parida------------------------------------------------- 55
8. Calculating Transmittance of Photonic Crystal under Different Polarization Conditions with Optical
Gain Factor
Rajashree Khan and Arpan Deyasi-------------------------------------------------------------- 68
9. Modeling of Semiconductor Laser Diode for Stabilization of Power Output by Optical Feedback
Scheme.
Santwanu Chattopadhyay-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 75
10. Securities in WSN: Issues and Challenges
Tanushree Karmakar, Biswajit Mondal, Jiban Dalal and Chandan Koner---------------
86
11. Designing of Intelligent Control System for Grinding Mill by Analyzing Time Domain Features
Sonali Sen, Jaya Sil and Arup Kumar Bhaumik-------------------------------------------------- 93
12. Band Structure and Density of States of Armchair Carbon Nanotube
Medha Guha, Labanya Saha, Amrita Ghosh and Arpan Deyasi----------------------------
100
13. Effects of Radiative heat and mass transfer on MHD mixed Convective Flow Over a Stretching
Sheet with Non-Uniform Heat Source/Sink
Hiranmoy Mondal and Sewli Chatterjee----------------------------------------------------105
14. Influence of moving fins with temperature dependent surface heat flux and multi boiling heat
transfer
Pranab Kanti Roy and Hiranmoy Mondal----------------------------------------------------114
5|Page
15. Comparison of Flooding and Gossiping Routing Protocols Using TOSSIM in Wireless Sensor
Networks
Raju Dutta, Debraj Paul, Shishir Gupta and Mukul K. Das-----------------------------125
16. Study the performance of Optical Communication & Characteristics comparison in SiC based one
dimensional three layered unit cell Photonic Crystal using SCILAB & MATLAB
Avik Chakraborty and Krishanu Mitra-------------------------------------------------------137
17. E-Learning: Changing role of librarianship on the Digital Environment
Amiya Kumar Das--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
146
18. Similarity flow to viscous flow and heat transfer of nanofluid over nonlinearly stretching sheet
Poulomi De, Hiranmoy Mondal and Uttam Kumar Bera----------------------------------158
19. Effects of nanofluids on MHD mixed convective heat and mass transfer over a non-linear
stretching surface with suction/injection
Shweta Mishra, Sukriti Roy, Hiranmoy Mondal and Uttam Bera------------------------167
20. An Assessment of Profitability Strength of Eastern Coalfields Limited (ECL) and Central
Coalfields Limited (CCL) during 2003-04 to 2012-13: A Comparative Study for Quality Decision
Making
Ganesh Chandra Chattopadhyay---------------------------------------------------------------- 181
21. Corporate Social Responsibility in developing countries like India
Habibar R. Biswas and Pradip Laha-----------------------------------------------------------
196
22. Characteristics of Atmospheric Boundary Layer in Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons over
Kolkata
Sharadia Dey and Srimanta Gupta-------------------------------------------------------------- 215
23. Study on the system testing procedure for evacuated tube solar water heating system
Tarak Nath Chell-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
226
24. A Novel linear controller for grid connected Doubly fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
Chandan Dutta, Himadri Ghosh and Purushottam Mishra------------------------------------- 236
25. Study of Recent Development & Research Challenges in Cognitive Radio with the growth of
Wireless Communications
Moumita Majumdar, Krishanu Mitra and Avik Chakraborty-------------------------------- 252
26. Structural Relationship between Destination Image, Tourist Satisfaction and Destination Loyalty:
Model development
Arup Kumar Baksi and Nibir Khawash--------------------------------------------------------- 260
27. Least Square Curve fitting of heat and mass transfer rate with Rayleigh number in a cavity lled
with porous media with non-uniform boundary condition
Sabyasachi Mondal----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 267
28. Customer Relationship Management and Service Quality in Tourism: Application of Structural
Equation Modeling
Arup Kumar Baksi and Tapas Kumar Das------------------------------------------------------ 278
6|Page
29. Corporate Sustainability through CSR-- the only Path Way

Ashok Kumar Mukhopadhyay---------------------------------------------------------------
288
30. A brief Notes: 3D IC Technology& Thermal-Awareness in 3D IC Design

Sourav Dinda, Madhusudan Maity and Soumen Bhowmick------------------------------------ 296
31. Design and Implementation of Quantum Cellular Automata Based Novel XOR gate with
minimum Complexity and Cell Count
Santanu Santra, Uddalok Chatterjee, Gurucharan Banerjee and Pinaki P. Acharjya--- 305
32. Forbidden Pattern Free Crosstalk Avoidance CODEC for On-chip Busses
Souvik Singha, Debprasad Sinha and Tanoy Mondal---------------------------------------------315
33. Performance Evaluation of Error Back Propagation Algorithm for Non-Linear Classification and
Function Approximation using VHDL Platform
R. Ghosh, J. Mondal, K. Ahmed and A. Sarkar-------------------------------------------------318
34. New Approach for Analyzing BGP Vulnerabilities and Implementation of Security in BGP
Asad Abdin, Deepak Kumar Pradhan, Arindam Mullick, Riaz Kajal and Kishore Ghosh---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------328
35. Building a 4-bit ALU using Fredkin Gates
Md. Ansarul Haque, Arindam Mullick, Deepak Kumar Pradhan
and Kishore Ghosh---------------------------------------------------------------------
334
36. Finding appropriate Training/Teaching Methods by analyzing the Gray Matter through Case
Studies
Arti Kumari, Deepak Kumar Pradhan, Arindam Mullick, Abhimanyu Kumar, Soumen
Bhowmik and Kishore Ghosh------------------------------------------------------------------344
37. Satellite image segmentation approach based on marker controlled watershed algorithm
Pinaki Pratim Acharjya and Jayshree Deb Sinha---------------------------------------------
7|Page
349
Sufficiency and duality for interval-valued optimization problems

with generalized invex functions
Jonaki Banerjee
Department of Applied Mathematics, Indian School of Mines,
Dhanbad-826 004, Jharkhand, India
E-mail address: jonakibanerjee22@gamil.com
Abstract
In this article, we focus our attention on an optimization problem with interval-valued
objective and constraint functions. Sufficient optimality conditions are established for
feasible solution to be a LU optimal solution under ( p , r ) ( , ) -invexity assumption.
Furthermore, we formulate Mond-Weir type dual and derive weak and strong duality
theorems in order to relate the LU optimal solution of primal and dual program.
Keywords: Interval-valued functions, ( p , r ) ( , ) -invexity, LU-optimal, Sufficiency,
Duality
1. Introduction
In general mathematical programming problems, the coefficients of the problems are
always considered as deterministic values. This assumption is not satisfied by great majority
of real-life engineering and economical problems. The introduction of imprecision and
uncertainty in the modelling process is an important issue of the approaching real practical
problems.
Uncertainty can be handled in various manners namely by a stochastic process and fuzzy
numbers. However, sometimes it is hard to find an appropriate membership function or
probability distribution with insufficiency of data. Interval-valued optimization programming
is one of the approaches to tackle the uncertain optimization problem in which only the range
of the coefficients are known. Interval programming does not require the specification or the
assumption of probabilistic distribution (as in stochastic programming) or possibilistic
distributions (as in fuzzy programming). In a linear or nonlinear interval optimization
problem, either the objective function or at least one of the constraints or both are considered
as interval-valued functions.
Several authors have been interested in deriving sufficient conditions and duality results
with differentiable objective and constraint functions in interval-valued programming
8|Page

problem. Wu (2007) derived Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions for interval-valued
objective function. Later, Wu (2008) formulated Wolfe type dual problem related to intervalvalued optimization problem and established duality theorems by using the concept of
nondominated solution employed in vector optimization problems.
Wu (2009) considered a nonlinear vector optimization problem whose objective functions
have interval parameters but the constraints are free from interval uncertainty and derived the
Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions. Zhou and Wang (2009) established sufficient
optimality condition and discussed mixed type duality for a class of nonlinear interval-valued
optimization problem. Recently, Bhurjee and Panda (2012) developed a methodology to
study the existence of the solutions of an interval optimization problem.
In optimization theory, convexity plays an important role to prove the existence of the
solution including optimality conditions and duality theorems of a general optimization
problem. Hence there is a need to study the convex property of the interval optimization
problems. One of the most useful generalization of convexity was introduced by Hanson
(1981). After introducing the concept of ( , ) -invex function and ( p , r ) -invex function
by Zalmai (1990) and Antczak (2001), respectively, Mandal and Nahak (2011) proposed a
new concept of ( p , r ) ( , ) -invex function and established some symmetric duality
results.
This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we recall some definitions and some
basic properties related to interval-valued optimization problems. In Section 3, some
sufficient optimality conditions for a class of interval-valued programming problem is
discussed. Mond-Weir type duality theorems are obtained in Section 4. Conclusion and future
work are proposed in Section 5.
2. Notation and Preliminaries
Let I be the class of all closed and bounded intervals in R . If A is a closed interval, we
use the notation A = [a L , aU ] , where a L and aU means the lower and upper bounds of A
respectively. Let A = [a L , aU ], B = [b L , bU ] I , we define
1. A + B = {a + b : a A and b B} = [a L + b L , aU + bU ],
2. A = {a : a A} = [aU , a L ],
3. A B = A + ( B) = [a L bU , aU b L ],
4. k + A = {k + a : a A} = [k + a L , k + aU ],
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ka L , kaU if k 0,
5. kA = {ka : a A} =
U
L
ka , ka if k < 0,
where k is a real number.
Let Rn denotes the n -dimensional Euclidean space. The function F : R n I is called an
interval-valued function, i.e., F ( x) = F ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) is a closed interval in R for each
x R n . The interval-valued function F can also be written as F ( x) = [ F L ( x), F U ( x)] , where
F L ( x), F U ( x) are real valued functions defined on Rn and satisfy the condition
F L ( x) F U ( x) for each x R n .
If A = [a L , aU ] and B = [b L , bU ] , we write A LU B , if and only if a L b L and aU bU .
It is easy to see that LU is a partial ordering on I . Also we can write A < LU B if and only if
A LU B and A B .
Equivalently, A < LU B if and only if
aL < bL ,
or,
or,
a U < bU ,
aL < bL ,
a U bU ,
aL bL ,
a U < bU .
Definition 2.1 (Mandal and Nahak (2011)). Let f : R n R be a differentiable function and
p , r be arbitrary real numbers. If there exist : R n R n R n , : R n R n R n and R
such that the relations

1 r ( f ( x ) f ( y ))
1
(e
1)(>) f ( y )(e p ( x , y ) 1) + P ( x, y ) P2 , for p 0, r 0,
r
p
1 r ( f ( x ) f ( y ))
(e
1)(>) f ( y ) ( x, y ) + P ( x, y ) P2 , for p = 0, r 0,
r
f ( x) f ( y )(>)
1
f ( y )(e p ( x , y ) 1) + P ( x, y ) P2 , for p 0, r = 0,
p
f ( x) f ( y )(>) f ( y ) ( x, y ) + P ( x, y ) P2 , for p = 0, r = 0,
hold, then f is said to be (strictly) ( p , r ) ( , ) -invex at y on Rn with respect to , .
Remark 2.1 It should be noted that the exponentials appearing on the right-hand sides of
inequalities above are understood to be taken componentwise and 1 = (1,1,...,1) R n .
Remark 2.2 All theorems in this paper will be proved only in the case when p 0, r 0
(Other cases can be dealt with likewise since the only changes arise form of inequality).
Moreover, without loss of generality, we shall assume that r > 0, p > 0 (In the case when
10 | P a g e

r < 0, p < 0 , the direction some of the inequalities in the proof of the theorems should be
changed to the opposite one).

In this paper, we consider the following interval-valued optimization problem:
min F ( x) = [ F L ( x), F U ( x)]
(IVP)
subject to g j ( x) LU 0, j = 1, 2,..., m,
where F : R n I and g j : X I , j = 1, 2,..., m are interval-valued functions.

Definition 2.4 (Sun and Wang (2013)). A feasible solution x* is said to be a LU optimal
solution to (IVP) if there exists no feasible solution x0 such that F ( x0 ) < LU F ( x* ) .
Theorem 2.1 (Karush-Kuhn-Tucker type conditions) (Wu (2008)). Assume that x* is a LU
optimal solution to (IVP) and F , g j , j = 1, 2,..., m, are differentiable at x* . Suppose that the
constraint function
g j , j = 1, 2,..., m,
satisfies the suitable Kuhn-Tucker constraint
qualification at x* . Then there exist multipliers 0 < L , U R and 0 j R, j = 1, 2,..., m ,

such that
m
j =1
j =1
LF L ( x* ) + U F U ( x* ) + j g Lj ( x* ) + j g Uj ( x* ) = 0,
(1)
j g Lj ( x* ) = j g Uj ( x* ) = 0, j = 1, 2,..., m.
(2)
3. Sufficient optimality conditions

In this section, we shall establish the following sufficient optimality conditions for (IVP).
Theorem 3.1 (Sufficiency) Let x* be a feasible solution to (IVP). Assume that there exist
multipliers 0 < L , U R
( x* , L , U , )
satisfies (1) and (2). Moreover, assume that
( p, r ) 1 ( , ) -invex,
and = ( 1 , 2 , , m ), 0 j R, j = 1, 2,..., m , such that
( p, r ) 2 ( , ) -invex,
respectively
FL
and
FU
are
j g Lj
and
and
j =1
j g Uj are ( p, r ) 3 ( , ) -invex, ( p, r ) 4 ( , ) -invex, respectively with respect
j =1
to , at x* with ( L 1 + U 2 + 3 + 4 ) 0 . Then x* is a LU optimal solution to (IVP).

Proof. Let x* is not a LU optimal solution to (IVP). Then there exists a feasible solution x0
to (IVP), such that
F ( x0 ) < LU F ( x* ).
That is,
F L ( x0 ) < F L ( x* )
F L ( x0 ) F L ( x* )
F L ( x0 ) < F L ( x* )
,
or
,
or
U
U
U
U
*
U
*
U
*
F ( x0 ) < F ( x )
F ( x0 ) < F ( x )
F ( x0 ) F ( x )
Since r > 0 , using the property of exponential function, we obtain
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1 r{ F L ( x0 ) F L ( x* )}
1 < 0
r e
U
U *
1 e r{ F ( x0 ) F ( x )} 1 < 0
r
1 r{ F L ( x0 ) F L ( x* )}
1 0
r e
1 r{ FU ( x0 ) FU ( x* )}
, or e
1 < 0
1 r{ F L ( x0 ) F L ( x* )}
1 < 0
r e
or
U
U *
1 e r{ F ( x0 ) F ( x )} 1 0
The above inequalities together with the
( p, r ) 1 ( , ) -invexity of
FL
and
( p, r ) 2 ( , ) -invexity of F U at x* , gives
1
L
*
e p ( x0 , x* ) 1 + P ( x , x* ) P2 < 0
{
F
(
x
)}
1
0
p
*
1 {F U ( x* )} e p ( x0 , x ) 1 + P ( x , x* ) P2 < 0
2
0
p
1
L
*
e p ( x0 , x* ) 1 + P ( x , x* ) P2 0
{
F
(
x
)}
1
0
p
or
*
1 {F U ( x* )} e p ( x0 , x ) 1 + P ( x , x* ) P2 < 0
2
0
p
1
L
*
e p ( x0 , x* ) 1 + P ( x , x* ) P2 < 0
{
F
(
x
)}
1
0
p
or
*
1 {F U ( x* )} e p ( x0 , x ) 1 + P ( x , x* ) P2 0
2
0
p
Since L > 0 and U > 0 , from the above inequalities, we get
1 L L *
p ( x , x* )
{ F ( x ) + U F U ( x* )} e 0 1 + ( L 1 + U 2 ) P ( x0 , x* ) P2 < 0.
p
On the other hand, since j 0, j = 1, 2,..., m, from the feasibility of x0 to (IVP) and (2), we
have
m
j =1
j =1
j g Lj ( x0 ) j g Lj ( x* ),
m
and
g
j
j =1
U
j
( x0 ) j g Uj ( x* ).
j =1
As r > 0 , using the property of exponential function from the above inequalities, we get
12 | P a g e
(3)

m
m L
r{
j g j ( x0 )
j g Lj ( x* )}
1
j =1
e j =1
1 0,
r
m
m U
r{
j g j ( x0 )
j gUj ( x* )}
1
j =1
e j =1
1 0.
r
The above inequalities together with the ( p, r ) 3 ( , ) -invexity and ( p, r ) 4 ( , ) -
invexity of
j g Lj and
j =1
j g Uj respectively, at x* , gives
j =1
1 m
p ( x , x* )
j g Lj ( x* ) e 0 1 + 3 P ( x0 , x* ) P2 0,
p j =1
(4)
1 m
p ( x , x* )
j g Uj ( x* ) e 0 1 + 4 P ( x0 , x* ) P2 0.
p j =1
(5)
On adding (3), (4) and (5), we obtain

m
m
1 p ( x0 , x* ) L L *
U
U
*
L
*
e
F
(
x
)
+
F
(
x
)
+
g
(
x
)
+
j g Uj ( x* )
j
j
p
j =1
j =1
+ ( L 1 + U 2 + 3 + 4 ) P ( x0 , x* ) P2 < 0,
which in view of ( L 1 + U 2 + 3 + 4 ) 0 , yields

m
m
1 p ( x0 , x* ) L L *
1 F ( x ) + U F U ( x* ) + j g Lj ( x* ) + j g Uj ( x* ) < 0.
e
p
j =1
j =1
This contradicts (1). Therefore x* is a LU optimal solution to (IVP).
4. Mond-Weir type duality

In this section, we consider the following Mond-Weir type dual problem for (IVP):
(MWD)
F ( y ) = F L ( y), F U ( y)
max
subject to
m
j =1
j =1
LF L ( y ) + U F U ( y ) + j g Lj ( y ) + j g Uj ( y ) = 0,
m
g
j
j =1
13 | P a g e
( y ) LU 0, j = 1, 2,..., m,
(6)
(7)
L > 0, U > 0, j 0, j = 1, 2,..., m.
(8)
Definition 4.1 A feasible solution ( y* , *L , *U , * ) is said to be a LU optimal solution to

(MWD), if there exists no ( y, *L , *U , * ) such that F ( y * ) < LU F ( y ) .
Theorem 4.1 (Weak duality). Let x and ( y, L , U , ) are the feasible solutions to (IVP)
and (MWD), respectively. Further assume that L , U > 0 and j 0, j = 1, 2,..., m , such
m
j =1
j =1
that L F L + U F U + j g Lj + j g Uj is ( p , r ) ( , ) -invex with respect to , at y

with 0 . Then
F ( x) LU F ( y ).
Proof. Suppose contrary to the result that F ( x) < LU F ( y ).
That is,
F L ( x) < F L ( y )
U
U
F ( x) < F ( y )
F L ( x) F L ( y )
, or U
U
F ( x) < F ( y )
F L ( x) < F L ( y )
or U
U
F ( x) F ( y )
Since L > 0, U > 0 , the above inequalities together with the feasibility of x to (IVP) and
(7) becomes
m
j =1
j =1
L F L ( x) + U F U ( x) + j g Lj ( x) + j g Uj ( x) < L F L ( y ) + U F U ( y )
m
j =1
j =1
+ j g Lj ( y ) + j g Uj ( y ).
The
above
inequality
m
j =1
j =1
together
with
( p , r ) ( , ) -invexity
of
L F L + U F U + j g Lj + j g Uj at y , gives
m
m
1 L L
U
U
L
F
(
y
)
+
F
(
y
)
+
g
(
y
)
+
j g Uj ( y ) ( e p ( x , y ) 1)
j
j
p
j =1
j =1
+ P ( x, y ) P2 < 0,
m
j =1
j =1
LF L ( y ) + U F U ( y ) + j g Lj ( y ) + j g Uj ( y ) < 0,
which contradicts (6). This completes the proof.
Theorem 4.2 (Strong duality). Let x* be a LU optimal solution to (IVP) at which KuhnTucker constraints qualification are satisfied. Then there exist *L > 0, *U > 0 and * 0,
such that ( x* , *L , *U , * ) is a feasible solution to (MWD) and the two objectives have the
14 | P a g e

same value. Further, if the hypothesis of weak duality Theorem 4.1 hold for all feasible
solutions ( y* , *L , *U , * ) . Then ( x* , *L , *U , * ) is a LU optimal solution to (MWD).
Proof. Since x* is a LU optimal solution to (IVP) and the Kuhn-Tucker constraints
qualification are satisfied at x* , then by Theorem 2.1, there exist multipliers *L > 0, *U > 0 ,
*j 0, j = 1, 2,..., m , such that

m
j =1
j =1
*LF L ( x* ) + *U F U ( x* ) + *j g Lj ( x* ) + *j g Uj ( x* ) = 0,
*j g Lj ( x* ) = *j g Uj ( x* ) = 0,
which yields that ( x* , *L , *U , * ) is a feasible solution to (MWD) and corresponding
objective values are same. Further, if ( x* , *L , *U , * ) is not a LU optimal solution to
(MWD), then there exist a feasible solution ( y* , *L , *U , * ) to (MWD) such that
F ( x* ) < LU F ( y * ),
which contradicts the weak duality Theorem 4.1. Hence ( x* , *L , *U , * ) is a LU optimal

solution to (MWD).
W
5. Conclusion
In this paper, we have derived sufficient optimality conditions for a class of intervalvalued optimization problem under generalized invex functions. Weak and strong duality
theorems are discussed for Mond-Weir dual model. It will interesting to obtain the optimality
and duality theorem for a class of interval-valued programming under generalized invexity
assumptions in which the involved functions are non-smooth. This will orient the future
research of the authors.
References
[1] Antczak, T. (2001). ( p , r )-invex sets and functions. J. Math. Anal. Appl., 263, 355-379.
[2] Bhurjee, A. K., Panda, G. (2012). Efficient solution of interval optimization problem. Math. Meth.
Oper. Res., 76, 273-288.
[3] Hanson, M. A. (1981). On sufficiency of the Kuhn-Tucker conditions. J. Math. Anal. Appl., 80,
545-550.
[4] Mandal, P., Nahak, C. (2011). Symmetric duality with ( p , r ) ( , ) -invexity. Appl. Math.
Comput., 217, 8141-8148.
[5] Sun, Y., Wang, L. (2013). Optimality conditions and duality in nondifferentiable interval-valued
programming. J. Ind. Manag. Optim., 9, 131-142.
[6] Wu, H.-C. (2007). The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions in an optimization problem
with interval-valued objective function. European J. Oper. Res., 176, 4659.
15 | P a g e

[7] Wu, H.-C. (2008). On interval-valued nonlinear programming problems. J. Math. Anal. Appl.,
338, 299-316.
[8]
Wu, H.-C. (2009). The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions in multiobjective
programming problems with interval-valued objective functions. European J. Oper. Res., 196, 4960.
[9] Zalmai, G. J. (1990). Generalized sufficiency criteria in continuous-time programming with
application to a class of variational-type inequalities. J. Math. Anal. Appl., 153, 331-355.
[10] Zhou, H.-C., and Wang, Y.-J. (2009). Optimality condition and mixed duality for interval-valued
optimization. In : Fuzzy Information and Engineering, Volume 2, Advances in Intelligent and Soft
Computing, Vol. 62, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Fuzzy Information and
Engineering (ICFIE 2009), Springer 13151323.
16 | P a g e
Recurrence relations for radial matrix elements

Prof. (Dr.) Pritam P. Ray,
Professor, Department of Physics,
Bengal Institute of Technology & Management, Santiniketan
Email: deana@bitm.org.in
and
Arun K. Bag
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Email: arunkumarbag123@gmail.com
Abstract
Recurrence relations for matrix elements of power of radial distance for N-dimensional
central potentials involving the normalization constant of bound state wave functions are
obtained. These relations assume especially simple forms for power law potentials.
Keywords: Recurrence relations, matrix elements, central potential, power law potential,
bound state wave functions and energies, normalization constant.
1. Introduction
In recent times, the number of spatial dimensions has gained a special significance in that it
may be treated as a variable parameter instead of a fixed number. It was shown by Mlodinow
and Papanicolau (1980) that the Schrodinger equations for a large number of physical
systems can be approximately solved by considering a systematic expansion in powers of
1/N.
The recurrence relations for radial matrix elements for sth power of radial distance of a three
dimensional hydrogen atom were derived by Blanchard (1974). Hughes (1977) obtained the
recurrence relations for matrix elements for any spherically symmetric three dimensional
potential V(r). Ray and Ray (1982) obtained these recurrence relations involving the
normalization constants for three dimensional potential for the first time.
In this work we extend the work of Ray and Ray (1982) to N-dimensional systems and obtain
not only the radial matrix elements
but also the normalization constants of
bound state wave functions for the first time in the N-dimensional space.
17 | P a g e

2. N DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
Following the work of Ray, Mahata and Ray (1988) we consider the motion of a particle of
mass m in a N-dimensional central potential such that
, with
(1)
where x1 , x2 , x3 ,...xN are related to N-dimensional spherical coordinates (r, 1, 2,..., N-1) as
follows
,
,
,
.
(2)
.
.
,
.
.
.
,
,
The generalized Laplacian operator may be expressed as
N
2 =
i =1
2
xi2
,
(3)
where
is the N-dimensional generalization of the square of the angular momentum
operator. It only depends on the angular co-ordinates
. The eigen functions of
are
hyperspherical harmonics Y such that (Ray, Mahata and Ray (1988))
(4)
Using (2) to (4) , the N-dimensional reduced radial Hamiltonian may be written as ( in atomic
units where
18 | P a g e
= = m = 1)
(5)
where
(6)
The radial Hamiltonian
satisfies the reduced radial Schrodinger equation
,
(7)
where
are the bound state reduced radial wave functions with the normalization
(8)
3. DERIVATION OF RECURRENCE RELATIONS

In order to derive the recurrence relations for the radial matrix elements, we consider the
operator
,
(9)
where,
is defined in (5) and
is obtained from (5) by replacing by
ie.
,
(10)
where,
(11)
and
is a function of r only.
Again the radial Hamiltonian H ' satisfies the reduced radial Schrodinger equation
H ' un ' l ' ( r ) = E ' un ' l ' ( r )

(12)
The matrix elements of (9) between the states
= (E-E)2
(13)
where
(14)
19 | P a g e
and
,
are

.
(15)
With the use of (5) and (10), (9) yields
1 d4 f d2 f
A=
+
4 dr 4 dr 2
D L '( L '+ 1)
2
V
(
r
)
2
E
'
r2
r2
df
2
D
3
df dV L '( L '+ 1) 2 D
D 3D d f 2 Df
dr d
+
f
+
+
r 4 r 4 dr 3
r3
r 2 dr
dr dr
r3
r 3
(16)
In (16), D =
1
[ L(l + 1) L '( L '+ 1)]
2
(17)
Confining our attention to central potentials (1) we find that
lim r L 1u nl ( r ) = C nl
r0
(18)
where C nl is the normalization constant of the bound state wave function unl (r) with energy
E. We obtain from (13), (14), (15), (16) with f = r s , the off-diagonal relations
(s21)unl rs
dV
un'l' +2(
ss21)unl rs1Vun'l'
dr
2
s1
s
(
s
1
)(
E
+
E
')
(
L
L
')(
L
+
L
'
+
1
)(
E
E
')
u
r
unl' '
n
l
+ ( s 1) ( E E ' ) unl r s +1 un 'l '

2
1
(s+1)(s1)2 (LL')2
(s1)2 (L+L'+1)2 unl rs3 unl' '
CC 2
= nl n'l'
s1(
2'
L+1
)(2L+1
)
2
which holds for all s ( L + L ')
20 | P a g e
s , ( L + L' )
(19)

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
(19) constitutes the generalization of the three dimensional results obtained earlier (Ray and
Ray 1982). For n = n, L = L and E = E (19) agrees with the diagonal relations (Ray and
Ray 1981) in the three dimensional case and (Ray, Mahata and Ray 1988) in the N
dimensional case. The set of relations (19) for S ( L + L ) with N=3 is the same as that
obtained by Hughes (1977). The relations for S = ( L + L ) connecting the normalization
constant in arbitrary space dimensions N are, however, new and constitute the main
contribution of this work.
For power law potentials or for potentials that can be expanded in powers of r, (19) gives the
recurrence relations for radial matrix elements
. One can easily demonstrate the
validity of (19) for a hydrogenic atom or for an isotropic harmonic oscillator in N-dimensions
by explicit calculations. The relations (19) may prove very useful in calculating properties of
physical systems using 1/N expansion method.
The diagonal radial matrix elements
are the state averages of
diagonal radial matrix elements
may be called transition averages
between the states
and
.The off
. These matrix elements are essential in the calculation of
atomic properties using perturbation theory beyond 1st order. They also find application in
any transition process, for example, in emission and absorption of light by a hydrogen atom.
References
[1] Blanchard P 1974, A new recurrence relation for hydrogenic radial matrix elements, J. Phys. B:
Atom.Molec.Phys., Vol. 7, PP 993 1005
[2] Hughes D E 1977, Recurrence relations for radial matrix elements obtained from hypervirial
relations, J. Phys. B: Atom.Molec.Phys. ,Vol .10, pp 3167 3174
[3] Mlodinow L D and Papanicolau N 1980, SO(2,1) Algebra and the large N expansion in Quantum
Mechanics, Annals of Physics, Vol. 128, pp 314 334
[4] Ray A and Ray P P 1981,Bound states of the exponential cosine screened Coulomb potential,
Phys. Lett A, Vol. 83, pp 383 389
[5] Ray A and Ray P P 1982, Off-diagonal generalizations of the virial theorem, Book of Abstract
4th National Workshop in Atomic and Molecular Physics, Mukherjee S C ,ed.(IACS, Kolkata) p110
[6] Ray A, Mahata K and Ray P P 1988, Moments of probability distribution, wave functions and
their derivatives at the origin of N dimensional central potentials, Am. J. Phys, Vol. 56, pp 462 464
21 | P a g e
Mathematical study of Love wave propagation in an irregular

boundary surface homogeneous medium over an inhomogeneous
half-space
Santimoy Kundu
Dhanbad-826004, Jharkhand, India
E-mail: kundu_santi@yahoo.co.in
Santanu Manna*
E-mail: smsantanu@gmail.com
Shishir Gupta
E-mail:shishir_ism@yahoo.com
Abstract
In the present paper we investigate the possibility of Love waves (horizontally polarized
surface seismic wave) propagation in a homogeneous medium over an inhomogeneous halfspace. The surface boundary of upper layer is consider as periodic in nature and intermediate
surface of layer and half-space is assume as plane surface. The dispersion equation of phase
velocity is derived in closed form. The method of separation of variables has been adopted to
obtain analytical solution for the dispersion relation. As a special case dispersion equation has
been obtained when the upper layer and lower half-space are homogeneous with plane
boundary surface. In case of homogeneous medium with plane boundary surface dispersion
equation coincides with the general equation of Love wave by A.E.H. Love in 1911. From
the graphical representation it can be shown that phase velocity is influenced by
inhomogeneity parameter, corrugation parameter and non-dimensional wave number. The
results can be used to understand the nature of wave propagation in inhomogeneous media.
Keywords: Love wave, Inhomogeneity, Irregularity, Dispersion equation, Phase velocity.
1. Introduction
The study of surface waves in a layer media over a half-space is important to seismologists
due to it possible applications in Geophysical prospecting and in understanding the cause and
estimation of damage due to earthquakes. Seismology means, the science of shaking of the
22 | P a g e

Earth or the science of earthquakes. It is a branch of science based on data called
seismograms, which are records of mechanical vibrations of the Earth. It treats the occurrence
of earthquakes and their related phenomena and is primarily based on the application of the
principals of the mechanics of a continuous medium. From the mathematical study of
seismology it can observed about the nature of seismic waves. The Earth consists of several
layers. The three main layers are the core, the mantle and the crust. The core is the inner part
of the earth, the crust is the outer part and between them is the mantle. Seismology is used
today in structural engineering to aid in the design of earthquake-resistant buildings and in
mineral prospecting and exploration for oil and natural gas.
Quite good amount of information about the propagation of seismic waves is available in
the well known book of Ewing et al. (1957). A large number of papers have been published
in different journals after the publication of this book. In fact the study of surface wave for
homogeneous and inhomogeneous layered media has a central interest to theoretical
seismologists until recently. Some books like, Loves (1911), Biots (1965), Gubbins (1990)
etc. gives the central interest for the study of seismic waves. Propagation of Love waves in
layers with irregular boundaries was discussed by Wolf (1970). The dispersion equation for
Love wave propagation due to irregularity in the thickness of non-homogeneous crustal layer
was investigated by Chattopadhyay (1975). Gupta et al. (2010) studied about the effect of
initial stress parameter on propagation of Love waves in an anisotropic porous layer. Singh
(2010) formulated the dispersion equation of Love wave at a layer medium bounded by
irregular boundary surfaces. Surface wave propagation in fiber-reinforced anisotropic elastic
layer between liquid saturated porous half space and uniform liquid layer was proposed by
Samal and Chattaraj (2011).
Recently extensive and laudable works on such waves have been done by many
researchers. Chattopadhyay et al. (2013) introduced the dispersion of horizontally polarized
shear wave in an irregular non-homogeneous self-reinforced crustal layer over a semi-infinite
self-reinforced medium. SH-type waves dispersion in an isotropic medium sandwiched
between an initially stressed orthotropic and heterogeneous semi-infinite media were
observed by Kundu et al. (2013). Manna et al. (2013) treated about Love wave propagation in
a piezoelectric layer overlying in an inhomogeneous elastic half-space. Propagation of Love
wave in fiber-reinforced medium lying over initially stressed orthotropic half-space was
studied by Kundu et al. (2014).
23 | P a g e

In this paper, we investigated the existence of the propagation of Love waves in an
irregular boundary surface homogeneous layer overlying an inhomogeneous half-space. The
inhomogeneity of half-space is considered in exponential form with rigidity and density and
it is taken along the z-direction. The influence of inhomogeneity parameter and corrugation
parameters has been shown graphically.
2. Formulation of the Problem
Figure 1: Geometry of the problem
We consider a homogeneous medium M 1 of thickness h with irregular boundary surface, over

a vertically inhomogeneous M 2 half-space. The inhomogeneity for the half-space has been
considered in exponential variation with rigidity and density. Let -axis and -axis be two
perpendicular Cartesian coordinates lying horizontally and -axis is vertically coordinate with
positive direction pointing downward. Here is the continuous function of independent
of , representing the corrugated boundary of the upper layer. The function ( x) can be
taken periodic in nature and their Fourier series expansions can be (Singh, 2010)
( x) = ( neinpx + neinpx ),
(1)
n =1
where n and n are the Fourier series expansion coefficient,

wavelength of corrugation is
is the wave number, so that
2
, is the series expansion order.
p
3. Solution of the problem

The upper layer of the formulated problem is considered as homogeneous medium with
irregular boundary surface over inhomogeneous half-space. First we look for the equations
governing the propagation of Love wave inhomogeneous elastic medium. The equations of
motion for a homogeneous elastic solid in the absence of body forces in component form are
(Biot, 1965)
24 | P a g e
11 12 13
2u
+
+
= 2
x
y
z
t
21 22 23
2 v
+
+
= 2
(2)
x
y
z
t
31 32 33
2w
+
+
= 2
x
y
z
t
where u, v and w are displacements along x, y and z directions respectively, ij are the
incremental stress components and is the density of the material in this medium.
In case of homogeneous medium Hookes law gives the stress component as
ij = ij + 2 ij .
(3)
1 u u j
where , 1 are Lames constants and ij = i +
. Let u1 , v1 , w1 and u2 , v2 , w2 be the
2 x j xi
displacement components along x, y, z directions for upper layer and lower half-space
respectively. Applying the Love waves conditions
u1 = 0 = w1 and v1 = v1 ( x, z, t )
(4)
for the medium of layer (M1)and half-space (M2). Using the condition (4), the stress-strain
v
v
relation will be
12 =
and 23 =
x
z
(5)
and other component will be zero.
The variation in rigidity and density for the medium M1 and medium M2 are consider as
= 2eaz
= 1
For, M1
and for M2
(6)
az
= 2e
= 1
Therefore, the equations of motion for Love wave in homogeneous medium (M1) and
inhomogeneous half-space (M2) can be written as
1
2 e az
2 v1 v1
2v
+ 1
= 1 21
2
z z
x
t
2 v2
v
+ 2 e az 2
2
z
z
x
(7)
az v2
=
e
2
t 2
(8)
respectively.
We assume the harmonic solution of equations (7) and (8) as v ( x, z , t ) = V ( z )e ik ( x ct ) where k is the
wave number and c is the phase velocity of Love wave. Now, applying method of separation
of variable we get the solutions of equations (7) and (8) as
(9)
v1 ( x, z , t ) = ( A1eikm1z + A2 e ikm1z )eik ( x ct )
This is the displacement of Love wave in homogeneous medium where m1 =
1 =
c2
12
1 ,
1
is the shear wave velocity, k is the wave number and A1 and A2 are arbitrary
1
constants.
25 | P a g e

The displacement equation (8) for lower half-space can be solved by same method.
As we are interested in the solution of equation (8) which is bounded and vanishes as z .
So the solution of equation (8) can be taken as
v2 ( x, z , t ) = B2 e km2 z e
a
z
2 ik ( x ct )
(10)
1
a2
c2
where, m2 = 1 + 2 2 , 2 =
is the shear wave velocity for lower half-space and B2
4k
2
1
is the arbitrary constant. Therefore, equation (10) represents the required solution of the
lower inhomogeneous semi-infinite medium.
4. Boundary Conditions
The propagation of love wave in this assumed model should satisfy the following boundary
conditions:
The upper surface of the homogeneous layer is stress free i.e.,

i) 23 12 = 0, At z = h
x M1
At the surface contact of upper layer and lower inhomogeneous half-space, the mechanical
displacement and normal stress components are continuous i.e.,
ii) At
(a) v1 ( x, z, t ) = v2 ( x, z, t )
(b) ( 23 ) M1 = ( 23 ) M 2
5. Dispersion relation
Using the above boundary conditions we get the relations from equations (5), (9) and (10) as
follows:
c2
ki( h )
e
A1 2 1
1
x
c
c2
ki( h ) 12 1
e
A2 2 1 +
=0
1
x
2
2
a
c
a
1+ 2 2 +
4k
2 2k
2
A1 A2 +
B2 = 0
2
i 1
c
1
2
A1 + A2 B2 = 0
c2
12
(11)
(12)
(13)
Eliminating the arbitrary constants A1 , A2 and B2 from the above equations (11) to (13) we get
c2
ki
2 1
e
1
12
1( h )
c2
ki
e
2 1 +
1
ki
c2
1
2
26 | P a g e
c2
12
1( h )
12
1( h )
a2
c2
a
1 + 2 2 +
4k
2 2k
2
=
2
i 1
c
12
c2
ki
e
+ 2 1 +
1
c2
12
1( h )
(14)

6. Particular cases
Case I: If the surface of upper layer is bounded by a periodic surface z = d cos( px ) h i.e.,
= d cos( px ) then ' = dp sin( px) . In this case dispersion equation (14) becomes
ta n k { h d c o s ( p x )}
c2
2
2 1 =
1
1

1+
a2
c
2
4k
c2
12
2
2
2
a
a2
c2
a
+
i 1+
2
2
2k
4k
2
2k

c2
2 1
d p s in ( p x ) ta n k { h d c o s ( p x )}
c2

2 1
1

(1 5 )
This equation gives the frequency equation of Love wave in a homogeneous medium with
irregular boundary surface over an inhomogeneous half-space.
Case II: If amplitude of the upper periodic surface is neglected,
this case is
considered for a homogeneous layer over inhomogeneous half-space with plane boundary
surfaces. Therefore the equation (15) is reduces to
a2
c2
a
1
+
4k 2 22 2k
c2
2
tan kh 2 1 =
c2
1
1
1
2
(16)
Case III: If the inhomogeneity parameter is neglected from the lower half-space then the
equation (16) reduces to
c2
1 2
2
c2
2
tan kh 2 1 =
1
1 c
2 1
1
(17)
This is the general dispersion equation of Love wave in homogeneous media, which is the
same relation as Ewing et al. (1957).
7. Numerical computation and discussion
In order to show the effects of inhomogeneity parameter, corrugation parameter and
non-dimensional wave number on the propagation of Love waves in an irregular boundary
surface homogeneous layer over an inhomogeneous half-space. For the computational
purpose, we represent some numerical data from Gubbins (1990) as
Layer
Homogeneous
Rigidity
1 = 7.45 1010 N / m 2
Density
1 = 3293 kg / m3
Inhomogeneous
2 = 6.34 1010 N / m 2
2 = 3293 kg / m3
27 | P a g e

Using above numerical data, the results are presented in figure 2 and figure 3.
Figure 2 shows the variation of dimensionless phase velocity against non-dimensional wave
number. Curves are plotted for different values of inhomogeneity parameter and fixed values
of non-dimensional parameters
values of inhomogeneity parameter
have been taken as
and
. The different
a
, for curve 1, curve 2, curve 3, curve 4 and curve 5
2k
and
respectively. From this figure it has been
observed that phase velocity increases with the decreases of wave number and it is also
observed that dimensionless phase velocity decreases with the increases of inhomogeneity
parameter.
In figure 3 studies have been made to get the effect corrugation parameter. Curves of this
figure has been made for different values of ( x / h, ph ) and fixed value of ingomoheneity
parameter
taken as
. Values of ( x / h, ph ) for curve 1, curve 2, curve 3 and curve 4 have

and (0.08, 1.80) respectively. The figure
shows that non-dimensional phase velocity decreases with the increase of
and
Figure 2: Variation of dimensionless phase velocity against dimensional wave number for different
values of inhomogeneity parameter.
28 | P a g e
Figure 3: Variation of dimensionless phase velocity against dimensional wave number for different
values of ( x / h, ph ) .
8. Conclusions
Propagation of Love wave in an irregular boundary surface homogeneous layer overlying an
inhomogeneous half-space with plane boundary surface (upper) has been studied in details.
The solutions for displacements in the layer and half-space have been derived separately in
closed form. The dispersion equation of Love waves have been derived in three different type
cases. The numerical computations of particular cases are performed and effects of
inhomogeneity parameter and corrugation parameter are studied graphically. From the above
figures it may concluded that
(i) Dimensionless phase velocity of Love wave increases with decreases of nondimensional wave number kh.
(ii) The phase velocity increases with the increases of inhomogeneity parameter.
(iii) Dimensionless phase velocity decreases, as values of dimensionless corrugation
parameters ( x / h, ph ) increase.
(iv) Finally, when both the layer and half-space are homogeneous with plane surface
equation reduces to the general equation of Love wave by A.E.H. Love (1911) and Ewing et
al. (1957).
References
[1] Biot, M.A. (1965). Mechanics of Incremental Deformations. Wiley, New York.
[2] Chattaraj, R., Samal, S.K., Mahanti, N. (2013). Dispersion of Love Wave Propagating in Irregular
Anisotropic Porous Stratum under Initial Stress. Int. J. Geomech., 13, 402-408.
[3] Chattopadhyay, A., Gupta, S., Sahu, S.A., Singh, A.K. (2013). Dispersion of horizontally
polarized shear waves in an Irregular Non Homogeneous Self-reinforced Crustal Layer over a Semiinfinite Self-reinforced Medium. Journal of Vibration and Control, 19, 109-119.
29 | P a g e

[4] Chattopadhyay, A. (1975). On the dispersion equation for Love wave due to irregularity in the
thickness of non-homogeneous crustal layer. Acta Geophysica Polonica, 23, 307-317.
[5] Ewing, W.M., Jardetzky, W.S., Press, H. (1957). Elastic Waves in Layered Media. McGraw Hill,
New York, U.S.A.
[6] Gubbins, D. (1990). Seismology and plate tectonics. Cambridge University Press, London.
[7] Gupta, S., Chattopadhyay, A., Majhi, D.K. (2010). Effect of Initial Stress on Propagation of Love
Waves in an Anisotropic Porous Layer. Journal of Solid Mechanics, 2, 50-62.
[8] Kundu, S., Gupta, S., Manna, S. (2014). Propagation of Love wave in fiber-reinforced medium
lying over initially stressed orthotropic half-space. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech. (2014)
http://dx.doi: 10.1002/nag.2254.
[9] Kundu, S., Gupta, S., Manna, S. (2013). SH-type waves dispersion in an isotropic medium
sandwiched between an initially stressed orthotropic and heterogeneous semi-infinite media.
Meccanica, DOI 10.1007/s11012-013-9825-5.
[10] Love, A.E.H. (1911). Some problems of geodynamics. Cambridge university press, London.
[11] Manna, S., Kundu S., Gupta, S. (2013). Love wave propagation in a piezoelectric layer overlying
in an inhomogeneous elastic half-space. Journal of Vibration and Control,
doi:10.1177/1077546313513626.
[12] Samal, S.K., Chattaraj, R. (2011). Surface wave propagation in fiber-reinforced anisotropic
elastic layer between liquid saturated porous half space and uniform liquid layer. Acta Geophys, 59,
470-482.
[13] Singh, S.S. (2010). Love Wave at a Layer Medium Bounded by Irregular Boundary Surfaces.
Journal of Vibration and Control, 17, 789-795.
[14] Wolf, B. (1970). Propagation of Love waves in layers with irregular boundaries. pure and
applied geophysics, 78, 48-57.
30 | P a g e
Scheduled Tribe and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers: In

Search of their Identity and rights.
Dr. Sukumar Pal and Mr Ramprasad Das1
Dept. of Social Work
Visva Bharati University
Email: sukumarpal66@gmail.comAbstract
Abstract
Indian forest is home of millions of people, specially scheduled tribes and other traditional
forest dwellers, as it provides them life and livelihood in the form of minor forest produce,
water, grazing grounds and habitat for shifting cultivation, etc. But one of the striking
features is that the identity of the indigenous people or tribes had never been recognized by
our society. Let us try to understand some of the problem areas or issues of conflict in
relation to their identity and rights.
Keywords: forest dwellers, tribes, livelihood, identity, rights
1. Introduction
1. The unique term tribe seems to be used under the colonial rules in different parts of the
world including India. They were regarded as most neglected people and indecent people in
our country since then. They were considered as uncivilized people. A number of laws also
were put against them, for example, we all know Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) 1871, which
stamped the people from the mainstream of the society. The term Criminal Tribes Act (CTA)
applies to various successive pieces of legislation enforced in India during British rule; the
first one enacted in 1871 as the Criminal Tribes Act, applicable mostly in Northern India.
The Act was extended to Bengal Presidency and other areas in 1876, and, finally, with
the Criminal Tribes Act, 1911, later on it was extended to Madras Presidency as well. The
Act went through several amendments in the next decades and, finally, the Criminal Tribes
Act, 1924 incorporated all of them.
2.
Second picture we get from the language discourses. They were never recognized by
their dialects. As we all know that there are 645 tribal communities in India as identified by
the Government of India as on date. 2Language plays an important role in providing a space
for identity. A dominant discourse is that the number of tribal groups used their own
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scheduled_Tribes_in_India
31 | P a g e

languages are ignored by government, for example, the lodhas in West-Bengal used their own
dialects. Language of other tribal groups like Asur, Bedia, Birhor, Chakma, Garo, khasi,
Gond, Ho,, Kharwar, Khond, Kisan, Lepcha, Lodha, Kheria, Kharia, Lohara, Lohra etc were
not given any importance by our nationalist group.. Thousand of tribals in south India also
had never given the official recognition, only of late a few tribal languages are known like
santal. This discourses has alienated a vast section of our people as Indian citizens, mostly,
they are seen as 2nd category of Indian citizens.
3.
Thirdly, the tribes are never given importance of their rich resources.3 The community
remained stigmatized for many years and was sometimes categorized as animists and as a hill
tribe. For example, the Meenas remained as officially designated criminal tribe until 1952.4 In
ancient times the various tribes used to prepare coins in various kingdoms as they were
experts in preparing coins. A market is colloquially known as Mena Bazar in Delhi associated
by the name of Mena tribes. But during the colonial period the whole activity of such trade
and business were taken away by the so called British rulers. So our version shows that the
identity was and still is in peril.
4.
Our next story depicts about the indigenous people after being defeated by the
princely class flew away in the forest and started living there and became closely associated
with forest land. But they are the worst sufferers during the colonial rule. The British
earmarked those areas and classified as forest under The Indias Forest Laws 19275 and those
cultivating these lands or used shifting cultivation, technically converted as forest land. The
forest act in colonial period had no interest with tribal rights but to collect timber and
resources by the colonial government. The law says that when forest is declared, a single
official designated as Forest Settlement Officer enquired into and settled the land and forest
rights of the people. These powerful officials unsurprisingly either did nothing or recorded
only the rights of powerful communities.6 The Indias forests till 1972 were governed by two
main laws, The Indian Forest Act 1972 and The Wild Life (Protection) Act enacted in 1972.
The former empowers the government to declare any area to be a reserve forest, protected
forest, or village forest. The latter allows any area to be constituted as protected area namely
3
4
http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-ancient.html
http://indiangovteducation.blogspot.in/
http://forest.and.nic.in/ActsNRules%5CIFA-1927.pdf
6
http://www.forestrightsact.com/what-is-this-act-about
5
32 | P a g e

national park, wildlife sanctuary, tiger reserve or community conservation area. Under these
laws, rights of people living in the area to be declared as a forest or protected area to be
settled by a forest settlement officer. This requires that an officer to enquire the claims of
people on land, minor forest and in case of claims found to be valid, to allow them to
continue or to extinguish them by paying compensation. Some studies show that in many
areas this process either did not take place or took place in a highly faulty manner. Some
areas in Orissa, M.P. were declared government forest without any survey. Those rights are
not recorded during the settlement process are susceptible to eviction at any time. Therefore,
it is desirable to note that colonial law did not recognize the right of the tribals should get
their house or hamlet to be recorded by the government.
5.
Fifthly, government started thinking about the development of tribal areas in its
constitution and taking some development plan. One such reflection could be observed in
terms of declaring Scheduled Areas------ means the Scheduled Areas as referred to in
Clause (1) of Article 244 of the Indian Constitution. Scheduled Areas of Article 244(1) are
notified as per the Fifth Schedule7 and 8Tribal Areas of Article 244(2) are notified as per the
Sixth Schedule9. Sixth Schedule contains provisions as to the administration of tribal areas in
north-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. This law gives enormous
freedoms to set up autonomous Regional Council and every autonomous district has its own
autonomous District Council. The Regional Council or District Council have the power to
constitute village Councils or courts for the trial of suits and cases between the parties all of
whom belong to scheduled tribes within such areas. The District Councils, additionally, are
given the power to establish, manage and construct primary schools, dispensaries, markets,
cattle pounds, ferries, fisheries, roads, road transport and waterways in the district, which
gives them a stake also in many other fields, besides administration. The Regional Councils
and District Councils are also endowed with the power to assess and collect revenues. States
such as Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have often demanded their tribal regions to be
notified in the Sixth Schedule in order to get more autonomous power.
The Fifth Schedule envisages notification of tribal-dominated areas as Scheduled Areas and
the formation of a Tribal Advisory Council (TAC) at the State level. Since these Scheduled
Areas are supposed to enjoy autonomy protected by the Constitution, the laws passed by the
7
http://www.tribal.nic.in/Content/DefinitionofScheduledAreasProfiles.aspx
http://mmpindia.in/Fifth_Schedule.htm
9
http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/shed06.htm
8
33 | P a g e

parliament and the State legislatures do not automatically apply to them. Hence, the Fifth
Schedule defines Governors' powers to adopt laws to these areas. It provides for making
regulations by the State Government for the Scheduled Areas having the force of law. It also
allows the Union Government to give directions to the State Govt. regarding the
administration of Scheduled Areas.
2. Recent laws:
Their rights are duly recognized in two acts passed recently, they are (a) PESA ---The
provision of extension of Panchayat in Scheduled Areas Act 199610 (b) The Scheduled Tribe
and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 200611.
In our democracy became a real prospect for rural India in 1992 with the 73rd amendment to
the Constitution, which mandated that resources, responsibility and decision-making be
passed on from central government to the lowest unit of the governance, the Gram Sabha or
the Village Assembly. A three tier structure of local self government was envisaged under
this amendment. But the laws do not automatically cover the scheduled areas, therefore,
recommendation was given by the committee and a new Act called PESA ( Panchayat
Extension in Scheduled Areas) Act 1996 was passed to enable Tribal Self Rule in these areas.
The Act extended the provisions of Panchayats to the tribal areas of nine states that have Fifth
Schedule Areas. The fundamental spirit of the Panchayat Extension Act for tribal areas under
5th Schedule is that it devolves power and authority to Gram Sabha and Panchayats rather
than delegation; hence it paves the way for participatory democracy. The provision under
constitution and the composition under this act call for every legislation on the Panchayat in
5th Schedule area be in conformity with the customary law, social and religious practices and
traditional management practices of the community resources.
It also directs the state government to endow powers and authority to make Gram Sabha and
Panchayats function as Institutions of Local Self Governance, specifically on matters of
enforcing prohibition of sale and consumption of intoxicant; ownership of minor forest
produce; power to prevent alienation of land and restoration of unlawfully alienated land,
management of village markets, control over money lending, etc. PESA also empowers gram
sabha of the Scheduled Areas to approve plans, programmes for social and economic
10
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayats_(Extension_to_Scheduled_Areas)_Act_1996
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_
of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006
http://swapsushias.blogspot.in/2012/05/panchayats-extension-to-scheduled-areas.html
11
34 | P a g e

development, identify beneficiaries under poverty alleviation. The Powers of the Gram Sabha
under PESA are deemed to be competent to safeguard and preserve the traditions of their
people, community resources and customary mode of dispute resolution. The Gram Sabhas
further have:
Brief out lines of the salient features of other Act The Scheduled Tribe and Other
Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006could be summarized
as below towards ensuring Identity and rights of tribals as Indian citizens.
1. Right to hold and live in the forest land for habitation for self cultivation for
livelihood by a member or of a forest dwelling scheduled tribes or other scheduled
tribes or other traditional forest dwellers.
2. Right of ownership: access to collect use and dispose minor forest produce (include
all non-timber forest produce of plant origin) which has been traditionally collected
within or outside village boundaries.
3. Community rightsi.e. uses or entitlements such as fish and other products of water
bodies, gazing and traditional seasonal resources access to nomadic or pastoralist
communities.
4. Rights over disputed lands under any nomenclature in any state where claims are
disputed.
5. Right of conversion of pattas or leases or grants issued by local authority or any state
government on forest lands.
6. Right of settlements and conversion of all forest villages, old habitation, unsurveyed
villages, whether recorded, notified or not into revenue villages.
7. Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resources
which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
8. Right to access to biodiversity and community right to intellectual property and
traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and cultural diversity.
9. Any other right customarily enjoyed by the forest dwelling scheduled tribes or
traditional forest dwellers as the case may be.
Eligibility under this Act: who can be eligible under this Act? The Act is confined to those
who primarily reside in the forests and who depend on forest and forest land for livelihood.
The claimant must be a member of scheduled tribe in that area or they have been residing in
the forest for 75 years.
35 | P a g e

Process of reorganization of rights: The Act provides, Section 6 (1) that a Gram Sabha or
village assembly will initially pass a resolution recommending whose rights to which
resources should be recognized (i.e. which land belong to whom, how much land was under
cultivation of each as on December 13, 2005). The resolution is the screened and approved at
subdivision and subsequently at district level.
But the most common criticism was that the purpose of the law is to distribute forest land to
forest dwellers or tribals. Secondly, it is also cited that the Act is intended to recognize lands
that are already under cultivation as on 13 December 2005, not to grant title to any further
lands. The Act has met with much concern and opposition from environmentalists and
wildlife conservationists. Some of the opposition has been motivated by those who see the
law as a land distribution scheme that will lead to the handing over of forests to tribals and
forest dwellers. But the strongest opposition to the Act has come from wildlife
conservationists who fear that the law will make it impossible to create areas free from
human presence, for the purposes of wildlife conservation. Some environmentalists have also
argued that Conservationists who have stated that the Forest Bill will be the death-knell of
India's forests are indulging in unsubstantiated exaggeration. The group criticized the Forest
Rights Act as having the potential to cause huge floods, droughts, and to increase global
warming.. While supporters of the Act and others also argue that the provisions in the Act for
community conservation will in fact strengthen forest protection in the country. This is said
so because it will provide a legal right for communities themselves to protect the forest, as
thousands of villages are already doing in the face of official opposition. While supporting
the principles of the law, forest rights supporters are not entirely satisfied with the law as
finally passed. The recommendations of a Joint Parliamentary Committee on the law were
partly rejected, and supporters of forest rights have claimed that some of the rejected clauses
were important. In particular, the final form of the law is said to make it easier to exclude
some categories of both tribal and non-tribal forest dwellers, to have undermined the
democratic nature of the processes in the Act and to have placed additional hindrances and
bureaucratic restrictions on people's rights. The Campaign for Survival and Dignity described
the final form of the law as "both a victory and a betrayal" in their official statement on the
occasion.
References:
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scheduled_Tribes_in_India
36 | P a g e

[2] http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-ancient.html
[3] http://indiangovteducation.blogspot.in/
[4] http://forest.and.nic.in/ActsNRules%5CIFA-1927.pdf
[5] http://www.forestrightsact.com/what-is-this-act-about
[6] http://www.tribal.nic.in/Content/DefinitionofScheduledAreasProfiles.aspx
[7] http://mmpindia.in/Fifth_Schedule.htm
[8] http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/shed06.htm
[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayats_(Extension_to_Scheduled_Areas)_Act_1996
[10]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(R
ecognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006
[11] http://swapsushias.blogspot.in/2012/05/panchayats-extension-to-scheduled-areas.html
37 | P a g e
Overall Satisfaction of the LICI customers vis--vis their

convenient transaction with the insurer
Partha Sarathi Choudhuri
Project Assistant & Research Scholar
Department of Business Administration
The University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India
E-mail: partha.choudhuri@gmail.com
Abstract
As a social being customers are attached with the different kinds of service provider and
always want to perform their convenient transaction with their service providers in their
modern fast life. Satisfaction of the customers is very much influenced by the several factors
and based on these factors customers generally try to estimate their overall satisfaction with
their service providers. Customer satisfaction has now become the ultimate goal to the
different service providers and like any other service sector, in life insurance sector also the
insurance companies along with their associates are trying to provide quality of services to
the customers with the help of modern technology in order to satisfy them. In this paper,
researcher tried to observe in life insurance especially in the Life Insurance Corporation of
India (LICI) in Burdwan district whether convenient transaction of the customers with their
insurer has any impact on their overall satisfaction or not. In this study, accepted 221 usable
responses were considered as the sample size and statistical package SPSS 16 was used to
perform the analyses.
Keywords
Convenient Transaction, Information Technology, Insurance, Overall Satisfaction.
1. Introduction
Satisfaction of the customers comes only when their needs and wants are fulfilled. Rust and
Oliver (1994) explained the customer satisfaction as a summary of cognitive and affective
reaction to a service incident (or sometimes to a long-term service relationship). Satisfaction
(or dissatisfaction) results from experiencing a service quality encounter and comparing that
encounter with what was expected. Due to the effect of the several factors of the
globalization, customers socio-economic culture have already been changed and become
very much dependent on the information technology. In modern fast life, customers are not
38 | P a g e

only trying to get detailed information regarding various products and services offered by the
organizations but also wanting to perform their transactional operations with their insurers
according to their convenient time in a very fast and secure way. The customers of Life
Insurance Corporation of India (LICI) are no exception to this. Realizing the present
situation, like any other company, Life Insurance Corporation of India is now trying to move
their focus from the product to the customers where service quality has become the key driver
for the business success in the market. In order to fulfill various needs and requirements of
the customers, from the very early age of the business, the largest life insurance company
LICI is adopting various strategies to modernize their present infrastructure as well as serving
the customers in their convenient transaction with the help of their strong manpower. In the
present context, to understand whether convenient transaction of the LICI customers with
their insurer has any impact on their overall satisfaction or not, the current study has been
conducted on the life insurance customers of all the 17 branches of the Life Insurance
Corporation of India located in the district of Burdwan, West Bengal.
2. Review of Literature
According to Meuter et al. (2000), during the service delivery, recovery and personalization
of service, the noteworthy relationship of customer-employee makes customers satisfaction.
Rust and Oliver (1994) found that satisfaction is related with the reinforcement and arousal
and also referred it as a transaction-specific indicator. Khatibi et al. (2002) indicated that
customer satisfaction very much depends on the performance of the employee when they
provide service to the customer. In the modern age of the society just like a catalyst the
information technology has a strong influence in the improvement of the quality of services
provided by the life insurers (Choudhuri, 2013a) and convenient transaction of the LICI
customers is very much depends on the modern technology namely information technology
(Choudhuri, 2014a). The study of Choudhuri (2012) revealed that information technology
enabled convenient services (ITECS) has emerged as the one of the important dimensions of
the structure of service quality in life insurance sector especially in the Life Insurance
Corporation of India (LICI) and to the life insurance customers, ITECS is the third most
important service quality dimension (Choudhuri and Dasgupta, 2013). Observing the role of
information technology in fulfillment of the customers various needs and requirements in
life insurance (Choudhuri, 2014b) and the dependency of the life insurance customer
satisfaction on the information technology (Choudhuri, 2013b), in life insurance industry, the
39 | P a g e

organizational performance in the office operation of systems technology leaders was linked
to the level of information technology investment intensity (Harris and Katz, 1991). Jen-Her
and Yu-Min (2006); Leslie and Richard (2006) asserted that managers of the insurance
companies are able to process work quickly as well as response to their customers has been
faster and prompt using the latest information technology system. Conceptually, satisfaction
is not only the customer attitude about a service provider (Levesque and McDougall, 1996)
but also the reflection of positive feelings of a customer about a service (Cronin et al., 2000).
Boulding et al. (1993) stated that from a specific transaction or from an accumulative view
satisfaction may also be understand. Kotler (2000); Hoyer and MacInnis (2001) and
Hansemark and Albinsson (2004) revealed that satisfaction is an indication of customers
overall attitude or behavior about the service provider or the emotional reaction about the
difference between customers expectation and perception, regarding the achievement of
various need, want or goal.
3. Methodology
For the purpose of the study, researcher has developed following null and alternative
hypotheses:
H10: Convenience in transaction by the customer is independent of the
information technology.
H1: Convenience in transaction by the customer is dependent of the
information technology.
H20: Overall satisfaction of the customers is independent of their
convenient transaction with the insurer.
H2: Overall satisfaction of the customers is dependent of their convenient
transaction with the insurer.
To collect the data, initial questionnaire was developed as a survey instrument where along
with the other items, importance of having information technology in LIC, convenience in
transaction with the insurer and the overall satisfaction of the LICI customers were included.
The pilot study was conducted randomly selecting 30 customers where explaining objectives
and purpose of the study, researcher tried to get valuable feedback from these customers.
Based on this pilot study, the preliminary analysis established the internal consistency of the
items within questionnaire and gave the confirmation of validity and reliability of final
survey instrument. The structure of the questionnaire is both open-ended and close-ended and
40 | P a g e

consisted seven point Likert scale ranging from 1-strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree. After
successfully completion of the pilot study, considering different demographic profile of the
respondents and using random sampling technique, selecting all the 17 LIC branches located
in Burdwan district, total 350 questionnaires were distributed among the customers where
289 customers were agreed to give response and finally obtained 221 usable responses which
were considered as the sample size for this study. Here, statistical package SPSS 16 was used
to perform the analyses.
4. Results and discussions
The demographic data of the customers which was collected through cross-sectional survey
for the purpose of the study is given below:
Table 1: Demographic profile of the customers
Demographic
Variable
Gender
Age
Income
Occupation
Educational
Qualifications
41 | P a g e
Demographic
Characteristics
Frequency
Male
192 (86.9)
Female
29 (13.1)
30 years
51 (23.1)
31 - 40 years
66 (29.9)
41 - 50 years
38 (17.2)
51 - 60 years
49 (22.2)
60 years
17 (7.7)
Rs.14999.00
30 (13.6)
Rs.15000.00 Rs.24999.00
102 (46.2)
Rs.25000.00 Rs.44999.00
70 (31.7)
Rs.45000.00
19 (8.6)
Salaried
174 (78.7)
Business
15 (6.8)
Professional
11 (5.0)
Retired
18 (8.1)
Housewife
3 (1.4)
High school
14 (6.3)
Graduate
56 (25.3)
Post-graduate
38 (17.2)
Professional
98 (44.3)
Std.
Deviation
Mean
Median Mode
1.1312
1.0000
1.00
0.33841
2.6154
2.0000
2.00
1.26905
2.3529
2.0000
2.00
0.82150
1.4661
1.0000
1.00
1.00226
3.1991
4.0000
4.00
1.08970
Locality of
Living
Any other
15 (6.8)
Center of the town
144 (65.2)
Outskirts of the town
30 (13.6)
Rural areas adjoining

town
47 (21.3)
Mobile Phone
64 (29.0)
Modern Aids
Combination of
mobile & internet
* Percentage (%) in parenthesis
157 (71.0)
1.5611
1.0000
1.00
0.82138
1.4208
2.0000
2.00
0.90921
To understand the strength of the relationship of convenient transaction of the customers and
information technology, the simple regression analysis was performed in order to predict the
dependent variable from the independent variable (predictor) where convenient transaction
was considered as the dependent variable and information technology was considered as the
independent variable for this study. The results of simple regression analysis are given below
in the following tables:
Table 2: Variables Entered/Removedb
Model
1
Variables Entered
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Variables Removed
.
Method
Enter
a. All requested variables entered.

b. Dependent Variable: CONVENIENT TRANSACTION
Table 3: Model Summaryb

Model
1
R
.166
R Square
.028
Adjusted R Square
.023
Std. Error of the Estimate

.98320
a. Predictors: (Constant), INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Table 4: Result of ANOVA

Model
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of Squares
5.989
211.703
217.692
df
1
219
220
Mean Square
5.989
.967
F
6.196
Sig.
.014
a. Predictors: (Constant), INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Table 5: Regression Coefficients
Model
1
(Constant)
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
t
Sig.
B Std. Error
Beta
3.306
.168
19.734 .000
.284
.114
.166
2.489 .014
a. Dependent Variable: CONVENIENT TRANSACTION
42 | P a g e

The result of this simple regression analysis shows that dependent variable convenient
transaction has a strong relationship with the independent variable information technology. In
ANOVA result of Table 4, the value of F = 6.196, p0.001 established the significance of the
relationship between convenience of the customer in transaction and the information
technology. The result of regression coefficients in Table 5 indicates that the standardized
coefficient and corresponding t-value of information technology are = 0.166, t = 2.489,
p<0.001 which also proved that there exists positive and strong relationship between
dependent variable convenience of the customer in transaction and the independent variable
information technology in the present study. So, here the first null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis Convenience in transaction by the customer is dependent of the
information technology is accepted.
To realize the strength of the relationship between overall satisfaction of the LICI customers
and their convenient transaction with the insurer, the following simple regression analysis
was also performed to predict the dependent variable from the independent variable
(predictor) where overall satisfaction of the customers was considered as a dependent
variable and convenient transaction with the insurer was considered as the independent
variable:
Table 6: Variables Entered/Removedb
Model
Variables Entered
Variables Removed
1
CONVENIENT TRANSACTION
.
a. All requested variables entered.
b. Dependent Variable: OVERALL SATISFACTION
Method
Enter
Table 7: Model Summaryb

Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
1
.327
.178
.171
a. Predictors: (Constant), CONVENIENT TRANSACTION
Std. Error of the Estimate

.61201
Table 8: Result of ANOVA

Model
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
Regression
13.583
1
13.583
1
Residual
186.588
219
.852
Total
200.171
220
a. Predictors: (Constant), CONVENIENT TRANSACTION
43 | P a g e
F
17.314
Sig.
.002

Table 9: Regression Coefficients
Model
Unstandardized
Standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
t
Sig.
B
Std. Error
Beta
3.708
.154
11.263 .006
(Constant)
1
CONVENIENT
.209
.096
TRANSACTION
a. Dependent Variable: OVERALL SATISFACTION
.186
2.235 .000
The above simple regression analysis results established that the dependent variable overall
satisfaction of the LICI customers has a strong relationship with the independent variable
convenient transaction of the customers with their insurer. In ANOVA result of Table 8, the
value of F = 17.314, p0.001 established the significance of the relationship between the
overall satisfaction of the customer and their convenient transaction. In Table 9, the
regression coefficients result shows that the standardized coefficient and corresponding tvalue of convenient transaction are = 0.186, t = 2.235, p<0.001 which also established that
in the present study, a positive and strong relationship exists in between dependent variable
overall satisfaction of the customers and independent variable convenient transaction of the
customers. Thus, the second null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis
Overall satisfaction of the customers is dependent of their convenient transaction with the
insurer is accepted.
From the above discussion, in the present context of the study, the following diagram has
been developed which indicates that information technology plays a significant role in
convenient transaction of the customers with their insurer which also has a positive impact on
the overall satisfaction of the LICI customers.
Figure 1: Information Technology-Convenient Transaction-Overall Satisfaction Model

5. Conclusions
The present study established that in life insurance especially in the Life Insurance
Corporation of India (LICI) in Burdwan district, the convenient transaction of the customers
44 | P a g e

which is strongly influenced by the information technology has a significant impact on the
overall satisfaction of the LICI customers and in this respect the relevant Information
Technology-Convenient Transaction-Overall Satisfaction Model was developed at here.
Study revealed that at present when customers have no so much of time to spare with the
insurer neither to understand the different life insurance policies or schemes nor to perform
their different transactional operations rather they are becoming more expecting about the
information technology and information technology enabled services then information
technology may become to them as their life line in their life especially in their convenient
transaction with their insurer and only because of this convenient transaction, customers can
get their overall satisfaction from their insurer. As a number of insurance companies are now
operating in Indian life insurance market and there exists stiff competition among the
offerings of insurance services so it is expected that in order to give better satisfaction to the
knowledgeable and technology savvy customers, the Life Insurance Corporation of India will
not only reorient its service offerings but also adopt new and convenient technology through
which customers will be able to perform their convenient transaction with their insurer
without facing any problem in the present competitive life insurance market.
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[17] Meuter, M.L., Ostrom, A.L., Roundtree, R.I. & Bitner, M.J. (2000). Self-service technologies:
understanding customer satisfaction with technology-based service encounters, Journal of Marketing,
Vol. 64 No. 3, pp. 50-65.
[18] Rust, R. T., & Oliver, R. L. (1994). Service quality: New directions in theory and practice.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
46 | P a g e
Transmission Coefficient of Double Quantum Well Triple Barrier

Structure with Parabolic Geometry in presence of Electric Field
Arpan Deyasi
Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
RCC Institute of Information Technology,
Beliaghata, Kolkata 700015, India
deyasi_arpan@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Numerical computation of transmission coefficient for symmetric quantum double well triple
barrier structure with parabolic well geometry has been carried out using propagation matrix
method to study resonant tunneling phenomenon. It also helps to study the existence of quasibound states when the device is subjected to electric field. GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs material
composition is considered for simulation purpose within type-I limit, and corresponding
tunneling probability for each configuration is observed at energies less than barrier potential.
Effective mass mismatch at junctions are considered throughout the analysis by varying the
mole fraction of Al, and conduction band discontinuity is also taken into account as function
of material constitution. Parabolic geometry is considered to make the analysis a closer
approximation to the actual band structures obtained in practical devices. Application of
negative bias makes the possibility of quasi-bound states near zero energy.
Keywords- Double Quantum Well Triple Barrier Structure, Parabolic Well Geometry,
Propagation Matrix Method (TMM), Transmission Coefficient, Quasi-bound States
1. Introduction
For the past two decades, electronic computers have grown more powerful due to the
advancement in VLSI technology as the dimension of MOSFET has shrunk drastically with
time. However, the laws of quantum mechanics along with the limitations of growth
materials and existing fabrication techniques are likely to further inhibit reduction in the
minimum size of today's semiconductor transistors. Thus, in order to continue the
miniaturization of integrated circuits following Moores law well into the twenty-first
century, present day microelectronic device designs should be replaced with novel designs
for devices that take advantage of the quantum mechanical effects. Solid-state quantum-effect
nanoelectronic devices are the nearer-term alternative for continuing to increase the packing
47 | P a g e

density and speed of information processing. Among the different low-dimensional quantummechanical devices, resonant tunneling devices are found the interest of both theoretical [1]
and experimental researchers [2-3] because of its novel electronic properties [4], and also its
development mechanism is supported by the controlled microelectronic growth techniques
with different combination of semiconducting materials [5-6].
Physical properties of
heterostructure devices can be estimated from the knowledge of quantum transport processes,
and precise estimation of transmission coefficient is essential for the device with
incorporation of physical parameters [7-8].
Sen [2] reported the electron resonant tunneling through graded parabolic quantum well, and
I-V characteristic of such device was in good agreement with theoretical founding. Cruz [9]
calculated it for short-periodic superlattice structure, and later [10] employed transfer matrix
technique along with envelope function approximation to compute transmission coefficient.
Effect of electric field on Stark resonance condition is also calculated by Yuen [11].
Interband optical transitions in presence of midinfrared field [12] were computed for that sole
purpose as an optoelectronic application. Also intraband transitions in parabolic
multiquantum well structures is calculated for designing novel infrared detector [13], which
is a possible novel sensor using this type of geometrical structure. Author and co-workers
already calculated the effect of field on the similar structure for nonparabolic semiconductor
[14], but parabolic band structure consideration leads to the reduction of transmission
probability, as shown in this paper. Several numerical techniques have already been applied
by researchers to analyze electrical characteristics of double quantum well device such as
Variational method [15], Fourier Series method [16], Transfer Matrix approach [10],
Propagation Matrix method [17], Finite Difference method [18] etc. Comparing all these
methods, propagation matrix method is considered as one of the accurate techniques by the
authors because it can effectively be used to solve second-order differential equations with
simplicity, and results obtained by using this method are quite close to the experimental
results as suggested by earlier workers.
In this paper, probability of transmission of carriers in a double quantum well structure
surrounded by finite barriers is numerically computed when well geometry is regarded as
parabolic, and parabolic band structure is assumed. GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs material composition is
considered for simulation purpose. Effect of electric field on transmission coefficient is
analyzed for potential low biasing applications. Barrier width and well widths are
48 | P a g e

independently varied to observe the effect on resonance transmission when the device is
subjected to constant electric field when well width is taken as dimensionally greater than
barrier width, and material composition of the barrier layer is varied to observe the same
effect. Effect of field is realized by making a comparative study with zero bias case, and
strength of field is increased to predict the performance. Computation is performed
considering effective mass mismatch at junctions following BenDaniel Duke boundary
conditions, and conduction band discontinuity is also incorporated in the analysis by virtue of
that consideration.
2. Mathematical Modeling
Motion of a single electron in one dimension can be computed by using Schrdingers timeindependent equation in presence of electric field:
2 d 2
( z ) + V ( z ) ( z ) ( z ). z. ( z ) = E ( z ) ( z )
2 m * dz 2
(1)
where (z) is the electric field. Incorporating the concept of effective mass mismatch, i.e.
spatial variation of effective mass in Schrdingers equation, we obtain
2 1
( z ) + V ( z ) ( z ) ( z ).z. ( z ) = E ( z ) ( z )
*
2 z m ( z ) z
(2)
In order to avoid differentiating discontinuous functions and producing infinities, solution of
Schrdingers Equn (2) requires envelope function approximation that is both (z) and
(1/m*)((z)/z) are continuous by considering electron transport across the heterojunction.
In the barrier and well regions, modified Schrdingers equations are-
2
1
+ V b ( w ) ( z ) ( z ) ( z ).z. ( z ) = E ( z ) ( z )
(
z
)
2 z m b ( w ) * ( z ) z
(3)
where mb* & mw* are the effective masses of barrier and well regions, and Vb & Vw are
potentials respectively. For the double quantum well triple barrier structure under
consideration as shown in fig, wavevector for the problem may be defined as:
49 | P a g e
2m* (E qV j )
kj =
0.5
(4)
where the term Vj stands for potential function, which includes both Vb/w and field
component along the propagation direction.
Fig 1: Schematic picture of double quantum well triple barrier structure having parabolic geometry at zero bias
with GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs composition
The wave functions in regions j and j + 1 are
j = A j exp[ik j z ] + B j exp[ ik j z ]
(5.1)
j +1 = C j +1 exp[ik j +1 z ] + d j exp[ ik j +1 z ]
(5.2)
where A and C are coefficients for the wave function traveling left to right in regions j and
j+1 respectively; B and D are the corresponding right-to-left traveling-wave coefficients. We
assume that BenDaniel Duke boundary conditions are satisfied in all the junctions.
Propagation between potential steps separated by distance Lj carries phase information only
so that
A j exp[ik j L j ] = C j
(6.1)
B j exp[ ik j L j ] = D j
(6.2)
This can be formulated as-
50 | P a g e
Aj
C j +1
B = M D
j
j +1
(7)
where
0
exp[ik j L j ]
M =
0
exp[ik j L j ]
(8)
Thus, propagation matrix for jth region can be written as:
m j k j +1
exp[ik j L j ]
1 +
m
1
j +1 k j
Pj =
2
m k
1 j j +1 exp[ik j L j ]
m j +1 k j
m k
1 j j +1 exp[ik j L j ]
m
j +1 k j
m j k j +1
1 +
exp[ik j L j ]
m j +1 k j
(9)
A flow of propagation matrix in different region of the concerned structure provides the
transmission matrix which can be defined asT (E) =
1
( P11 ) 2
(10)
3. Results and Discussion
The quantum structure considered for numerical analysis of transmission coefficient is double
well triple barrier one, where well is made by lower bandgap GaAs material, and barrier is
fabricated by higher bandgap AlxGa1-xAs material. It may be noted that the percentage of Al is
limited within 40% so that the structure always remain within type-I limit, so direct transition
between conduction and valence bands are allowed. This consideration helps to apply the
theoretical results into predicting the performances of optoelectronic devices. In this context,
for better result, conduction band discontinuity is considered at the junctions, and effective
mass mismatch is also taken into account following BenDaniel Duke boundary condition.
51 | P a g e

Fig 2: Trans coefficient with energy for different material composition of well layer in presence of electric field
Numerical computation begins with equal well and barrier widths of the structure, where
material composition of barrier layer is modified within type-I limit. It is observed that by
increasing the Al composition, tunneling probability reduces, shown in Fig 2. This is due to
the fact that with increase of Al mole fraction, both potential barrier (i.e. conduction band
discontinuity) and effective mass mismatch at the junctions increase, and hence tunneling
probability reduces. By application of high electric field, it is revealed that tunneling
probability increases. This can be verified by the origin of resonance peak at lower energy
values. This is shown in Fig 3. This ensures the fact that application of bias enhances the
probability of tunneling, which is significant for low bias device operation. For simulation
purpose, zero potential level is considered at the bottom of the well, i.e., at the vertex of the
well region due to its geometry.
Fig 3: Comparative study Transmission coefficient with energy for different material composition of well layer in
presence of electric field. Fig 4: Trans coefficient with energy for different electric field for particular material
composition of barrier layer
By increasing the strength of electric field, resonance probability increases to a great extent.
This is plotted in Fig 4. Thus a suitable choice of bias voltage can provide the required
transmission at desired energy values. Also the existence of quasi-bound states becomes less
significant with higher field intensity.
Fig 5 shows that with higher barrier width, transmission probability reduces when well width
is kept constant for potentially symmetric structure. One interesting feature may be noted
down that with higher barrier width, the origin of first peak remains almost at same energy
value, where simulation is carried out considering barrier width is always lower than the well
52 | P a g e

width. Similarly, well widths are varied in the same manner and it is revealed from Fig 6 that
with increase of well dimension, resonant tunneling phenomenon is evident at lower energy
values. This is also plotted for potentially symmetric structure.
Fig 5: Transmission coefficient profile with energy for different barrier width for GaAs/Al0.3Ga0.7As material
composition in presence of electric field. Fig 6: Transmission coefficient profile with energy for different well
width for GaAs/Al0.3Ga0.7As material composition in presence of electric field
4. Conclusion
Electronic properties of DQWTB structure are dependent on material composition and
dimensional configuration precisely when parabolic geometry is considered. In presence of
electric field, transmission coefficient increases, and eigenstates appear at lower energy
values. This analysis is far more important than rectangular structure as step potential
configuration is ideal and fabrication limitations in existing microelectronic technology
makes the well structure distorted. Parabolic profile is the closest mathematical
approximation is considered for predicting performances of such devices. Al composition is
varied within type-I heterostructure limitation so that structure can be made potentially
different, and resonant tunneling probability is computed for different cases. Existence of
quasi-bound states can be verified by studying the origin of resonance peaks, and varying
well widths and barrier thicknesses provides pictorial information of these states. This
analysis can be further extended to analyze complex one-dimensional confined structures.
References
[1] G. Goldhaber-Gordon, M. S. Montemerlo, J. C. Love, G. J. Opiteck, and J. C. Ellenbogen,
Overview of Nanoelectronic Devices, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 85, No. 4, pp. 521-540, 1997.
53 | P a g e

[2] S. Sen, F. Capasso, A. C. Gossard, R. A. Spah, A. I. Hutchinson, and S. N. G. Chu, Observation
of Resonant Tunneling through a Compositionally Graded Parabolic Quantum Well, Applied Physics
Letters, Vol. 51, pp. 1428-1430, 1987.
[3] K. D. Maranowski, and A. C. Gossard, Far-infrared electroluminescence from parabolic quantum
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[5] K. Talele, and D. S. Patil, Analysis of Wavefunction, Energy and Transmission Coefficients in
GaN/AlGaN Superlattice Nanostructures, Progress In Electromagnetics Research, Vol. 81, pp. 237252, 2008.
[6] H. Yamamoto, Resonant Tunneling Condition and Transmission Coefficient in a Symmetrical
One-Dimensional Rectangular Double-Barrier System, Applied Physics A: Materials Science &
Processing, Vol 42, pp. 245-248, 1987.
[7] C. E. Simion, and C. I. Ciucu, TripleBarrier Resonant Tunneling: A Transfer Matrix Approach,
Romanian Reports in Physics, Vol.59, pp. 805-817, 2007.
[8] AK. Ghatak, K. Thyagarajan, and M. R. Shenoy, A Novel Numerical Technique for Solving the
One-Dimensional Schrdinger Equation using Matrix Approach - Application to Quantum Well
Structures, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, Vol.24, pp. 1524-1531, 1988.
[9] H. Cruz, Resonant Tunneling through Parabolic Quantum Wells achieved by means of Short
Period Superlattices, Solid State Communications, Vol. 85, pp. 65-68, 1993.
[10] H. Cruz, A. Hernandez-Cabrera, and A. Munoz, Resonant Tunneling of Electrons through
Parabolic Quantum Wells: An Analytical Calculation of the Transmission Coefficient,
Semiconductor Science and Technology, Vol. 6, pp. 218-222 , 1991.
[11] W. P. Yuen, Exact Analysis of Finite Parabolic Quantum Wells with and without A Static
Electric Field, Physical Review B, Vol. 48, pp. 17316-17320, 1993.
[12] S. H. Pan, Interband Optical Transitions of a Parabolic Quantum Well in the presence of An
Applied Midinfrared Field, Physical Review B, Vol. 48, pp. 22922297, 1993.
[13] R. P. G. Karunasiri, and K. L. Wang, Infrared Absorption in Parabolic Multiquantum Well
Structures, Superlattices and Microstructures, Vol. 4, pp. 661-664, 1988.
[14] A. Biswas, R. Karmakar, S. Mukherjee and A. Deyasi, Biasing Effect on Transmission
Coefficient of Double Quantum Well Triple Barrier Structure with Parabolic Geometry incorporating
Conduction Band Nonparabolicity, International Journal of Micro and Nano Systems, Vol. 3, Issue.
2, pp. 121-125, 2012
[15] T. Yamaguchi, M. Kato, and K. Tada, A New Variational Method for Calculating Eigenenergy
in Various Quantum Wells on the basis of Effective Well Width, IEEE LEOS Conference
Proceedings, Vol. 2, pp. 293-294, 1994.
[16] D. L. Mathine, S. K. Myjak, and G. N. Maracas, A Computational Fourier Series Solution of the
BenDaniel-Duke Hamiltonian for Arbitrary Shaped Quantum Wells, IEEE Journal of Quantum
Electronics, Vol. 31, pp. 1216-1222, 1995.
[17] J. G. S. Demers, and R. Maciejko, Propagation Matrix Formalism and Efficient Linear Potential
Solution to Schrdingers Equation, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 90, pp. 6120-6129, 2001.
[18] T. P. Horikis, T, P. Eigenstate Calculation of Arbitrary Quantum Structures, Physics Letters A,
Vol. 359, pp. 345-348, 2006.
54 | P a g e
Intervening effect of CRM dimensions on service quality

perception-tourist satisfaction-destination loyalty link:
Hypotheses and model development
Asst. Professor,
Dept. of Business Administration, Bengal Institute of Technology & Management
Email: baksi.arup@gmail.com
and
Prof. (Dr.) Bivraj Bhusan Parida
Professor, Dept. of Tourism Management, The University of Burdwan,
Email: Bivraj@gmail.com
Abstract
Customer Relationship Management (CRM), as a business process, has been relatively
understudied in the perspective of hospitality and tourism industry.
The conventional
dimensions of CRM were found to be instrumental towards augmentation of perceived

service quality and vis--vis positive behavioural intent of customers. This paper focuses on
developing a model for testing involving the intervening effects of CRM dimensions on the
relational link between service quality perception, tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty.
Key words: customer-relationship-management, tourist, satisfaction, destination, loyalty,
service, quality.
1. Introduction
With the increase in the significance of Tourism as a major contributing source to the
enhancement of nations GDP, the academic researchers too has started to get involved in
identifying its nature, dynamics, dimensions and effects. Tourism has been observed as the
aggregate of interactions and relationships between tourists, business houses, host
governments and administration and host communities (McIntosh and Goeldner, 1984). As a
service sector, tourism has its own criticalities which assume significant proportion while
perceiving quality associated with it. The intensive dyadic encounter between a host of
tourist-service-providers and the tourists, often, does not allow the services to be
homogenized. These, rather heterogeneous, services create ambiguity in perceiving quality of
services received from specific tourist-service-providers.
But, identifying the perceived
tourist service quality becomes imperative as it was empirically tested to be antecedent to

tourist satisfaction (short-term effects) and destination loyalty (long-term effects). From the
late 1990s the hospitality and tourism sector started using the philosophy of customer
55 | P a g e

relationship management (CRM) as it proved to be a proactive business process to understand
the tourists (customers), segment the tourists on the basis of their psychographic determinants
and to design integrated communication with the same. CRM was adopted by the tourism
sector with an apprehension that it will help maintain a linear relationship between perceived
service quality-tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty. But in most of the cases it was
found that the conventional CRM dimensions failed to facilitate the relationship.
2. Review of literature
Customer relationship management (CRM) has been observed as a relentless upscale
movement as it represents the changing notions of customer attitudes, perceptions and
behavioural manifestations in the context of their apprehension and expectation to be served
as (Peppers and Rogers, 2004). Conceptually, CRM evolved from three basic foundations of
marketing management: (a) customer orientation, (b) relationship marketing and (c) database
marketing (Yim et al, 2004). Adoption, practice and implementation of CRM gained
momentum among academicians and corporate houses (Gruen et al, 2000; Rigby and
Ledingham, 2004; Srivastava et al, 1999; Thomas et al, 2004). CRM has been widely used by
the sales personnel in augmenting their relationship with the customers (Widmier et al, 2002)
to improve sales forecasting, lead management and customization (Rigby and Ledingham,
2004). Inspite of its wide application, CRM, lacked a cohesive definition and identification of
its dimensions. Yim (2002) provided some conceptual clarity of CRM by synthesizing the
literatures (Crosby and Johnson, 2001; Fox and Stead, 2001; Ryals and Knox, 2001)
pertaining to marketing, technology and management and came out with four key focal areas:
(a) strategy, (b) people, (c) processes and (d) technology. Day (2003) confirmed that the key
focal factors identified by Yim (2002) can create a synergistic relationship value when they
work in unison (rather than in isolate), thereby conforming to the objective and realm of
CRM. Study of extant literatures revealed that implementation of CRM necessarily involved
four specific activities: (a) focusing on key customers (Schmid and Weber, 1998; Srivastava
et al, 1999; Sheth et al, 2000; Ryals and Knox, 2001; Armstrong and Kotler, 2003;
Vandermerwe, 2004; Srinivasan et al, 2002, Jain and Singh, 2002) which encompassed the
view of a customer-centric organizational structure with dyadic interactive points targeted
towards identification of key or valued customers through lifetime value computations, (b)
organizing around CRM (Brown, 2000; Homburg et al, 2000; Ahmed and Rafique, 2003)
which emphasized on customer-centric organizational functions with an objective to ensure
56 | P a g e

value proposition to customers, (c) managing knowledge (Peppard, 2000; , Freeland, 2003;
Stefanou et al, 2003; Stringfellow et al, 2004, Yim et al, 2004; Plessis and Boon, 2004;
Brohman et al, 2003) whereby customer-information are effectively transformed into
customer-knowledge and disseminated across the organizational hierarchy which will equip
salespeople with better understanding of customers requirements and (d) adopting CRMbased technology (Butler, 2000; Pepperd, 2000; Vrechopoulos, 2004; Widmier et al, 2002) to
optimize communication with customers, accurate service delivery with back-up and
supportive information, managing customer-knowledge by data warehousing and data mining
and providing customized services. However, there has been a dearth of research in
identifying these CRM dimensions in the context of tourism industry. Modified CRM
dimensions for tourism industries were identified (Baksi, 2014; Baksi, 2013) in the form of
destination and purpose denomination and were found to be influential in perceived service
quality, tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty.
Service quality has been recognised as a critical prerequisite and determinant of
competitiveness for establishing and sustaining long-term satisfying relationships with
customers (Coyles and Gokey, 2002; Choi et al, 2004, Ojo, 2010). A number of studies were
targeted towards revealing the global attributes of services that significantly contribute to
quality assessments in conventional service environment (Gronroos, 1982, 1984;
Parasuraman et al., 1985, 1988). Over the years, exploration to enhancement of service
quality has remained as the focal research object (Yavas et.al., 1997, Rust and Zahorik, 1993;
Cronin and Taylor, 1992, 1994; Buttle, 1996; Crosby and Stephens, 1987; Parasuraman et.al.
1988; Kearns and Nadler, 1992; Avkiran, 1994; Julian and Ramaseshan, 1994; Lewis, 1989;
Llosa et.al., 1998). The study of service quality was pioneered by Parasuraman, Zeithaml and
Berry (PZB), who developed the gaps framework in 1985 and its related SERVQUAL
instrument in 1988 (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry [PZB] 1985, 1988, 1991). Numerous
researchers have also highlighted the independent effect of perceptions on service quality
evaluations and have questioned the use of disconfirmation paradigm as the basis for the
assessment of service quality (Carman, 1990; Bolton & Drew 1991a, Babakus & Boller,
1992; Cronin & Taylor, 1992. Baker and Crompton (2000) observed that the literature related
to quality in the area tourism and allied area dates back to the early 1960s. Over the years
researchers have made various attempts to make sense of how tourists evaluate the quality of
services they receive while touring to specific destinations having tourist attraction (Atilgan,
57 | P a g e

Akinci, & Aksoy, 2003; Baker & Crompton, 2000; Chadee & Mattsson, 1996; Frochot, 2004;
Hudson, Hudson, & Miller,2004; Vogt & Fesenmaier, 1995; Weirmair & Fuchs, 1999), tour
operator and travel agency quality (Ryan& Cliff, 1997), hotel and its hospitality quality (Suh,
Lee, Park, & Shin, 1997) etc. However, Frochot (2004) pointed out that given the nature of
service, the evaluation of its quality is quite complex. Vijayadurai (2008) identified service
quality factors in hospitality industry and assumed them to be critical in creating loyal visitors
who will return to the destination and recommend it to others (Tian-Cole & Cromption,
2003). Pawitra and Tan (2003) used SERVQUAL in order to analyse the destination image of
Singapore from the perspective of tourists from Indonesia and noted that the use of
SERVQUAL in measuring a destination image requires that it be modified in order to ensure
that the data reflect the unique attributes provided by the destination. Atilgan et al. (2003)
suggest that cultural characteristics have an effect on perceptions of service quality in tourism
and found that different cultural groups can have different levels of expectations and
perceptions in terms of service-quality dimensions.
Tourist satisfaction can be obtained by assessing the gap between predicted and perceived
service. Service quality has been recognized as an antecedent to tourist satisfaction (Suki,
2013, Canny and Hidayat, 2012). Dmitrovic et al (2009), in a study observed that tourist
satisfaction as a result of sequential interrelated consequences starting with destination image
through perceived service quality and value. Oliver (1981) claimed that tourist satisfaction
can be seen as a tourists post-purchase evaluation of the destination. In many studies,
satisfaction was distinguished as an antecedent of loyalty (Kozak, 2001; Jang & Feng,
2006).
Although Oppermann (2000) stated that studies on tourist satisfaction and
destination loyalty have not been thoroughly investigated, Chi and Qu (2008, p. 624)
claimed tourist satisfaction as critical to profitability. Although measuring tourist
satisfaction is not simple, several studies have been conducted to examine the influence
of customer satisfaction on loyalty (Gummesson, 1993; Anderson and Fornell, 1994; Um
et al., 2006; Hui et al., 2007). Gotlieb et al. (1994) asserted that positive satisfaction had
positive influence on tourists repurchase intention.
Similarly, Baker & Crompton
(2000); Petrick et al. (2001), and Jang & Feng (2006) highlighted that satisfaction is the
primary antecedent of revisit intention.
Importantly, there is an agreement among several scholars that satisfaction provided a
ground for revisit and positive word of mouth recommendations which are the indicators of
58 | P a g e

loyalty (e.g. Kozak & Rimmington, 2000; Yoon & Uysal 2005; Chi and Qu, 2008). Kozak
(2001) pointed that level of satisfaction as one of the most dominant variables in
explaining revisit intention.
been
widely underlined
Accordingly, in tourism destinations researches, it has

that tourist satisfaction,
have strong relationship (eg. Yoon & Uysal, 2005;
loyalty and revisit intention
Awadzi & Panda, 2007), while
few studies disapproved the positive relationship between tourist satisfaction and revisit
intention (e.g. Um et al., 2006).
In tourist destination researches (e.g. Oliver, 1997; Yoon & Uysal 2005), tourist
satisfaction has been measured by different items such as overall satisfaction, performance,
expectation, and positive recommendation. Notably, Chi and Qu (2008) maintained loyalty
to be a better predictor of actual behavior compared to satisfaction. In this respect, Chen and
Tsai (2007) conclude that a key effect of tourist satisfaction that influences tourism
intentions for revisit both in short and long term is loyalty to the destination.
Researchers have verified the relationship between the tourist satisfaction and destination
loyalty (Chi and Qu, 2008; Yoon and Uysal, 2005) not in terms of revisit intention but also
through advocacy (Bigne et al, 2009; Murray and Howat, 2002; Yoon and Uysal, 2005).
Destination loyalty has been highlighted as one of the most important subjects in tourism
researches. In many studies, revisit intention and positive word of mouth recommendation
are noted as indicators of loyalty (e.g. Yoon & Uysal 2005; Chi and Qu, 2008). Several
studies have attempted to identify major antecedents of revisit intention including
satisfaction (Petrick et al., 2001; Kozak 2001), novelty seeking (Jang & Feng, 2007), image
(Chi & QU, 2008), motivation and satisfaction (Yoon & Usal, 2005), safety (Chen &
Gursoy, 2001), overall satisfaction (Campo- Martinez et al. 2010), cultural difference (
Chen & Gursoy, 2001), perceived value ( Petrick et al.,2001), past vacation experience(
Kozak ,2001), and the like. In this regard, notably, Jang and Feng (2007) asserted that even
though the extent of research finding is well focused on determinants of repeat visit
intention, it can be contested that understanding tourists revisit intention and their behavior
remains limited. Revisit intention has also been focused as an important issue from
economic perspective in tourism studies (e.g. Darnell & Johnson, 2001). Hsu et al. (2008)
observed preserving loyalty of established customer as a crucial contributor to the
achievement and profitability of business. Accordingly, the main reason why researchers
should consider revisit intention is the fact that globalization of markets, competitive
59 | P a g e

pressure, brand multiplication and, above all, the ever-changing lifestyles and consumer
behavior have forced companies to develop strategies to keep their clients and create
consumer loyalty programs (Flambard-Ruaud, 2005), particularly in tourism industry.
2.1 Research gap identified

Extant literature did not provide much inroads into the annals of tourist satisfaction and that
too by considering modified SERVQUAL dimensions as an impact factor. The literatures
revealed the dearth of academic inputs emphasizing moderating impact of CRM dimensions
on perceived service quality-tourist satisfaction-destination loyalty relationship. Research has
been also inconclusive to dimensionalize CRM for tourism industry.
2.2. Formulation of hypotheses

Based on the review of literature this paper attempts empirically to explore possible linkages
between perceived tourist service quality (PTSQ), tourist satisfaction (TS) and destination
loyalty (DL) with probable moderating impact of CRM dimensions (CRMD) on PTSQ, TS
and DL link.
Accordingly it is hypothesized that,
H1:
Tourist satisfaction (TS) is dependent on perceived tourist service quality (PTSQ)
H2:
Destination loyalty (DL) is influenced by tourist satisfaction (TS)
H3:
Destination loyalty (DL) is dependent on combined impact of perceived tourist service
quality (PTSQ) and tourist satisfaction (TS).
H4:
Better performance of CRM dimensions (CRMD) will have stronger impact of
perceived tourist service quality (PTSQ) on tourist satisfaction (TS) and vice versa.
H5:
Better performance of CRM dimensions (CRMD) will have stronger tourist
satisfaction (TS) on destination loyalty (DL) and vice versa.
H6:
Destination loyalty (DL) behaviour will be strengthened under the impact of CRM
dimensions (CRMD), if perceived tourist service quality (PTSQ) and tourist satisfaction (TS)
are high.
H7:
Augmented performance of CRM with added dimensions (CRM-AD) will have
stronger impact of perceived tourist service quality (PTSQ) on tourist satisfaction (TS) and
vice versa.
H6:
Augmented performance of CRM with added dimensions (CRM-AD) will have
stronger tourist satisfaction (TS) on destination loyalty (DL) and vice versa.
H7:
Destination loyalty (DL) behaviour will be strengthened under the impact of
augmented performance of CRM with added dimensions (CRM-AD), if perceived tourist
service quality (PTSQ) and tourist satisfaction (TS) are high.
2.3 Proposed research model
60 | P a g e

Based on the literature reviewed and hypotheses formulated, the researchers would like to test
the two structural models (Fig.1) for robustness.
CRMD
PTSQ
TS
DL
Fig.1: Structural Model-1

(Legends description: PTSQ-Perceived tourist service quality, TS-Tourist satisfaction, DL-Destination loyalty,
CRMD-CRM dimensions)
CRM AD
PTSQ
TS
DL
Fig.2: Structural Model-2

(Legends description: PTSQ-Perceived tourist service quality, TS-Tourist satisfaction, DL-Destination loyalty,
CRM-AD CRM with added dimensions namely destination & purpose denominations)
Hierarchical regression analysis may be deployed by considering the composite and

summated mean values of the variables (across the items) to understand the direct and the
mediating effects of CRMD and CRM-AD on PTSQ-TS, TS-DL and PTSQ-DL links. For
providing empirical evidence to our hypotheses, an ordinary least square (OLS) regression
for the dependent variables TS and DL may be used. The following models will be
constructed for testing:
(i) TS = 0 + 1*PTSQ + 2*CRMD + 3*PTSQ*CRMD+ i
(ii) DL = 0 + 1*TS + 2*CRMD + 3*TS*CRMD+ i
(iii) DL = 0 + 1*TS + 2*PTSQ+ 3*CRMD + 4*TS*PTSQ+ 5*PTSQ*CRMD +
6* TS*CRMD + 7* PTSQ*TS*CRMD + i
61 | P a g e

(iv)TS = 0 + 1*PTSQ + 2*CRMD-AD + 3*PTSQ*CRMD-AD+ i
(v) DL = 0 + 1*TS + 2*CRMD-AD + 3*TS*CRMD-AD+ i
(vi) DL = 0 + 1*TS + 2*PTSQ+ 3*CRMD-AD + 4*TS*PTSQ+ 5*PTSQ*CRMDAD +
6* TS*CRMD-AD + 7* PTSQ*TS*CRMD-AD + i
The binary and ternary interaction effects will reveal the intervening effects of both CRMD
and CRM-AD on the variable-links. Structural equation modeling (SEM) will be used
following the confirmatory factor analysis to identify the fit statistics.
Conclusion
The study aims to expand the research domain and shall contribute to the extant literature by
providing the intervening effects of CRM while linking perceived tourist service quality,
tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty. Further to this, the study reinforces the
applicability and integration of CRM dimensions (Yim et al, 2004) with the functional and
behavioural modalities of tourism industry. The moderating effects of CRM and CRM-AD on
PTSQ and TS, TS and DL and on the link PTSQ-TS-DL is likely to open up new research
frontiers whereby additional exploration to the dimensional impact of CRM on sectoral
tourist behaviours can be analysed. Existing literature emphasized the role of tourist service
quality towards influencing tourist satisfaction by using the conventional dimensions of
SERVQUAL. In future further extrapolations can be made to identify novel dimensions of
service quality to emphasize tourist dynamics.
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Calculating Transmittance of Photonic Crystal under Different

Polarization Conditions with Optical Gain Factor
Rajashree Khan1,
PG Student, Dept of Electronics & Communication Engineering, RCC Institute of
Information Technology, Kolkata-700015; email: khan.rajashree@gmail.com
and
Arpan Deyasi2
2
Assistant Professor, Dept of Electronics & Communication Engineering, RCC Institute of
Information Technology, Kolkata-700015; email: deyasi_arpan@yahoo.co.in
1
Abstract
Transmittance of one-dimensional photonic crystal is computed using transfer-matrix
technique under p and s-polarized conditions considering optical gain factor. GaN/AlxGa1-xN
material composition is considered for simulation purpose, and Adachis model is considered
to accurately incorporate the material parameter effect into calculation. Results are also
compared with that obtained under normal incidence. Computation suggests that the structure
can be used as optical bandpass filter, and optical gain/loss factor makes the filter
characteristics asymmetric. Material composition is also tuned to analyze the shift of
passband centered on 1.55 m. Results are important in designing the filter using
semiconductor-based photonic crystal for optical communication.
Keywords
One-dimensional photonic crystal, Transmittance, Semiconductor heterostructure, Optical
gain coefficient, P-polarization, S-polarization
1. Introduction
Electromagnetic wave propagation through one-dimensional periodic boundary is the subject
of research for a long years ago [1], and the concept of photonic band gap evolves a few
decades back [2] when the computation suggested the strucutres ability to restrict the
propagation in certain wavelength, and allow in other ranges. this novel property is exhibited
by photonic crystal, one of the pioneering development in the field of photonics. The
phenomenon can eb explained by using Braggs reflection [3], and the strucutre can be
utilized in designing optical bandpass filter [4]. The passive circuit concept can be possible to
realize only when layer dimensions have the order of light wavelength [5]. Materials exhibit
photonic bandgap can be used in designing photonic crystal fibre [6], which may replace the
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conventional optical fibre due to its highly improved performance from communication
point-of-view [7].
Istrate [8] showed that photonic crystal heterostructure has the potential for design of high
frequency tunnelling devices and active components. Rudziski [9] analyzed the polarized
wave propagation inside photonic crystal using transfer matrix technique. Effect of polarized
wave incidence on metal photonic crystal was analyzed [10] for calculation of optical
properties. Multiband optical filter is also experimentally realized for image processing
applications [11]. Photonic crystal based optical diode is recently proposed [12] with
directional mismatch. Effect of refractive index of dielectric material on transmission spectra
[13] for designing multi-narrow channel band filter was analyzed by optical transfer matrix
technique.
Optical gain factor thus plays a crucial role in determining the highest magnitude of
transmittance curve under both normal and oblique incidence. For a specified material
composition, the gain factor makes a downward shift of the characteristics profile which is
important for designing optical filter using the photonic crystal structure. Similarly, the loss
factor makes an equivalent upward shift of the filter passband. Hence depending on the
threshold level of the incoming signal, gain factor may be adjusted for required optical filter
design.
In the present paper, effect of structural parameter and incidence angle on transmittance of
one-dimensional photonic crystal is numerically investigated incorporating optical gain
factor, and semiconductor heterostructure is considered as the unit block of the periodic
arrangement. Both TE (p-polarization) and TM (s-polarization) waves are considered for
analysis, and results are compared with that obtained for normal incidence. Findings are
important for optical communication as the structure exhibit bandpass filter characteristics at
around 1.55m.
Consider the smallest unit of 1D photonic crystal structure comprising of GaN/AlxGa1-xN
material composition where forward and backward propagating waves are given by-
a2 = t 21a1 + r12b2
(1)
b1 = t12b2 + r21a1
(2)
where rij and tij are reflectivity and transmissivity in passing from layer i to layer j.
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Fig 1: Schematic picture of forward and backward waves in smallest unit of 1D photonic crystal
For p-polarized incident wave at angle 1, interface reflectivities are given by
r12 = r21 =
n1 cos( 2 ) n2 cos(1 )
n1 cos( 2 ) + n2 cos(1 )
(3)
For s-polarized incident wave at angle 1, interface reflectivities are given by
r12 = r21 =
n1 cos(1 ) n2 cos( 2 )
n1 cos(1 ) + n2 cos( 2 )
(4)
From the wave equations, transfer matrix corresponding to the interface can be obtained as
1 1
M T 1, 2 =
t r21,12
r21,12
(5)
Considering the phase factor of the field propagating through uniform medium, propagation
matrix is given as
0
exp[ jk1, 2 d1, 2 ]
P1, 2 =
0
exp[ jk1, 2 d1, 2 ]
(6)
where di is the propagation length in ith layer, and ki is the wavevector in that layer. Thus,
transfer matrix for the elementary cell is
M = M T 1 P1 M T 2 P2
(7)
For a perfectly periodic medium composed of N such elementary cells, the total transfer
matrix for such a structure is
M tot = M N
(8)
Transmission coefficient is given by
T=
1
2
M 11 (tot )
(9)

Using Eq. (9), transmittivity of the one dimensional photonic crystal is calculated and plotted
with wavelength centred at 1.55 m for normal and oblique incidences with variation of
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material parameters incorporating optical gain/loss factor. Here material composition of
lower refractive index material is tuned considering Adachis model to see the effect in filter
characteristics. Fig 2 shows the transmittivity with wavelength for TE (p-polarized) and TM
(s-polarized) wave incidence for optical gain/loss factor with small magnitude. From Fig 2a,
it is seen that magnitude of transmittance increases with addition of gain factor [0.0001 dB]
keeping the width of photonic bandgap constant.
One typical point may be noted in this
context is that higher gain factor distortates the filter characteristics. If optical loss factor is
included, then similar downward fall of transmittance is observed, as depicted in Fig 2b.
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Fig 2: Transmittivity profile with wavelength for incidence of different polarized waves (a) for gain factor; (b)
for loss factor
Fig 3 shows the variaiton for normal and oblique incidence. It is shown that with increase in
incidence angle, passband of the optical filter makes a right shift keeping the magnitude of
the photonic bandgap unchanged. The analysis holds for both type of polarized incidence.
But for p-polarized incidence, quality of the filter improves due to the enhanced reflectivity at
the edge of the filter profile; when compared with normal incidence. The reverse nature; i.e.,
detoriation of filter characteristics is observed when s-polarized wave is incident. Fig 3a
shows the nature for gain factor, whereas the effect due to loss factor is shown in Fig 3b.
Fig 3: Transmittivity profile with wavelength for normal and oblique incidence of electromagnetic waves (a) for
gain factor; (b) for loss factor
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By increasing the material composition of AlN in AlxGa1-xN material, it is seen that optical
filter characteristic detoriates. For both type of polarized wave incidence, it may be seen that
ripple appears in the passband with increasing the value of x. This is true for both gain curve
(shown in Fig 4a) and loss curve (Fig 4b). Hence bandwidth of the optical filter reduces.
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Fig 4: Transmittivity profile with wavelength for oblique incidence with different material compositon (a) for
gain factor; (b) for loss factor
4. Conclusion
Transmittivity of one-dimensional photonic crystal is computed for incidence of s and ppolarized waves incorporating optical gain factor. Material composition is changed to observe
the effect on passband of filter characteristics. Oblique incidence makes a right shift of
passband around centered wavelength for both the polarization conditions. Gain factor
increases the magnitude of transmittance which is required for filter application.
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[5] E. Ozbay, Layer-by-layer photonic crystals from microwave to far-infrared frequencies, Journal
of Optical Society of America B, vol. 13, pp. 1945-1955, 1996.
[6] J. Limpert, T. Schreiber, S. Nolte, H. Zellmer, T. Tunnermann, R. Iliew, F. Lederer, J. Broeng,
G.Vienne, A. Petersson, C. Jakobsen, High-power air-clad large-mode-area photonic crystal fiber
laser, Optic Express, vol. 11, pp. 818-823, 2003.
[7] J. Hansryd, P. A. Andrekson, M. Westlund, J. Li, P. O. Hedekvist, Fiber-based Optical.
Parametric Amplifiers and their Applications, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics on Quantum
Electronics, vol. 8, pp. 506-520, 2002.
[8] E Istrate, E H Sargent, Photonic crystal heterostructures - resonant tunnelling, waveguides and
filter, Journal of Optics A: Pure and Applied Optics, vol. 4, pp. S242S246, 2002.
[9] A. Rudziski, Analytic Expressions for Electromagnetic Field Envelopes in a 1D Photonic
Crystal, ACTA Physics Polonica A, vol. 111, pp. 323-333, 2007.
[10] M. Vasiliev, V. I. Belotelov, A. N. Kalish, V. A. Kotov, A. K. Zvezdin, K. Alameh, Effect of
oblique light incidence on magnetooptical properties of one-dimensional photonic crystal, IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 42, pp. 382-388, 2006.
[11] G. Shambat, M. S. Mirotznik, G. Euliss, V. O. Smolski, E. G. Johnson, R. A. Athale, Photonic
crystal filters for multi-band optical filtering on a monolithic substrate, Journal of Nanophotonics,
vol. 3, p. 031506, 2009.
[12] P. Reininger, S. Kalchmair, R. Gansch, A. M. Andrews, H. Detz, T. Zederbauer, S. I. Ahn, W.
Schrenk and G. Strasser, Optimized Photonic Crystal Design for Quantum Well Infrared
Photodetectors, Proc. of SPIE, vol. 8425, p. 84250A, 2012.
[13] Y. Gao, H. Chen, H. Qiu, Q. Lu and C. Huang, Transmission Spectra Characteristics of 1D
Photonic Crystals with Complex Dielectric Constant, Rare Metals, vol. 30, pp. 150-154, 2011.
74 | P a g e
Modeling of Semiconductor Laser Diode for Stabilization of

Power Output by Optical Feedback Scheme.
Santwanu Chattopadhyay,
Assistant Professor. Dept. of Electrical Engineering,
Abstract
When the injected current of a semiconductor laser diode exceeds the threshold value, it
delivers optical power with high initial pulses. Such an overshoot in power output is
undesirable. The aim of this paper is to present a method to reduce such initial pulse by
employing optical feedback technique using photodiode. For this the well known application
package MATLAB and its simulink are used for modeling. For small signals, operating
points close to threshold are chosen in the linear region to find out system matrix and state
transition matrix. For large signals nonlinear modeling of laser rate equations carried out to
visualize the high initial overshoot in power output. In order to stabilize the optical power
output, a photo detector along with a feedback amplifier has been employed.
Keywords: Optical feedback, Thermal Stability, Responsivity, photo diode, Semiconductor
optical amplifier, state transition matrix.
1. Introduction
In semiconductor laser diode, when the drive current exceeds the threshold current, the
population inversion takes place as shown in fig.1. For a particular injection current which is
greater than threshold value, high initial oscillations are observed in the output[1] and
thereafter the output attains almost steady state. The injection current supplies the carriers and
the photons are supplied by stimulated emissions. The optical power output will be available
if the electron density is more than the photon density. At high power outputs, the slope of
the curve decreases because of junction heating. In order to stabilize the output optical
feedback can be employed using photodiode to sense the variation in optical power emitted
from semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA). The photo detectors current output with the
reference current for actuation to maintain a constant optical output. A silicon p i n
photodiode is generally preferred because of its stable long term responsivity (0.4 A/W to 0.6
A/W) which remains constant over a wide temperature range [2]. An optical amplifier with
suitable gain is used at the output to enhance the power to the required value.
75 | P a g e

3
optic al power(m W )
2.5
1.5
0.5
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
driving c urrent(am ps )
0.025
0.03
Fig.1 Output power vs. input current

2. Laser Diode Rate Equations
In order to model a semiconductor laser diode, the coupled rate equations for carriers and
photons [3] are taken. The net rate of change of electron population N with time can be
written as
............................... (1)
The first term of the above equation represents the increase in the electron concentration in
the conduction band as current flows into the device. The second and third terms are the
number of electrons lost from the conduction band due to stimulated emission and
spontaneous recombination respectively.
The net rate of change of photon S with time can be written as
........................ (2)
The first term is a source of photons resulting from stimulated emission. The second term
denotes decay of photons caused by loss mechanism in the lasing cavity. The third term is the
no of photons produced by spontaneous emission, which is relatively small compared with
the first term.
The optical power generated by the semiconductor laser diode [4] is given by
........................ (3)
The optical phase is given by
76 | P a g e
.................. (4)
Where,
is optical confinement factor,
gain is Zero,
is the carrier lifetime,
spontanious emission factor,
is the carrier density at transparency at which net

is photon lifetime, I(t) is injection current,
is volume of active region,
is
is the gain compression factor,
is net slope gain.

The parametric values used for MATLAB modeling of rate equations are taken as given in
table 1.
Symbol
I(t)
Frequency
of
Description
Drive current
Value
Volume of active region

Slope gain constant
Optical confinement factor
Carrier
density
at
transparency
Gain compression factor
Spontaneous emission factor
Carrier lifetime
Photon lifetime
Linewidth
enhancement
factor
Electron charge
Quantum efficiency
8 x 10 -11 cm3
4 x 10 6 cm-3 s-1
0.45
2 x 10 17 cm-3
Planks constant
6.626 x 10 34 J.s
Frequency of light wave
2.07 x 10 14 Hz
light
15 x 10-3 A & 17 x 10-3 A
Table. 1
wave
3.5 x 10 17
2 x 10 4
4 x 10 9 sec
2 x 10 12 sec
3.0
1.602 x 10 19 C
0.4
is
calculated
as
3. Steady state model

When a semiconductor laser diode is turned on, there are initially transient effects and
oscillations in the photon density takes place. After a while, fluctuations in carrier and photon
densities subside and a steady state is reached [1].Under these conditions laser characteristics
can be obtained by making
and
= 0. Thus it is possible to find out the expressions for photon and carrier
densities at steady state. Hence equations (1) and (2) become

77 | P a g e

. (5)
and
(6)
From equation (5), we get
.
(7)
From equations (6) and (7), we can write
or,
(8)
The optical power output of laser diode is
or, S(t) =
. (9)
Equations (8) and (9) are used for steady state modeling using MATLAB Simulink.
The steady state performance characteristics are shown below.
18
18
4.6826
x 10
16
x 10
14
4.6826
12
electron density (N(t))
Electron density
4.6826
4.6826
4.6826
10
8
6
4
4.6826
4.6826
4.5
5.5
6
Time in sec
6.5
7.5
-8
x 10
Fig.2 Variation of electron density with time

with current
78 | P a g e
0
0
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
current (amps)
Fig.3 Variation of electron density

18
4.6826
0.01
x 10
0.009
4.6826
0.008
0.007
4.6826
electron density N(t)
power (W)
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
4.6826
4.6826
4.6826
0.001
0
0
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
photon density (S(t))
3.5
4.6826
0
0.5
15
x 10
Fig.4 Variation of optical power with photon density

with photon density
1.5
2
2.5
photon density S(t)
3.5
4
15
x 10
Fig.5 Variation of electron density
4. Derivation of state transition matrix and transfer function for small signals
To obtain the small signal response, it is required to linearize the nonlinear laser rate
equations. For this any arbitrary point close to threshold is chosen. This is because, the gain
compression term
will approach to 1 for values
and may be neglected.
Under Such condition, using Jacobian matrix, we can write

........................... (11)
........................ (12)
.......................... (13)
.................... (14)
The state space model becomes

I (t) ....................... (15)
y=
............................. (16)
Having obtained this state model, operating points (electron density, photon density) very
close to lasing region are chosen to find out the state transition matrix and transfer function
for each points. For any operating point ( Np, SP) the state model is
79 | P a g e
I (t) ....................... (17)
yp =
............................. (18)
For this state model for an operating point ( Np, Sp)

System matrix (A) =
Input matrix (B) =

Output matrix(C) =
Following table 2 shows two operating points for injected currents 12 X 10-3 amps and 15 X
10-3 amps
Injected current (amp)
Operating point
Electron density (NP cm-3)
Photon density(Sp cm-3)
12 X 10-3
5.3496 x1017
2.3521 x1015
15 X 10-3
5.5844 x1017
2.3172 x 1014
Table. 2
Transfer function for this operating point can be obtained by

H(s) = C (SI-A)-1B
When the operating point of 15 x10-3 amp is taken, the system matrix and input matrix are
obtained as
System matrix (A) =
Input matrix (B) =
The transfer function is obtained as
H(s) =
5. Phase plane analysis for large signals

80 | P a g e

The modeling for large signals has been done using MATLAB Simulink, which gives the
graphical presentation for the variation of photon density(S) with time rate of change of
photon density (
(Fig 6) and also the variation of electron density(N) with time rate of
change of electron density(
(Fig. 7) for an input current 15Ma. Variation of optical power
with time is shown in the fig. (8). It is seen that the output optical power has
a steady value of 0.9 mW and the peak value is 3.75 mW .The maximum initial overshoot
is 2.85 mW
.
Fig.6 Phase plane S vs S dot
4
x 10
Fig.7 Phase plane N vs N dot
-3
o p t ic a l p o w e r in w a t t
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
3
4
t im e in s e c
7
x 10
-9
Fig.8 Variation of optical power with time
Fig.9 shows a simple optical feedback technique to reduce the high initial oscillations by
employing a silicon pin photodiode as optical sensor of laser output. Such a photodiode has a
stable long
term responsivity which remains constant over a wide temperature range. The
responsivity is assumed as 0.65 A/W at 1449 nm of wavelength. A semiconductor optical

81 | P a g e

amplifier with suitable gain is used at the output to match the actual output obtained without
feedback.
Fig.9 .Optical feedback scheme for stabilization of output

The output of the scheme is given in Fig 10. The output Power now has a steady value of 12
mW without much oscillation.
Fig.10 Optical output with feedback and SOA.

The phase planes N vs N dot and S vs S dot are given in fig.11 and fig.12 respectively
82 | P a g e
Fig. 12 Phase plane S(t) vs S(t) dot
The plot of error with time is also shown in Fig.13
Fig.13
83 | P a g e
Variation of error with time
6. MATLAB Simulink models

a) Nonlinear model
Gain
1 /G a
1
0 .5
u
N_ V S _ Nd o t
P ro d u ct2
o p ti ca l co n fi n e m e n t fa cto r,G a
sp o n .
2 e -4 e m m i si o n
fa cto r,b e ta
0 .4 5
driv e c urrent(am ps )
S te p
G a *b e ta
Di sp l a y
1 .6 0 2 e -1 9
E l e ctro n Ch a rg e ,q
u
1 / (q V a )
N(t)
1
s
I(t) / (q V a )
qVa
8 e -1 1
4 e -6
0 .4
a cti ve re g i o n vo l ,V a
P ro d u ct6
S co p e
In te g ra to r
sl o p e G a i n
co n st,
q u a n e ffi ,n
P ro d u ct5
2 e 1 7 N0
P ro d u ct4
1 /ta u n
1
G a *b e ta *N(t)/ta u n
ta u n
4 e -9
S_VS_Sdot
1
S (t)
1
s
u
M a th
Fu n cti o n 2
Co n sta n t5
In te g ra to r1
p h o to n _ d e n si ty
3 .5 e -1 7
P ro d u ct9
d p h i /d t
Co n sta n t4
G a i n co m p fa c,e p si l o n
S (t) /ta u s
P ro d u ct7
0 .5
ta u s
2 e -1 2
l i n e wi d th
e n h a n ce m e n t
fa cto r,a l p h a
p o we r W
P ro d u ct8
P ro d u ct3
5 .4 0 6 8 e -2 0
1
s
In te g ra to r2
p h a se
u
M a th
Fu n cti o n
h *n u
b) Steady state model

1
f ro m S (t )
P ro d u c t 4
0 .4 5
o p t i c a l c o n f i n e m e n t f a c t o r, G a
P ro d u c t 6
2 e -1 2
P ro d u c t 5
ta u s
1 5 e -3
C o n st a n t 1
d ri v e c u rre n t
1 . 6 0 2 e -1 9
E l e c t ro n C h a rg e , q
u
1 / (q V a )
I (t ) / (q V a )
P ro d u c t 2
qVa
8 e -1 1
q u a n e ffi ,n
a c t i v e re g i o n v o l , V a
4 e -9
ta u n
1
C o n st a n t
sp o n .
e m m i si o n
f a c t o r, b e t a
t a u n / (1 -b e t a )
2 e -4
5 . 4 0 6 8 e -2 0
h *n u
v*h *u
P ro d u c t 9
P (t )
2 *G a *ta u s / V a *n *h *n
S (t )
V a *h *n *u / 2 *g a *ta u s
P ro d u c t 8
84 | P a g e
N (t )

7. Conclusion
This paper presented a method of stabilization of optical power output of semiconductor laser
diode by employing semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) in the forward path whereas the
error is controlled by a photo detector in the feedback path. Stabilization is confirmed from
the phase plane S vs S dot (Fig. 12) and from the variation of error with time (Fig. 13) where
no oscillations have been observed. From such MATLAB modeling interactive control of
parameters of laser diode is possible.
References
[1] P. Bhattacharya, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices, Prentice Hall India, New Delhi, 2005,
pp 272 -325.
[2] G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications, Tata-McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2008, pp 152 182.
[3] R.S.Tucker & D.J.Pope, Large Signal Circuit Model for Simulation of Injection- Laser
Modulation Dynamics,
IEEE J. Quantum Electron,Vol QE 19,PP 1179-1183,july 1983.
[4]L. Bjerkan,A. Royset,L. Hafskjaer, and D.Myhre, Measurement of Laser Parameters for
Simulation of High Speed Fiber Optic Systems, Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 14,No.5,pp
839-850,May 1996.
[5] R.P.Khare, Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics,Oxford university press, New Delhi,2004,pp 174267.
85 | P a g e
Securities in WSN: Issues and Challenges

1
Tanushree Karmakar
M. Tech Student, Department of CST,
Dr. B. C. Roy Engineering College, Durgapur
2
Biswajit Mondal
2
Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, WBUT, Kolkata.
3
Mr.Jiban Dalal
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science & Engineering,
and
4
Chandan Koner
4
Associate Professor, Department of Computer Science & Engineering,
Corresponding author email: biswa.mondal@gmail.com
1
Abstract
Wireless sensor network (WSN) is a promising and emerging technology which has various
futuristic applications in both mass civilian and military activities. The sensing technology
combined with processing power and wireless communication makes it lucrative for being
exploited in abundance in future. The inclusion of wireless communication technology also
incurs different types of security attacks. Due to the broadcast nature of WSN and lack of
tamper resistant hardware, security in sensor networks is one of the hottest research issues.
This paper focuses on the security of WSN and attack at different layered architecture of
WSN.
Keywords - sensor network, security, attacks, layers, data authentication.
I. Introduction
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a self organizing network of tiny sensor nodes which is
also called motes. The sensor node senses certain physical characteristics of its environment
such as vibration, temperature and sound etc.
Internet and ad-hoc wireless sensor network both are vulnerable to malicious activity. In the
same way, WSN are also vulnerable. It has proven that the attacks on wireless sensor network
are more dangerous than those on internet or other ad-hoc networks. The main reason is the
WSN consists of nodes with very limited resources but the adversary may have powerful
attacking resources such as long rang wireless communication capability, laptop with
wireless LAN capability. For these reasons security in wireless sensor network is a vital
86 | P a g e

issue. Due to the limited resources, the security technique of the normal computer networks
cannot be implemented in WSN.
So, we can conclude that it is impossible to use general secure communication technique for
WSN because of communication overheads and resource constraints.
II. REQUIREMENT OF SECURITY

Security becomes crucial as WSNs have manifold applications. The requirement of security
of wireless sensor network can be classified as follows.
A. Data confidentiality
Confidentiality means hiding the information from unauthorized access. So, confidentiality
guarantee that data sent on the channel will not be read properly by anyone except
communicating nodes. Thats why the sending message on the channel is in encrypted form.
B. Authenticity
Authenticity is also an important feature for security requirements in sensor networks. In this
case an adversary can easily inject messages, so the receiver needs to make sure that data
used in any decision making process originates from original source. It allows receiver to
verify that the data really was sent by claimed sender.
C. Integrity
It means that the data should not be altered by unauthorized person to the receiver. If it occurs
then receiver must check that data received from the sender is same or not. Note that, data
authentication can also provide data integrity. The attacks on integrity are called
modification.
D. Scalability
The key management scheme should be scalable in the sense that it should not increase the
chance of node compromise as well as communication overhead.
Ill. SECURITY ATTACKS
Various types of threats at each layer in OSI model can be summarized as in the Table 1.
Table1.
Layers
87 | P a g e
Attacks

Physical layer
Data link layer
Network layer
Jamming, Tampering
Collision, Jamming , Exhaustion.
Spoofing or replaying information,
Selective forwarding or black holes, Sink holes, Sybil attacks,
Wormholes, Hello flood.
Transport layer
Injects false messages, Energy drain attacks.
Application layer
Attacks on reliability.
lV. PHYSICAL LAYER

By reducing path loss effect and shadowing to increase the reliability, this is the main
objective of physical layer. This layer is responsible for data rate, frequency generation, data
modulation. The two most common attacks on the physical layer are
A. Jamming :
Jamming is one of the basic but harmful attacks. The radio signal transmission can interfere
with the radio frequencies used by the WSN, which is called jamming. It can be divided into
two types: first one is the constant jamming (affects the complete obstruct of the whole
network) and the second one is Intermittent jamming (nodes are capable of communicating
data periodically but not continuously).
B. Tampering :
This is another attack in physical layer. When the nodes are physically tampered by attackers,
such types of condition are called tampering. A tampering attacker may damage, replace, and
electronically interrogate the nodes to acquire information. Strong counter-measures against
jamming have been designed like spread-spectrum, and frequency-hopping [1].
V. THE SECURITY ISSUES OF SENSOR NETWORK AT DATA LINK LAYER
The main aim of data link layer is to insure interoperability. This layer is responsible for error
detection, prevention of packets collision, multiplexing etc. This layer is at risk due to data
transmission in an open medium. The main attacks at data link layer are
A. Collision
Collision is a type of link layer jamming. It occurs when two nodes try to transfer data at the
same time and at the same frequency .The main reason for data packet fail is the occupation
88 | P a g e

of radio channel by another sensor node. It can be avoided only when the distinct time slot
assignment to each sensor node.
B. Jamming
This is another type of attack in data link layer. It can happen only when the data get jammed
with radio signals from other transmission.
C. Exhaustion
This attack dominates the power resources of the nodes by causing them to retransmit the
message even when there is no collision or late collision [2, 3]. This occurs in data link layer.
VI. SECURITY ISSUES OF SENSOR NETWORK AT NETWORK LAYER

The main function of this layer is to find the most efficient path for efficient data
transmission. Network layer is responsible for routing the data from node to sink, node to
node etc. The attacks on this layer are
A. Spoofing or replaying information:
Replaying attack is one of the network layer attacks. A spoofing attack is a situation in which
one person or program successfully camouflages as another by falsifying data and it gains an
illegitimate advantage. Through spoofing, the routed information the network traffic can be
maximally damaged. Continuous changes in messages which result in the packet loss during
transmission. It may require the individual nodes to retransmit packets continually. Due to the
power exhaustion nodes become dead much earlier than their expected life.
B. Selective forwarding or black holes :
In case of selective forwarding attack, the corrupted node selectively forwards some packets
to the other node while dropping some of them. It builds a covenant node that seems to be
very attractive. It means that it promotes zero-cost routes to neighbouring nodes with respect
to the routing algorithm. In another case it may happen that the adversary node drops all the
packets it receives. As a result no information is forwarded and creates a black hole.
C. Sinkholes:
In case of sinkhole attack, the malicious node appears such that it produces attractive path
way for the other node. Hence most of the packets are transmitted through the malicious
node. This type of attack is also called black hole attack in network layer.
89 | P a g e

D. Sybil attacks:
In Sybil attack [4], the attacker/malicious node show multiple identities. Since each actual
node in a sensor network has a single identity, hence numerous threats can be observed. Since
adversary has multiple identities, the innocent nodes may be routing multi-path data through
the same malicious node as shown in figure 1 [4].
Fig. 1 [4]: Sybil Attacks.

E. Wormholes:
In this type of attack malicious node receives data from one section of the network and
transmitting to another section of the network. Thus creating a wormhole and a fake scenario
that the original sender is only one or two nodes away from the remote location. This may
cause data congestion which has shown in the fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Wormholes Attack.

F. Hello flood attack
In this type of attack the malicious node may send hello message to the adjoining node with
the help of high radio transmission range and processing power sends HELLO message to a
number of sensor nodes which are scattered in a large area within a WSN. It produces an
illusion that the malicious node is their neighbor. Thus all the messages from sender to base
90 | P a g e

station are relayed through malicious node. Thus producing data congestion and
complications of data flow.
VII. SECURITY ISSUES OF SENSOR NETWORK AT
TRANSPORT LAYER
The main goal of Transport Layer is to establish communication for external network. The
most challenging issue in wireless sensor networks is to connect the sensor network with the
internet. Sometimes the adversary might be strong enough to reach up to the transport layer,
due to the attack being undetected at the lower layers. Transport layer attacks are injection of
false messages and energy drain attacks [4] and are classified as follows:
A. Data integrity attack:
This type of attack is mainly transport layer attack. The objectives of this attack are to falsify
sensor data and by doing so compromise the victims research.
B. Energy drain attack:
The aim of this attack is to destroy the sensor nodes in the network, degrade performance of
the network and ultimately split the network grid and consequently take control of part of the
sensor network by inserting a new Sink node [4].
VIII. SENSOR NETWORK SECURITY ISSUE AT APPLICATION LAYER

The objective of Application Layer is to present final output and responsible for providing
services to the user, data collection, management and processing of the data through the
application software for getting reliable results. The main attack at application layer is:
A. Attacks on reliability:
If an attacker changes the data in one path then it puts a question mark on the reliability of the
data. In this attack adversary needs to identify the path of communication and put adversary
in that path to alter the data. An adversary can generate false data or query by joining the
network. When a node responds to these wrong data or query, leads them to suffer from the
energy drain attack. Usually to ensure reliability acknowledgement is expected for each
successful data delivery [4]
IX. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we present a brief survey on wireless sensor network, security requirements of
WSN. Then we discussed about different layers, security issues and various attacks on
91 | P a g e

different layers. Security is a vital requirement and complicates enough to set up in different
domains of WSN. We also discuss various dimensions of security (confidentiality,
authenticity, integrity, scalability).
References
[1] Asif Habib Sensor Network Security Issues at Network Layer 2nd International Conference on
Advaificances in Space Technologies, Pp. 58 - 63 National Engineering and Scientific Commission,
Islamabad, Pakistan.
[2] Singla, A., & Sachdeva, R. (2013). Review on Security Issues and Attacks in Wireless Sensor
Networks. International Journal, 3(4).
[3] M. Yasir Malik, An Outline of Security in Wireless Sensor Networks: Threats, Countermeasures
and Implementations, Wireless Sensor Networks and Energy Efficiency: Protocols, Routing and
Management DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-0101-7.ch024
[4] Sastry, A. S., Sulthana, S., & Vagdevi, S. (2013). Security Threats in Wireless Sensor Networks in
Each Layer. International Journal of Advanced Networking & Applications, 4(4).
92 | P a g e
Designing of Intelligent Control System for Grinding Mill by Analyzing

Time Domain Features
Sonali Sen1,
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Computer Science, St. Xaviers College, Kolkata
Jaya Sil2,
Professor, Computer Science & Technology,
Bengal Engineering & Science University, Shibpur, Kolkata
Arup K. Bhaumik3
Director, Bengal Institute of Technology & Management, Santiniketan
1
sonalisen_2004@yahoo.co.in, 2jayasil@hotmail.com, 3arup_bhaumik@yahoo.com
Abstract
The aim of the paper is to derive acoustic signatures of a grinding mill by analysing the
acoustic signal obtained at different running conditions of the mill. The work establishes an
appropriate background that helps to predict dynamic breakage characteristics with respect to
particle size distribution of materials, adequately supported by experimental data. Condenser
based microphones have been used for capturing acoustic signals in time domain and
converted in frequency domain using Fast Fourier transform (FFT). Frequency domain
signals are analysed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method to select important
components or features, reducing complexity of the system. Finally, acoustic signatures are
derived using the selected features to determine whether the fines produced progressively to
attain the desired size range or fail to produce that size. The proposed approach has the ability
to arrive in the stage of optimum grinding by tuning operational phase of the mill in real time
environment.
Keywords: Acoustic Signature, Ball Mill, Selected Features, FFT, PCA.
1
Introduction
Particle grinding is an essential step to obtain particles with different range of breakage,
required for different purposes. However, the existing process is purely static and manual
since installation of any sensors in the mill is not feasible.
In the existing system of the mill [1], dozers are used to prepare the input mix (feed) with
different particle size. Each dozer corresponds to a particular size range of particles while
varying the speed of the dozer motor, the amount of dozing of each range has been
93 | P a g e

controlled. On preparation of input mix of the mill, the mill motor is allowed to start the
crushing operation for some specified time (i.e. particle residence time) beyond which the
mill is stopped manually and the crushed materials are fed into a stack of screen for
classification of particles in different size ranges. The desired particle size ranges are
collected from the classifier while others are fed into the respective input stack where further
dozing prepare the input mix for the next stage of grinding. Thus, the stack of screen or
classifier used in tandem with the mill seems to provide a closed loop condition. But the
process is purely off-line where the exact state of breakage of particle is unpredictable since
each particle breaks in different manner.
Researchers working in this area suggested several mathematical relationships such as RosinRammler [2]; Gaudin-Schuman [2], Benette & Colleman [2] equations, which to some extent
can forecast how the broken particle varies with different size range. These equations have
been tested in early part of our simulation work [3] but none of them found good enough to
interpret results at coarse or fine particle size range. Moreover, the existing equations are not
suitable enough to fit in an autonomous system where control can be imparted using
information transaction only, casting aside the common concept of utilization of
screen/cyclone where the overflow/underflow can determine the circulating load in close
circuit grinding [4]. Similar work has been published in [5] describing a scheme to use the
acoustic signature to regulate the mill and the product in off-line mode of operations.
In the paper, we have proposed a novel technique for optimizing the operation of a grinding
mill in real time environment by deriving the acoustic signature to predict the desirable range
of particles automatically. To obtain the training data set, experiments in a ball mill has been
conducted in the laboratory using particles of variable sizes. This work utilizes Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) method to convert the time domain signal into frequency domain and then
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method is applied to select the important components
or features.
Features are analyzed by plotting the components in a compass form to
determine the optimum grinding that generate fines of desired sizes.

The paper has been divided into four sections. The proposed approach is described in section
2. Result is discussed in section 3 and finally conclusions are arrived at section 4.
94 | P a g e

2
Proposed Approach
This section describes the method of capturing the acoustic signal and details of the
experimentation procedure.
2.1
Radiated Energy Sensors
Among various kinds of radiated energy sensors like heat, magnetic, light etc., the acoustic
sensor [5] is used in the work for the following reasons:
a) It works on radiated energy and its pattern of change is proportional to the change of
sensory response.
b) The change of operational condition of the mill does not require any hard real time
system.
c) With the help of the sensory response, the machines are identified based on the states of
operation and load conditions.
Sophisticated microphones with the specifications: Dynamic type, 1.8 mv sensitivity, 600
ohms Impedance and Frequency range- 100-12000 Hz are used as sensors to capture the
acoustic signal. Nearly, 16 sets of data are recorded from the mills when they are fully
operational and it has been observed that the difference of frequency is of the order of 0.4
KHz to 3 KHz. Sampling is performed for a duration of 0.5 second in 30 second gap for
testing purposes.
2.2
Experiment
The experimentations have been carried out in two modes such as in off-line mode and in online mode. Several works [3][5][7] have already been published to design and development of
a prediction of grinding process, finding of acoustic signatures, building of Knowledge Base,
and finally described stability analysis. In this work main concentration has been given in
analyzing the acoustic data in real-time mode. The block diagram of the proposed approach is
described in Fig. 1
Frame Blocking
Continuous
Sound
Windowing
FFT
Frame
PCA
Frequency
domain data
Plot using Graph Compass

Fig. 1. Block Diagram of Analysing Acoustic Signature
95 | P a g e
2.3 Conversion of Time domain data into Frequency domain data using
FFT
Frame Blocking
In this step the continuous sound signal is blocked into frames of N samples, with adjacent
frames being separated by M (M < N). The first frame consists of first N samples. In the
second frame M samples are considered after the first frame, and overlaps by (N M)
samples and so on. This process continues until the signals are accounted for within one or
more frames. Typical values for N and M are N = 256 (which is equivalent to ~ 30 msec
windowing and facilitate the fast radix-2 FFT) and M = 100.
Windowing
The next step is to windowing each individual frame so as to minimize the signal
discontinuities at the beginning and end of each frame. The concept is to minimize the
spectral distortion by using the window to taper the signal to zero at the beginning and end of
each frame. If we define the window as w (n), 0 n N-1, where N is the number of samples
in each frame, then the result of windowing is given in equation (1).
y i (n) = xi (n) w(n), 0 n N-1
(1)
Typically the Hamming window is used as defined using equation (2).

w(n) = 0.54 0.46 cos(2n/N-1), ), 0 n N-1
(2)
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

In the next step Fast Fourier Transform is applied, which converts each frame of N samples in
the time domain into the frequency domain. The FFT is a fast algorithm used to implement
the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), applied on the set of N samples, stored in matrix X.
FFT returns the Fourier components of each column of X matrix, where X is of size z 256
and z is the number of frames. Fig.2 describes conversion of frequency domain data from
acquired time domain signal.
Time Domain Plotting of Load Condition1
0.6
First Frame of Load Condition1 after Frameing
0.03
0.4
0.02
0.01
0
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.01
-0.6
-0.02
-0.8
96 | P a g e
6
Time
10
12
x 10
(a)
-0.03
50
100
150
Time
200
250
300
(b)

Frequency Domain Plotting of First Frame of Load Condition1
First Frame of Load Condition1 after windowing
0.025
0.02
0.015
Frequency
Amplitude
0.01
0.005
0
-0.005
-1
-0.01
-0.015
-2
-0.02
-0.025
50
100
150
Time
200
250
300
(c)
-3
50
100
150
Time
200
250
300
(d).
Fig. 2. Plotting of (a) Time Domain of Load Condition1(LC1),(b) First Frame of LC1 after framing,(c) First frame of LC1
after windowing and (d) Frequency Domain of First frame- LC1
2.4 Feature Selection using PCA
Principal components analysis (PCA) is a technique which takes large dimensional data, and
using the dependencies between the variables to represent it in a more tractable, lowerdimensional form, without losing too much information. PCA is one of the simplest and most
robust ways of doing such dimensionality reduction. In our work we have chosen this method
to find out some dependencies among the experimental data. If we consider one second
sample as input, it produces data around 50,000. In order to reduce complexity of the system,
important components or features are selected by applying PCA method on a matrix of size:
z256, where z is the number of frames, obtained in frequency domain. PCA returns the
principal component coefficients in the form of a pp matrix where each column containing
coefficients for one principal component. The columns are in order of decreasing component
variance.
3
Result
The features obtained by PCA are plotted using compass graph. A compass graph displays
the vectors with components (U, V) as arrows emanating from the origin. U, V and Z are in
Cartesian coordinates, plotted on a circular grid. The plot of empty condition of the ball mill
is shown in Fig.3. The same procedure is repeated for three different loaded ball mill
conditions (more or less each sample after 5 minutes) and the results are shown in Fig. 4, 5
and 6.
Now the parameters Radius and Angles are extracted from the plotting. Table 1 shows
different running conditions of the ball mill with respect to the parameters.
97 | P a g e

Table 1-Comparisons of different operational states of the Ball Mill
Parameters
Empty ball mill
Load ball
Load ball
Load ball
mill1
mill2
mill3
0-30
0-30
0-30
0 40
Radius
(Relative Distance
from origin)
50o to 70o
Angel
Equally
70o (and 180o
(and 180o opposite), placed within
placed within
opposite)
160o (and 180o
0-360o
Equally
0-360o
opposite)
The following observations are made from table 1:

The range of radius for different running condition (empty or load) is different.
In different load conditions, the radius is gradually confined within the centre. In load-1,
the value is 0o-30o, whereas, in Load-2 that is 0o-20o and in Load-3,0o-15o.
There is a constant angel for the empty condition of the mill.
In the load condition there is no fixed angel which can be recognized at the beginning. But
when, the process moves on to the finer generation of the material, the angels gradually
becoming fixed to a constant value.
By analysing the parameters in run time environment, the crashed particle size are identified
and automatically the system can be stopped whenever it reached to a desired size.
Fig. 3. Plot of PCA coefficient on

Empty Condition Ball mill
98 | P a g e

Load condition-1 Ball Mill

Load Condition-2 Ball mill

Load condition-3 Ball Mill
Conclusions
The intelligent control system proposed in the paper provides closed loop grinding in real
time which identifies the particle size depending on the radius and angles of the circles
plotted using compass graph. It has also been observed that the proposed method is suitable
towards implementing the system on chip compared to the earlier work [8].
The model is
not only valid for the ball mill but also expected to work well with other different kind of
reactors/crushers/compound machines.
References
[1] W.A. Gills, Mineral Processing, Springer Verlag, Germany, 1991.
[2] B.A.Wills, Mineral Processing Technology, Pergamon Press, U.K., 1986.
[3] A.Bhaumik, J. Sil, and S.Banerjee, Hybrid Control of Tumbling Mill using NN based
Schematics, International Journal of Information and Computing (IJICS) vol.2, no. 1, 99.
[4] H.Taggert, Hand book of mineral processing, SME publishers, 1951.
[5] A. Bhaumik, J. Sil, S.Maity and T.Das, Designing an Intelligent Expert Control System Using
Acoustic Signature for Grinding Mill Operation, International Conference on Industrial Technology
( ICIT 2006), December 15-17, 2006, held at Mumbai, India, IEEE Catalog Number 06TH8924C,
ISBN 1-4244-0726-5, Library of Congress, 2006935034.
[6] C. C. Tan, N. F. Thornhill, R. M. Belchamber Principal component analysis of spectra with
application
to
acoustic
emissions
from
mechanical
equipment,
doi: 10.1191/0142331202tm067oaTransactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control October
2002 vol. 24 no. 4 333-353, SAGE Journals.
[7] A.Bhaumik, J. Sil, and S.Banerjee, Designing of Intelligent Hybrid Control System for Tumbling
Mill Operation, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Information
Technology(CIT2003), Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 22-25 Dec. 2003, pp 246-249, Bhubaneswar,
India.
[8] S. Sen and A. Bhaumik : Design of Intelligent Control System Using Acoustic Parameters for
Grinding Mill OperationNational Conference on Advancement of Computing in
Engineering Research on 22-23March, 2013.
[9] Tom Hararik, Jozef Bocko, Kristna Maslkov Frequency analysis of acoustic signal using the
Fast Fourier Transformation in MATLAB 1877-7058 2012 , Elsevier Ltd.,2012.
99 | P a g e
Band Structure and Density of States of

Armchair Carbon Nanotube
Medha Guha1, Labany Saha2, Amrita Ghosh3, Arpan Deyasi4
Dept. of ECE, RCC Institute of Information Technology, Beliaghata, Kolkata, INDIA
email: 1medhaguha19@gmail.com; 2labanysaha@gmail.com; 3amritaghosh65@gmail.com;
4
deyasi_arpan@yahoo.co.in
1,2,3,4
Abstract
In this paper, band structure and density of states of carriers of single-wall armchair carbon
nanotube are calculated. The linear combination of atomic orbitals and nearest neighbor tight
binding approximation is used for accurate computation. Wave-vector dependent
Hamiltonian is calculated by solving time-independent Schrdinger equation to study band
structure. With increase of distance between nearest neighbor, area of the first Brillouin zone
increases. Density of states increases with increases of lattice index. Results are useful in
designing armchair nanotube-based devices.
Keywords
Armchair nanotube, Nearest neighbor tight binding approximation, Linear combination of
atomic orbitals, Band structure, Density of states
1. Introduction
The electronic band structure and density of states are the two essential properties of a
nanostructure for analysis of its electrical and optical properties [1-2]. The exponentially
increasing research on carbon nanotube [3-5] is due to the fact of its immense possibility in
designing high performance electronic [6-7] and optoelectronic [8] devices. Zigzag and
armchair nanotubes are the two types thoroughly investigated [9-10] in the last decade with
different geometrical parameters. Band structure of this novel structure can be computed
from the dependence of propagation vector on energy, and its dependence on nearest
neighbor trims the shape of the first Brillouin zone. Density of states has a set of peaks,
which is symmetric w.r.t Fermi level. It also depends on lattice index of the tube, irrespective
of its metallic or semiconducting nature.
100 | P a g e

In the present paper, density of states and band structure of armchair nanotube are calculated
by solving time-independent Hamiltonian and their dependence on critical design parameters
are also estimated. Results are important for armchair tube based device design.
Using tight binding approximation for two identical points, Bloch theorem is applicable
which can be written as:

(r + R) = expik.r (r )
( )
(1)
Wave function satisfies Bloch theorem can be written as
j (k.r ) =
( )

1 N
exp
i
k
.
r
(
r
R)
j
N R
(2)
According to the theory of LCAO, total wave-function of the molecule is given by
mol >=k Ck atom

(3)
Schrodinger equation can be given as
H = E
(4)
Using Eq. (3), eigenvalue equation can be written in the following manner
(H OE) = 0
(5)
Where O is the overlap matrix. Considering one 2pz orbital per carbon atom, resultant
matrix can be written as
0
0
0
0
0 t 0 t exp(ik.a1 ) 0 t exp(ik.a2 )
h(k) =
+
+
+
+
0
0
t 0 0
0
t exp(ik.a1 ) 0 t exp(ik.a2 ) 0
(6)
where t is the distance between the matrix elements of neighboring C atoms, a1 and a2 are
lattice vectors corresponding to lattice indices m and n.
We consider
101 | P a g e
h0 = t[1+ exp(ik.a1 ) + exp(ik.a2 )]
(7)
where h0 is the element of h(k) matrix as
0 h0
h(k) =
h0 0
(8)
The eigenvalue equation thus may be put into the following form
E(k) = h0 = t 1+ 4 cosk y b0 cosk x a0 + 4(cosk y b0 ) 2
0.5
(9)
For a zigzag nanotube with circumferential vector along y-direction,
k=
bm
(10)
where 3 =(m-n). Using this relation, final eigenvalue equation may be written as
3ta
2 3
2
E(k) = 0 kx + 1
2
3b 2m
(11)
Density of states contributed by the lowest subband of metallic CNT is given by
D(E) = 22
1
8
[E E(kt )] =
L kt
3a0t
(12)
3. Results
Using Eq. (9), band structure of armchair nanotube is plotted for different values of nearest
neighbor distance, shown in Fig 1. Propagation vector is calculated with energy to calculate
the nature of first Brillouin zone, and from the figure, it is observed that with increase of
distance between two consecutive atoms, area of the zone increases. This is due to the fact
that larger separation distance increases the magnitude of propagation vector, so the
magnitude of its corresponding mirror image value from the central axis also increases. One
interesting feature may be noted in this context that symmetric nature is maintained
throughout the energy spectrum.
102 | P a g e

Fig 2 shows the density of states profile for different lattice index. Here choice of index is
carefully made so that metallic nature is maintained at the time of computation. From the
plot, it may be seen that with increase of lattice index, magnitude of peak increases. This
speaks in favor the fact that higher lattice index gives higher conductivity. Hence this ensures
the possibility of low bias application. Also peak shifts left w.r.t energy axis for higher lattice
index. From the position of the peak, magnitude of external bias can be estimated for
armchair nanotube based device operation.
Fig 1: Band structure of armchair carbon nanotube
Fig 2: Density of states of armchair carbon nanotube
103 | P a g e

4. Conclusion
Band structure and density of states of armchair nanotube is analytically computed as
function of nearest neighbor distance and lattice constant using NNTB approximation and
theory of LCAO. Results show the effect of geometrical specifications on electrical
performance. Position of peaks in DOS plot speaks for the possible electronic and
optoelectronic applications. The extent of first Brillouin zone plays a crucial role for its
electrical characteristics.
References
[1] T. S. Xia, L. F. Register, and S. K. Banerjee, Calculations and Applications of the Complex Band
Structure for Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistors, Physical Review B, vol. 70, p. 045322,
2004.
[2] D. Akinwande, Y. Nishi, and H. S. P. Wong, An Analytical Derivation of the Density of States,
Effective Mass and Carrier Density of Achiral Carbon Nanotubes, IEEE Transactions on Electron
Devices, vol. 55, pp. 289-297, 2008.
[3] A. N. Mina, A. A. Awadallah, A. H. Phillips, and R. R. Ahmed, Simulation of the Band Structure
of Graphene and Carbon Nanotube, Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 343, p. 012076,
2012.
[4] R. Nizam, S. Mahdi, A. Rizvi, and A. Azam, Calculating Electronic Structure of Different
Carbon Nanotubes and its Effect on Band Gap, International Journal of Science and Technology, vol.
1, pp. 153-162, 2011.
[5] S. Reich, and C. Thomsen, Electronic Band Structure of Isolated and Bundled Carbon
Nanotubes, Physical Review B, vol. 65, p. 155411, 2002.
[6] J Kima, S. Yun, H. Ko, and J. Kim, A Flexible Paper Transistor made with Aligned Singlewalled Carbon Nanotube Bonded Cellulose Composite, Current Applied Physics, vol. 13, pp. 897901, 2013.
[7] Y. Awano, S. Sato, M. Nihei, and T. Sakai, Carbon Nanotubes for VLSI: Interconnect and
Transistor Applications, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 98 pp. 2015-2031, 2010.
[8] S. Yamashita, Photonic and Optoelectronic Applications of Carbon Nanotube and Graphene,
Asia Communications and Photonics Conference, Fiber Amplifiers and Lasers (AS1A), Nov 2013.
[9] I. V. Vorobyev, D. V. Rybkovskiy, A. V. Osadchy, and E. D. Obraztsova, First-Principles Study
of the Electronic Properties and Relative Stabilities for the Single- and Double-Walled ZigZag
Carbon Nanotubes, Journal of Nanoelectronics and Optoelectronics, vol. 7, pp. 73-76, 2012.
[10] W. Ren, T. H. Cho, T. C. Leung, and C. T. Chan, Gated Armchair Nanotube and Metallic Field
Effect, Applied Physics Letters, vol. 93, p. 142102, 2008.
104 | P a g e
Effects of Radiative heat and mass transfer on MHD mixed Convective

Flow Over a Stretching Sheet with Non-Uniform Heat Source/Sink
Hiranmoy Mondala*
a
Department of Mathematics, Bengal Institute of Technology and Management,
Santiniketan, West Bengal-731236, India
Email: hiranmoymondal@yahoo.co.in
and
Sewli Chatterjeeb
b
Department of Mathematics, Bengal Institute of Technology and Management,
Santiniketan, West Bengal-731236, India
Email: sewlichatterjee@rediffmail.com
Abstract
In this paper, the effects of viscous-Ohmic dissipation and variable thermal conductivity on
steady two-dimensional on the mixed convection flow, heat and mass transfer over a
stretching sheet in the presence with non-uniform heat source/sink and thermal radiation and
porous medium. The governing differential equations are transformed into a set of non-linear
coupled ordinary differential equations which are then solved numerically. The effects of
various physical parameters on velocity and temperature distributions are shown graphically.
Key words: Porous medium; hydromagnetic; stretching sheet; mixed convection
1. Introduction
Mixed convection flows with simultaneous heat and mass transfer in porous media under the
influence of a magnetic field and non uniform heat source and sink. Its application is found in
many industries viz. in the chemical industry, power and cooling industry for drying,
chemical vapour deposition on surfaces, cooling of nuclear reactors and magneto
hydrodynamic power generators. Many transport processes exist in nature and in industrial
applications in which the simultaneous heat and mass transfer occurs as a result of combined
buoyancy effects of diffusion of chemical species. Chakrabarty and Gupta [1] have
investigated heat and mass transfer characteristics over a stretching sheet in the presence of a
uniform magnetic field. In mixed convection heat transfer takes place under conditions when
there are large temperature differences within the fluid thus it becomes necessary to consider
the effects of variable fluid properties. Sparrow and Lee [2] were the first to study the
105 | P a g e

problem of mixed convection boundary layer flow about a horizontal circular cylinder. Ali
[3] investigated the effect of variable viscosity on mixed convection heat transfer along a
moving surface. Lai and Kulacki [4] analyzed the effects of variable viscosity on convective
heat transfer along a vertical surface in a saturated porous medium.
Recently, Pal and Mondal [5] examined the influence of temperature-dependent viscosity
and thermal radiation on MHD forced convection over a non-isothermal wedge. It is well
known that there exists non-Darcian flow phenomena bodies inertia effect and solidboundary viscous resistance. These non-Darcian effects include non-uniform porosity
distribution. Singh and Tewari [6] studied the effect of thermal stratification on non-Darcian
free convection flow to include the inertia effect. Tien and Hunt [7] analyzed these nonDarcian effects applicable for a boundary layer flow in porous beds. Makinde and
Olanrewaju [8] studied the buoyancy effects on thermal boundary layer over a vertical plate
with a convective surface boundary condition. Sibanda and Makinde [9] analyzed the steady
MHD flow and heat transfer due to a rotating disk in a porous medium with Ohmic heating
and viscous dissipation. Makinde et al. [10] considered the unsteady convection with
chemical reaction and radiative heat transfer past a flat porous plate moving through a binary
mixture. Considerable amount of interest has been shown in radiation interaction with
convection for heat transfer in fluids. This is due to the significant role of thermal radiation in
the surface heat transfer when convection heat transfer is small. Thermal radiation on flow
and heat transfer processes is of major importance in the design of many advanced energy
conversion systems operating at high temperature. Thus, thermal radiation is one of the vital
factors for controlling the heat transfer in a non-isothermal system. Hossain and Takhar [11]
studied the radiation effect on mixed convection along a vertical plate with uniform surface
temperature.
Ali et al. [12] have considered natural convection-radiation interaction in boundary layer
flow over semi-infinite horizontal surface considering gray-gas that emits and absorbs but
does not scatter thermal radiation. Pal [13] analyzed heat and mass transfer in twodimensional stagnation-point flow of an incompressible viscous fluid over a stretching
vertical sheet in the presence of buoyancy force and thermal radiation. Pal and Mondal [14]
have investigated the combined convection flow of an optically dense viscous incompressible
fluid over a vertical surface embedded in a fluid saturated porous medium of variable
porosity with thermal radiation and heat generation/absorption effects. Radiation effect on
106 | P a g e

MHD mixed convection flow about a permeable vertical plate discussed by Aydin and Kaya
[15]. Recently, Pal and Mondal [16] analyzed the effect of MHD non-Darcy mixed
convective diffusion of species over a stretching sheet embedded in a porous medium with
non-uniform heat source/sink, variable viscosity and Soret effect.
Hence, the objective of the present paper is to study the mixed convection boundary layer
flow and heat transfer characteristics over a stretching sheet submerged in a porous medium
with a uniform transverse magnetic field in the presence of thermal radiation, non-uniform
heat source/sink and Ohmic heating due to magnetic field as well as electric field. Linear
stretching of the sheet is considered because of its simplicity in modeling of the flow and
heat transfer over a stretching surface which is useful in understanding the interaction of flow
and temperature fields.
2. Mathematical formulations and governing equations
We consider a steady two-dimensional mixed convection flow of an incompressible, towards
a surface coinciding with the plane y=0 and the flow region y > 0. The x-axis is taken in the
direction along motion of the sheet and the y-axis is taken perpendicular to it. The flow is
generated by the action of two equal and opposite forces along the x-axis and the sheet is
stretched in such a way that the velocity at any instant is proportional to the distance from the
origin (x = 0). Further, the flow field is exposed to the influence of an external transverse
magnetic field of strength B = (0, B0 ,0) . Frictional heating due to viscous dissipation and
Ohmic heating due to application of magnetic field are considered in the present model. With
these assumptions the governing equations are given by
(i) The equation of continuity
u v
+
= 0,
x y
(1)
(ii) The equation of momentum
C
k 2 u
u
u
+ v = + 1 2
u b u 2 B02 u
x
y
y
k
k
+ g t (T T ) + g c (C C ) = 0 ,
(iii) The equation of energy

107 | P a g e
(2)
T
T
1 T
1 q r B02 2
q

u
+v
=
+
u +
+
x
y C p y y C p y C p
C p C p
u
,
y
(3)
(iv) The equation of mass diffusion
C
C
2C
+v
=D 2 .
x
y
y
(4)
where u and v are the velocity components along the x and y directions, is the density of
the liquid, T is the temperature of the fluid, Cb is the form of drag coefficient which is
independent of viscosity and other properties of the fluid but depends on the geometry of the
medium, k is permeability of the porous medium, Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure,
is the kinematic viscosity, is the electrical conductivity of the fluid, and k1 is the vortex
viscosity,
u = u w = bx, v = 0, T = Tw
u 0, T T , C C
=T
as
x
x
+ A0 , C = C w = C + A1 at y = 0 ,
l
l
(5)
The non-uniform heat source/sink q''' is given by

q =
u w *
A (Tw T )e + B * (T T ) ,
x
where A and B are the coefficients of space and temperature-dependent heat source/sink,
respectively. The case A*> 0 and B*> 0 corresponds to internal heat generation while A*< 0
and B*< 0 corresponds to internal heat absorption.
2.1 Similarity solutions for momentum equations

The governing Eqs. (2)-(4) admit a self-similar solution of the form
u = bxf ( ), v = b f ( ),
y,
where f is the dimensionless stream function and is the similarity variable. Substituting
these in Eq. (2), we obtain the following third -order non-linear ordinary differential
equation:
108 | P a g e
(6)

f 2 f f = (1 + K ) f Da 1 f f 2 Ha 2 f + Grt + Grc ,
where Da 1 =
Grt=
kb
gt(TT)
b2l
B0 is Hartmann number,
b
is inverse Darcy number, Ha =
is thermal Grashof number, Grc=
(7)
gc(CC)
b2l
is solutal Grashof number
and
The appropriate boundary condition (6) now becomes

f ()=0,
f ( ) 0,
f'()= 1,
as
at
=0,
(8)
2.2 Similarity solution of the energy and mass-diffusion equations

The thermal conductivity is assumed to vary linearly with temperature and it is of the form
= [1 + ( )] , where ( ) = (T T ) /(Tw T ) and =(w)/, which depends on

the nature of the fluid and is a small parameter. In general, > 0 for air and liquids such as
water, while <0 for fluids such as lubrication oils. The Rosseland approximation of the
radiative heat flux q is modeled as, q =(4*/3k*)T4/y,
r
r
where * is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant and k* is the mean absorption coefficient. T4 can be expressed by using
4
3
Taylors series as T43T+4TT. Thus, we have from Eq. (3) as
16T3 T
T
T
1
+
u
+v
=
x
y C p y
3k y
B02 2
q
+
C u + C + C
p
p
p
u
.
y
(9)
The thermal boundary conditions for solving Eq. (9) depends on the type of heating process
considered. Thus non-dimensional temperature () and concentration () are defined in
PST case as
( ) =
(10)
where,
109 | P a g e
T T
,
Tw T
( ) =
C C
,
C w C

2
x
T T = A0 ( )
l
and
x
Tw T = A0 ,
l
(11)
2
x
C C = A1 ( )
l
and
x
C w C = A1 .
l
(12)
Finally, we obtain the non-linear ordinary differential equation for () and () in the form
(1 + Nr + ) + Pr ( f 2 f ) + 2 + Pr Ha 2 Ec f 2 + (1 + ) (A f + B )+ Pr Ec
f 2 = 0,
(13)
''+ Sc ( 'f 2 f ) = 0.
(14)
Corresponding thermal boundary conditions for () and () are given by
() = 1,
()= 1 at =0,
( ) 0, ( ) 0 as .
(15)
22
b l
Here the prime denotes the differentiation with respect to and Ec= D C is Eckert number,
0 p
3
Cp
16T
Pr=
is Prandtl number, Nr=
is thermal radiation parameter and Sc= is
3k
Schmidt number.
2.3 Skin-friction coefficient, Nusselt number and Sherwood number

The most important physical quantities for the problem are skin-friction coefficient (Cf),
local Nusselt number (Nu ) and local Sherwood number (Sh ) which are defined by the
x
x
following relations:
Cf =
w
u /2
2
w
, Nu x =
xq w
,
(Tw T )
Sh =
xmw
.
D(C w C )
(16)
The skin-friction on the flat plate w , rate of heat transfer q w and rate of mass transfer m w
are given by
110 | P a g e
w = ( + k1 )
T
C
u
, q w = , mw = D .
y y =0
y y =0
y y =0
(17)
Thus we get from Eq. (17) as
C f Re x
12
= (1 + K ) f (0), Nu x = Re x (0), Shx = Re x (0) (20)
where Rex=uwx/ is the local Reynolds number.

3. Results and discussions
In the present study our main focus is to analyze the effects of various physical parameters
with the help of some important graphs. The set of highly nonlinear ordinary differential
equations (7), (13), and (14) subject to the boundary conditions (8) and (15) constitute a twopoint boundary value problem, which is integrated by fiffth order Runge-Kutta Fehlberg
method with shooting technique. Fig. 1 shows the effect of spatial-dependent internal heat
generation or absorption in the boundary layer on the temperature profiles. we can analyze
the influence
of temperature-dependent internal heat generation or absorption in the
boundary layer on the temperature field. It is observed that the boundary layer generates
energy by increasing the values of A* , B * 0 (heat source) which causes the temperature of
the fluid to increase, which in turn results in increase of the flow field due to the buoyancy
effects. This is the main reason behind the temperature profiles to decrease, whereas in the
case of ( A* , B * 0) (absorption) the boundary layer absorbs energy resulting in the
temperature profiles to increase with increasing in the value of A* , B * 0 in the boundary
layer for fixed value of other physical parameter. Fig. 2 exhibit the variation concentration
profiles with for different values of Schmidt number Sc. It is observed that the effects of
increasing the value of Schmidt number is to decrease the concentration of the diffusion
species. Reduction in the concentration of diffusion species due to increase in the Schmidt
number can be demonstrated by replacing hydrogen (Sc = 0.32) by water vapor (Sc = 0.62)
and ammonia (Sc = 1.0) etc. in the said sequence.
111 | P a g e
Fig. 1. Effect on non-uniform heat source/sink parameter on temperature profiles.
Fig. 2. Concentration profile for different values of Schmidt number Sc.
4. Conclusions
The flow and heat mass transfer for a non-Darcy hydromagnetic flow over a stretching sheet
submerged in a viscous fluid saturated porous medium in the presence of non uniform heat
source/sink are solved in this study. The resulting partial differential
equations were
transformed to a set of ordinary differential equations and then these equations are solved
numerically using Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg method with shooting techniques. The important
findings of our analysis are listed below:
(i) Increase in the Schmidt number Sc is to decrease the concentration profile.
(ii) The presence of space-dependent heat source/sink parameter is to decrease the
temperature profile.
112 | P a g e

5. References
[1] Chakraborty A., Gupta A. S. "Hydromagnetic flow and heat transfer over a stretching sheet",
Quaart. Appl. Math., 37, p. 7378, 1979.
[2] Sparrow E.M., Lee L. "Analysis of mixed convection about a horizontal cylinder", Int. J. Heat
Mass Transf., 19, p. 229232, 1976.
[3] Ali M.E. "The effect of variable viscosity on mixed convection heat transfer along a vertical
surface in a saturated porous medium", Int. J. Thermal sci., 45 , p. 6069, 2006.
[4] Lai E.C., Kulacki F. A. "Effects of variable viscosity on connective heat transfer along a vertical
surface in a saturated porous medium", Int. J. Heat mass Transf., 33 p. 10281031, 1990.
[5] Pal D., Mondal H. "Influence of temperature-dependent viscosity and thermal radiation on MHD
forced convection over a non-isothermal wedge", Appl. Math. computa., 212 p. 194208, 2009.
[6] Singh P., Tewari K. "Non-Darcy free convection from vertical surfaces in thermally stratified
porous medium", Int. J. Engng. Sci., 31 p. 12331242, 1993.
[7] Tien C.L., Hunt M.L. "Boundary-layer flow and heat transfer in porous beds", Chem. Engng.
Prog., 21 p. 5363, 1987.
[8] Makinde O.D., Olanrewaju P. O. "Buoyancy effects on thermal boundary layer over a vertical
plate with a convective surface boundary condition", Trans. ASME J. Fluid Eng., 132 p. 14,
2010.
[9] Sibanda P., Makinde O. D. "On steady MHD flow and heat transfer due to a rotating disk in a
porous medium with Ohmic heating and viscous dissipation", Int. J. Num. Methods Heat Fluid
Flow, 20(3) p. 269-285, 2010.
[10] Makinde O.D., Olanrewaju P. O., Charles W. M. "Unsteady convection with chemical reaction
and radiative heat transfer past a flat porous plate moving through a binary mixture", Afr. Mat.,
22 p. 65-78, 2011.
[11] Hossain M. A., Takhar H. S. "Radiation effect on mixed convection along a vertical plate with
uniform surface temperature", Heat and Mass Transfer, 31 (4) p. 243-248, 1996.
[12] Ali M. M., Chen T. S., Armaly B.F. "Natural Convection-Radiation Interaction in BoundaryLayer Flow over Horizontal Surfaces", AIAA J., 22 p. 17971803, 1984.
[13] Pal D. "Heat and mass transfer in stagnation-point flow towards a stretching surface in the
presence of buoyancy force and thermal radiation", Meccanica , 44 p. 145158, 2009.
[14] Pal D., Mondal H., "Radiation effects on combined convection over a vertical flat plate in a
porous medium of variable viscosity", Meccanica , 44, p. 133144, 2009.
[15] Aydin O., Kaya A. "Radiation effect on MHD mixed convection flow about a permeable vertical
plate", Heat and Mass Transfer , 45 (2) p. 239-246, 2008.
[16] Pal D., Mondal H. "MHD non-Darcy mixed convective diffusion of species over a stretching
sheet embedded in a porous medium with non-uniform heat source/sink, variable viscosity and
Soret effect", Commu. Nonlinear Sci. Numer. Simulat., 17 p. 672-684, 2012.
113 | P a g e
Influence of moving fins with temperature dependent surface heat flux and
multi boiling heat transfer
Pranab Kanti Roya* ,
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bengal Institute of Technology and Management Santiniketan-731236, India
Email: pranab38_skd@yahoo.com
and
Hiranmoy Mondalb*
b
Department of Mathematics
*
Bengal Institute of Technology and Management Santiniketan-731236, India
Email: hiranmoymondal@yahoo.co.in
a
Abstract
An analysis is carried out to study of the decomposition solution of one dimensional
temperature distribution in a straight fin is derived if various regimes of pool boiling occur on
the surface of a moving fin. A new type of a fan-integrated heat sink named a scroll heat sink
are analyzed. Experimental results show that measured flow rates of the coolant are almost
linearly proportional to the rotating speed of the moving fins. A theoretical model is also
developed to estimate the required pumping power and the thermal resistance, and validated
using experimental results. The moving fins are subjected different boiling regimes and its
performance is affected due to different heat transfer coefficient for large temperature
difference in the boiling regimes. The effect of Peclet number on the different boiling
regimes as such nucleate boiling, film boiling, natural convection and radiation into free
space are illustrated and explained.
Keywords: moving fin, decomposition method, heat transfer coefficient,
1. Introduction
In the recent years, the heat transfer from a moving surface has attracted the attention of some
researchers. There are some applications a material exchanges heat with the surroundings
through a furnace or channel such as extrusion of plastic, drawing of wires and sheet and
flow of liquids while it is in continuous motion[1-5]. Such problems can be modelled as a
moving fin as long as the criterion for fin approximation is specified. However in many
applications of various regimes of boiling heat transfer, such as convection, nucleate boiling,
film boiling and radiation into free space, the heat transfer is no longer uniform and heat
transfer coefficient can be expressed as an empirical function of the temperature difference
114 | P a g e

between the fin surface and the boiling liquid. Under this circumstances the energy equation
becomes highly non linear and is difficult to obtain an analytical solution. M.Torabi et al.
[16] applied differential transformation method (DTM) for a moving fin with variable
thermal conductivity which is losing heat by simultaneous convection and radiation to its
surroundings. Raveshi and Amiri [17] applied differential transformation method (DTM) to
evaluate the efficiency of a stationary fin with variable thermal conductivity and heat transfer
coefficient in all pool boiling regimes.A.Moradi[18] applied differential transform
method(DTM) for a stationary fin with power law dependent heat transfer coefficient. RongHua Yea [19] evaluated the optimum dimension of various fins profile considering power law
type dependent heat transfer coefficient. Aziz and Khani[15] applied homotopy analysis
method(HAM) to generaye an analytical solution for heat transfer in a moving fin of variable
thermal conductivity which is losing heat by simultaneous convection and radiation to its
surrounding. Chowdhury and Hasan[11] applied Homotropy-perturbation method(HPM) to
straight rectangular stationary fin with power-law dependent surface heat flux. They have
evaluated that the solution with six term in series give the accurate results than the 13-term in
series.
The concept of Adomian decomposition method was introduced and developed by George
Adomian [9] with the aim to solve frontier physical problems. Now it has been applied to a
wide class of deterministic and stochastic problems without the need of linearization that
yields convergence rapidly. Chang [10] applied Adomian decomposition method to
investigate a straight stationary fin governed by power-law-type temperature dependent heat
transfer co efficient using 13 terms in series.[8] Arslanturk[8] used the Adomian
decomposition method and Homotropy perturbation method to evaluate the efficiency of
straight fins with temperature dependent thermal conductivity. R. Das [6] applied
decomposition method along with gradient free simplex search method for simultaneous
estimation of convective-conductive and variable conductivity parameter in a rectangular
stationary fin involving variable thermal conductivity. Lesnic and Heggs[20] applied the
Adomian decomposition method(ADM) to determine the temperature distribution within a
single fin with a temperature dependent heat transfer coefficient. H.Chowdhury and
I.Hashim[12] applied Adomian decomposition method to stationary fin with power-law
dependent surface heat flux and shown that six terms decomposition solution gives accurate
results in series over the different time steps.
115 | P a g e

From the foregoing description, it is apparent that most works regarding boiling heat transfer
are dealing with stationary fin. To the best authors knowledge, there has not been any paper
published to quantitatively analyse the moving fins in different boiling heat transfer
characteristics.
2. Mathematical formulation and boundary conditions
Consider a moving fin of the length L, with crossectional area A while it moves horizontally
with a constant velocity U. The moving fin is exposed to boiling fluid medium and local heat
transfer coefficient h along fin surface is assumed to exhibit a power-law-type dependence
on the temperature and can be expressed as.
n
T T
h = hb
Tb T
The hb is the heat transfer coefficient at the fin base temperature Tb . T is the ambient
temperature boiling fluid medium. The value of n can vary in wide range between -4 to 5[7,
13] For example the exponent n may take the values , -0.25, 0.25, 2 and 3 indicating the
moving fin subject to laminar film boiling or condensation, natural convection, nucleate
boiling, and radiation into free space at zero absolute temperature, respectively The moving
fin is assumed to be gray and diffuse with constant emissivity .The thickness of the fin is
assumed to be small so that y-direction heat transfer from the fin appears to be small [14]
The one dimensional steady state energy equation with, constant thermal conductivity as it
moves with constant speed becomes,
T T
dT 2 C pU dT
hb
2
k dx
dx
Tb T
(1)
(T T ) = 0
kA
If = k C p is the thermal diffusivity of the material, is the density and C p is the specific
heat, k ,the thermal conductivity of the material, P , the perimeter and A is the crossectional
area of the fin. The axial coordinate x is measured from the slot from which the material
emerges and comes in contact with the surrounding boiling liquids.
Introducing the dimensionless parameters,
hb PL2
T T
x
UL
2
;=
; N =
X = ; Pe =
KA
Tb T
L
The energy equation in non dimensional form

d 2
d
2 n +1
= Pe
+ N
2
dX
dX
116 | P a g e
(2)

Where L is the length between the point of emergence(x=0) and the point where the slope of
temperature in the materials becomes zero, N is convective-conductive parameter and Pe is
the Peclet number which represents the dimensionless speed of the moving material. In
physical terms, it is the ratio of energy advected by materials due to motion and energy
conducted through materials. When the material is stationary, Peclet number is zero the Eq.
(1) reduces to that of a stationary fin and temperature distribution is as shown in figure 5.
With the following boundary conditions:
d
=0
X = 0,
dX
=1
X = 1,
as measured from the point where the thermal processing terminates.
(3)
(4)
3. Decomposition method
Following the Adomian decomposition method analysis [9], the linear operator is
d2
LX =
defined as
dX 2
Consequently Eq. (1) can be written as follows
d
2 n +1
L X = Pe
+ N (4 )
dX
Applying inverse operator L1 on both sides the above equation can be written as
( )
d (0)
+ Pe L X
dX
1 m
+ N 2 L X n +1
1 m
1 m
d (0 )
= (0) + X
+ Pe L X Am + N 2 L X Bm
dX
0
0
The Adomian polynomials can be expressed as

d
n +1
A0 = 0 , B0 = 0 ,
dX
d
n
A1 = 1 , B1 = (n + 1)1 0 ,
dX
2
n 1
n(n + 1) 1 0
d
n
A2 = 2 , B2 = (n + 1) 2 0 +
dX
2
,
= (0) + X
d
A3 = 3 ,
dX
1 m
d
0 dX
B3 = (n + 1) 3 0 + n(n + 1)1 2 0
n
n 1
n(n + 1)(n 1) 1 0
+
6
3
(5)
(6)
n2
and so on
With the boundary conditions [4] given in the equations and taking (0) arbitrary constant C.
The next iterates are determined from the following recursive relationship:
(7 )
m +1 = Pe L X 1 Am + N 2 L X 1 Bm , m 0
Therefore, the first five iterates are expressed as:
117 | P a g e
0 = C ,
n +1
N 2X 2
1 =
,
2
( n + 1 )C 2 n + 1 N 4 X 4 + Pe C n + 1 N 2 X 3 ,
2 =
24
6
3 n +1
6
6
( n + 1 )( 4 n + 1 )C N X + Pe ( n + 1 )C 2 n + 1 N 4 X 5 + Pe
3 =
720
60
2
4 n +1
8
8
( n + 1 ) 34 n + 5 n + 1 C
N X
4 =
+
40320
2 n +1
(
n + 1 )( 16 n + 3 ) C 3 n + 1 N 6 X 7
N 4X
2 3 ( n + 1 )C
Pe
+ Pe
5040
720
C
n +1
( n + 1 )(469
+ Pe
N
24
n +1
N 2X
120
n 3 66 n 2 + 69 n + 1 C 5 n + 1 N 10 X 10
5 =
+
3628800
( n + 1 ) 232 n 2 4 n + 4 C 4 n + 1 N 8 X 9 + Pe 2 ( n + 1)(34 n + 6 )C 3 n +1 N 6 X 8 +
Pe
362880
40320
2 n +1
4
7
n +1
2
6
4 ( n + 1 )C
N X
C
N X
Pe 3
+ Pe 4
5040
720
Upon summing those iterations, the 6-term approximation m to which is usually written
as
m 1
m = m = 0 + 1 + + m 1 ,
m 1
i =0
(8)
Where C represents the temperature at the fin tip that must lie in the interval (0, 1) can be
determined applying boundary condition (3) in Eq. (8) by using Newton-Raphson iterative
method.
4. Results and discussion
In the natural convection process the rate of evaporation of the liquid or the rate of formation
of bubbles are pretty small and it is observed with low heat transfer coefficient and low wall
superheat as shown in Figure 1. The bottom curve corresponds to Peclet number (Pe) is 2 and
top curve corresponds to Peclet number is zero which is the case of stationary fin. The
increasing the value Peclet number the convection gets stronger than the conduction and
temperature variation is gradual. The increase in Peclet number requires very low excess
118 | P a g e

temperature during the processing of materials in the natural convection process.
1
Pe 0
Pe 0.5
Pe 1
Pe 1.5
Pe 2
0.9
0.8
N =1
n = 0.25
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
X
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
The process of nucleate boiling is observed comparatively for higher value of wall superheat
and heat transfer coefficient. The process is characterised by the formation of bubbles at the
preferred sites on a heating surface of the moving fin that is in contact with the surrounding
liquid and maintained at a temperature above the saturation temperature of the liquid. Figure
2 illustrates the effect of the Peclet number on the temperature in the fin subjected to nucleate
boiling (n=2).Top curve corresponds to Peclet number zero and bottom curve Peclet number
two. As Peclet increases, i.e. as the material moves faster, the time for which the material is
exposed to environment gets shorter, convection dominates and require low temperature to
initiate the nucleate boiling process as compared to stationary fin.
119 | P a g e
Pe 0
Pe 0.5
Pe 1
Pe 1.5
Pe
0.95
0.9
N =1
n=2
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
X
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 2 Temperature distribution of moving fin with nucleate

boiling heat transfer (n= 2, N=1)
The temperature distribution of the moving fin considering the regime of film boiling is as
shown in figure3. In the process of film boiling, the heated surface of the moving fin is
separated from the surrounding liquid by a vapour layer. The thermal conductivity as well as
heat transfer coefficient are low of the vapour layer. As the Peclet number increases the
materials move faster the convection dominates and low excess temperature required for
energy transfer in this region.
120 | P a g e
Pe 0
Pe 0.5
Pe 1
Pe 1.5
Pe 2
0.9
0.8
N =1
n = 0.25
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
X
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 3 Temperature distribution of moving fin with film

boiling heat transfer (n= - 0.25, N=1)
1
Pe 0
Pe 0.5
Pe 1
Pe 1.5
Pe 2
0.95
0.9
N =1
n=3
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
X
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 4 Temperature distribution of moving fin with radiation heat

transfer (n= 3, N=1)
121 | P a g e
n
n
nn
0.95
0.9
N =1
Pe = 0
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
X
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 5 Temperature distribution of stationary fin (Pe =0) considering

convection, nucleate boiling, film boiling and radiation heat transfer
Sl.
No
Table 1. The moving fins considering four regimes of boiling heat transfer when N=1
Moving fin [present study]
Effect of Peclet number
Index, n
n=0.25
(Natural
convection)
n=2
(Nucleate
boiling)
n= -0.25
(film
boiling)
n=3
(Radiarion)
Pe=0.5
Pe=1
Pe=1.5
0.631198889838 0.590280713824 0.545643048547 0.498334200225
0.730164805334 0.70655576054
0.681225109793 0.654164145495
0.577039146741 0.52369777889
0.465002940812 0.402928005096
0.761672710403 0.742582011120 0.721958039077 0.699977148701
Table 2 Variation of stationary fin for different values of n.

Sl.
Stationary fin[10]
No.
Pe=0
1
n=0.25
0.667897856899
(Natural convection)
122 | P a g e
Pe=2

2
n=2
0.751638510657
(Nucleate boiling)
n=-0.25
0.624169630566
(Film boiling)
n=3
0.779183029828
(Radiation)
n = -1
0.500000000000
n = -0.75
0.555569933566
n = -0.5
0.594450813008
n=0
0.648054274545
n = 0.5
0.684781456079
10
n=0
0.648054274545
11
n=1
0.712259408755
References
[1] Z. Tadmor, I. Klein, Engineering Principles of Plasticating Extrusion, Polymer Science and
Engineering Series, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1970.
[2] E.G. Fisher, Extrusion of Plastics, John Wiley, New York, 1976.
[3] T. Altan, S. Oh, H. Gegel, Metal Forming Fundamentals and Applications, American Society of
Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1979.
[4] S. Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA,
1989.
[5] J. Szekely, Fluid Flow Phenomena in Metals Processing, Academic Press, New York, 1979.
[6] R. Das, A simplex search method for a conductive-convective fin with variable conductivity,
International journal of heat and mass transfer 54 (2011) 5001-5009.
[7] S. P. Law, R.H. Yeh, Fins with temperature dependent surface heat flux-1: Single heat transfer
mode, International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer 37(1994) 1509-1515.
[8] Arslanturk C., A decomposition method for fin efficiency of convective straight fins with
temperature-dependent thermal conductivity, International communication in heat and mass transfer,
32,831-841,2005.
[9] G Adomian, Solving frontier problems of physics: the decomposition method, Boston: Kluwer
Academic, 1994.
[10] M H Chang, A decomposition solution for fins with temperature dependent surface heat flux,
International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer 48 (2005) 1819-1824.
[11] Md. S. H. Chowdhury, T. H. Hasan, A new reliable algorithm based on homotropy-perturbation
method for power law fin type problems, Australian Journal of basic and Applied Sciences, 5(4): 4450, 2011,ISSN 1991-8178.
[12] Md. S. H. Chowdhury, I. Hashim, On decomposition solutions of fins with temperature
dependent surface heat flux: Multi boiling heat transfer, Proceedings of the 2nd IMG-GT regional
123 | P a g e

conference on Mathematics, Statistics and Applications, University Sains Malaysia, Penang, June 1315,2005.
[13] S. P. Law, R.H. Yeh, Fins with temperature dependent surface heat flux-II: Multi boiling heat
transfer, International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer 37(1994) 1517-1524.
[14] W. Lau, C.W. Tan, Error in one-dimensional heat transfer analysis in straight and annular fins, J.
Heat transfer Trans. ASME 95(1973) 549-551.
[15] A. Aziz, F. Khani, Convection-radiation from a continuously moving fin of variable thermal
conductivity, Journal of Franklin Institute 384 (2011) 640-651.
[16] Mohsen Torabi, Hessameddin yaghoobi, A. Aziz, Analytical solution for convective-radiative
continuously moving fin with temperature dependent thermal conductivity, International Journal of
Thermophysics (2012) 33:924-941.
[17] Mohammad Reza Raveshi,Shayan Amiri, Analytical solution to determine efficiency of straight
fin under various types of pool boiling, Proceedings of the ASME 2011 international mechanical
engineering Congress & Exposition IMECE 2011, November 11-17,2011,Denver,Colorado,USA.
[18] A. Moradi, Analytical solution for fin with temperature dependent heat transfer coefficient,
International Journal of Engineering & Applied Sciences (IJEAS),vol 3, issue 2(2011)1-12.
[19] Rong-Hua Yea, Optimization of Design parameters for splines of various geometries, Journal of
Marine Science And Technology, Vol 3, No 1, pp.11-17(1995).
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International Communications in Heat Mass Transfer, 31,673-682, 2004.
124 | P a g e
Comparison of Flooding and Gossiping Routing Protocols Using

TOSSIM in Wireless Sensor Networks
Raju Dutta
Department of Mathematics, Narula Institute of Technology
Kolkata, India
rdutta80@gmail.com
Debraj Paul
Department of Computer Science, Narula Institute of Technology
Kolkata, India
debraj4174@gmail.com
Shishir Gupta
Department of Applied Mathematics, Indian School of Mines
Dhandad, India
shishir_ism@yahoo.com
Mukul K Das
Department of Electronics Engineering, Indian School of Mines
Dhandad, India
mkdas12@gmail.com
Abstract
Flooding routing protocol uses random packet broadcast in the network, which may cause
chaotic communication. Therefore nodes consume more power to send data to the destination
and consequently throughput of the network reduces drastically. To overcome this storm
Gossiping routing protocol is implemented, which mainly avoids the implosion and
overlapping problems that occur by Flooding. Gossiping reduces the number of packet
retransmissions and consumes less energy than flooding routing protocol. In this paper, we
compared Flooding and Gossiping protocols, using widely used operating system TinyOS
1.1.0 and nesC in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The protocols are simulated by TOSSIM
which is an integral part of nesC and comparison results between the protocols are shown
different graphs.
KeywordsRouting Protocol; TinyOS; nesC; Flooding; Gossiping; Lifetime.

1. Introduction
Wireless sensor networks are now used in more real life applications for its infrastructure less
ad-hoc network, In infrastructure network is impossible to setup then WSNs could work in
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such critical situation for acquiring data and broadcast data to the destination efficiently. WSN
consists of huge amount of tiny nodes, small processor, small amount of memory and small
size radio transceiver. As WSN is working in a critical situation or cozy environment so it
faces different challenges more energy conservation, varying network topology, poor
communication, Resource-constrains computation and scalability etc. The nodes are battery
equipped with limited energy so one of the primary goals is to use this energy as efficient as
possible to increase the system lifetime. There are different ways to implement and design a
proper routing protocol to save energy when nodes are connected to base station and they
follows a proper route .If routing protocol can be designed in such a way that data or messages
can reach to the base station with minimum energy then it will be helpful to achieve the goal.
For networks, routing algorithms depend on the characteristics of the applications and
consequently, there is no self-contained algorithm suitable for every case. In some scenarios,
the network behaviour (traffic load) may vary a lot, such as an event-driven application.
2. Related work
In [1] they described Gossip techniques for better performance of the network. They have
considered parameters such as packet delivery, delay and load for evaluation the performance
of the network. In [2] increases the packet control using Route Request, Route Reply in all
active protocol such as Ad hoc on demand Distance Vector protocol (AODV) and DSR
because broadcasting has been considered to find the route. Flooding technique generates
large number of packets within the network and consumes more energy of the network.
AODV bears both the characteristics of DSR and DSDV protocol in [3, 4, 5]. The Routing
table in DSDV contains sequence number and hop information for updating routes. Most of
the time protocols are following two processes such as route discovery and maintenance as in
DSR. Our novelty of this paper is we used new operating system TOSSIM for route
discovery process, where RREQ is generated by the source node for requesting node to
accept data sent by that node and flood it to the neighboring table.
3. TinyOS and nesC
TinyOS [7] is an open source component based operating system designed for wireless sensor
networks. It features a component-based architecture which enables rapid innovation and
implementation while minimizing code size as required by the severe memory constraints
inherent in sensor networks. The TinyOS system, libraries, and applications are written in
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nesC, a dialect of C programming language. The nesC supports the TinyOS concurrency
model and its programs are a set of software components which are connected to each other
using interfaces. A nesC [8] application consists of components which can use or provide
interfaces and different components are connected using these interfaces. An interface in a
nesC application consists of commands and events. A component which provides the
interface has to provide the implementation for the commands in that interface and can signal
the events to the components using that interface. Otherwise the component using the
interface which has to provide the implementation for the event handlers in the interface.
Modules in TinyOS provide the implementation of the components and the configuration. A
scenario is a collection of components and the wiring between the interfaces of these
components which describes the complete application. NesC programs are built out of
software components some of which are hardware abstractions. TinyOS provides interfaces
and components for common abstractions such as packet communication, routing and
sensing. The framework developed in this paper, provides the user with higher level
abstractions with some generic services so that they can be directly used. It also aims at
providing the user a global view of application while abstracting the underlying
communication details. TOSSIM is nesC based language which is applicable in component
using provides and interfaces. An interface generally models some services in nesC . To
execute the operation commands request i.e. sending some request for job such as
message.send() this command function is sending temp component to Main Component
through StdControl interface. In Fig 1 describe route advertisement phase and Fig2 send data
by command sendMsg.Send() and toggle red LED to indicate transmit data by command
led.redToggle(). In this phase one node invites other nodes in the neighbor table to accept the
broadcast massage and act as a broadcasting node. In Fig3 routeselect.isActive() always
return a valid route when nodes broadcast massages. The packets will be drop if hopcount has
exceeded the maximum
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Fig 1: Provides Interface Command
Fig 2: Route Advertisement phase
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Fig 3: Selection or fail to route phase
4. Flooding Protocol
The flooding is a traditional flat based routing Protocol. The main advantage of flooding is
that it requires no costly topology maintenance or route discovery. It uses broadcasting with
multihop delivery to send the packets to the whole network which will follow all possible
routes to its destination until the hop count exceed. This is a straight forward routing protocol,
and it is suitable for various network types. But the unlimited broadcasting of the packets in
the flooding scheme will cause the huge energy consumption to reach the destination from
source to sink and sometimes creates broadcast storm. The disadvantage of flooding as pointed
out in [6]: (i) Implosion: here duplicate packet may receive, (ii) Overlap: two sensor send a
packet and at the same time, (iii) Resource blindness: without changing nodes activity it
transmits packets, even if the sensor nodes dont have much power to operation.
A.Network Topology
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Flooding source node sends data to all neighbors within the range shows in Fig 4. Each
node receiving a data packet and broadcast to its neighbors this continues until hop count
exceeds or Failed to route select.
Fig.4. Flooding Routing Protocol
V Gossiping
Gossiping routing protocol is proposed to overcome critical problems of the flooding which
avoids the implosion and other problem occurred by Flooding. In the gossiping protocol, it
broadcast the message to its neighbor shows in Fig 5 and then randomly selects one node
from the neighbor table as source to send packets. This improves the problem of heavy packet
overhead and reduces the number of packet retransmission and consumes less energy than
flooding protocol.
However, it may cause other problems, like packet loss and it suffers from latency of data
propagation. Because the sender randomly selects the neighbor node from router neighbors to
transmit data, the selected sensors may result farther than the shortest path between the
sender and the sink. Hence, this may extend the packet delay time.
A. Network Topology
Gossiping, instead of the broadcasting each packet to all neighbors the packet is sent to a
single neighbor chosen at random from a neighbor table. Having received the packet the
neighbor chooses another random node to send to. This can include the node which sent the
packet. This continues until the packet reaches its destination or the maximum hop the packet
is exceeded.
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Fig.5. The Gossiping protocol. (1) Node A starts advertising its data to all of its neighbors. (2) Node D responds by
sending a request to node A. (3) after receiving the request, node A sends the data. (4) Node D again sends advertisement out
to its neighbors.
5.Component Diagram
Fig.6. Component diagram of Flooding and Gossiping
Diagram of protocols using TinyOS Simulator is given in Fig 6. This is a pictorial view of the
software which is performing for simulation time. Tinyos provides a set of reusable system
components. An application connects components using wiring specification. That is
independent of component implementation. Each application
customizes the set of
components it uses. Here this diagram says that two different components are connected by
respective interface. Interfaces are the only point of access to the component. Interfaces in
nesC are bidirectional. They contain commands and events and it is two types provides
interface and uses interface. Provides interface is implemented by developer of the
application and uses interface is already implemented in the system. Commands are typically
request to execute an operation i.e. sending some request for job such as message.send () this
command function is sending temp component to Main Component through StdControl
Interface. But event is the reply for this job which is sending through this same StdControl
interface from Main to temp.like send.sendDone() event function. Another example is, In this
diagram, suppose RouteFlood component is connect to Main component through StdControl
Interface(Provides Interface). RouteFlood sending the some commend message to Main and
the Main also sending an reply message for this request. Actually this diagram show the
visualization part of the wiring technology, which is in the configuration part.
6. Simulation and Results
Flooding uses broadcasting with multi-hop delivery to send the packets to the whole network
which will follow all possible routes to its destination until the hop count exceed. In Fig 7
and Fig 10 nodes are broadcasting massage to the neighbor that selects the route and hop
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count is increasing. In Fig 8 and Fig 11 it shows that when hop count exceeds the massage
received at destination and in TinyOS the result fail to route select will be seen at runtime
simulation. The graphical display showed nodes periodically broadcasting packets as
expected where the blue circles are indicate packet broadcast. The TinyViz window is shown
in Fig 9.
Fig.7. Massage broadcasting with multi-hop delivery in Flooding
Fig.8. Hop count exceeds
Fig 9: Flooding protocol displayed using TinyViz
The protocol execution was looked at visually using TinyViz. The graphical display showed
that packets were being sent to a random node within range. The TinyViz window is shown
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in Fig 12.The blue circles indicate packet broadcast and the purple lines represent direct
communication between nodes.
Fig.10. Advertising massage and route select in Gossiping
Fig.11. Source massage sends successfully at sink in Gossiping
Fig 12: Gossiping protocol displayed using TinyViz.
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7. Performance Analysis
We present the performance analysis of both Flooding and Gossiping protocol by using
MATLAB and TOSSIM [7]. Implementation of both protocols has been written in nesC
programming language in TOSSIM. Here we have compared (1) Total Number of packets
transferred to reach the sink node for an event with respect to both time and number of sensor
nodes. (2) Energy consumption of the sensor network with varying both hopcount and
numbers of sensor nodes in the sensor network. Sensor nodes varying from 10 to 50 and
hopcount from 5 to 20. Fig 13 and Fig 14 shows the comparison of packet broadcast with
respect to time and nodes respectively and found in both the cases by TOSSIM explains
Gossiping do less broadcast than Flooding routing protocol. Fig 15 and Fig 16 shows the
comparison of energy consumption of the both protocol in the network with respect to nodes
and hopcount and in both the cases Gossiping routing protocol maximize the network
lifetime. Initially, both the protocols have been tested with the same network topology. Fig 13
and Fig 16 shows the broadcast and energy consumption of the network consists of 30 nodes.
In Flooding protocol the total energy consumption increasing with increasing the number of
nodes and hop of the WSN than Gossiping. Thus Gossiping extend the lifespan of the
network. That has been proved by using new simulator TOSSIM.
50
45
Time vs Broadcast Count

Flooding
Gossiping
Broadcast Count
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
1.5
Time(Sec.)
2.5
3
4
x 10
Fig 13: Packet broadcast Count with Time
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Fig 14: Packet broadcast with number of sensor nodes
18
16
Sensor Node vs Energy

Flooding
Gossiping
14
Energy
12
10
8
6
4
2
10
15
20
25
30
35
Sensor Node
40
45
50
Fig 15: Energy consumption with varying nodes

Hopcount vs Energy Consumption
45
40
Energy Consumption
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
Flooding
Gossiping
5
10
Hopcount
15
20
Fig 16: Energy consumption with hopcount
Conclusion
The Flooding and Gossiping protocols were implemented in TinyOS1.1.0 with some degree of
success. The basic evaluation of these protocols was carried out and different phase
comparison has been made and showed by different graphs. After heuristic simulation both the
protocols it is clear that performance gains by Gossiping are better than Flooding.
References
[1] Haas, Z.J., Halpern, J.Y., (2006) Gossip Based Ad Hoc Routing, IEEE Transactions on
networking, vol.14, pp.479-491.
[2] Frikha, M., and Ghandour, F., (2007) Implementation and Performance Evaluation of an
Energy Constraint Routing Protocol for MANET, 3rd International Conference of
Telecommunications (AICT07),
[3] Perkins, C.E., Royer, E. M., and Das, S., (2000) Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV), draft-ietfmanet-aodv- 05.txt,
[4] Johnson, D. B., Maltz, D. A., and Hu, Y.C., (2003) DSR for Mobile Ad Hoc Network,
Internet-Draft, draft-ietfmanet-drs-09.txt,
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[5] Perkins, C. E., and Bhagwat, P., (1994) Highly Dynamic Destination Sequenced Distance
Vector Routing (DVDV) for Mobile Computers, Proceeding of ACM SIGCOMM,
[6] Heinzelman, W. B., Kulik, J., and Balakrishna, H., (1999)"Adaptive Protocols for Information
Dissemination in Wireless Sensor Networks," in Proceedings of the 5th Annual ACM/IEEE
International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, 174-185,
[7] Levis, P., and Lee, N., (2003): TOSSIM: A Simulator for TinyOS Networks, Included with
the TinyOS 1.1.0 software.
[8] Gay, D., Levis, P., Behren, R., Welsh, M., Brewer, E., and Culler, D.,(2003)The nesC
Language: A Holistic Approach to Networked Embedded Systems. In Proceedings of
Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI.
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Study the performance of Optical Communication &

Characteristics comparison in SiC based one dimensional three
layered unit cell Photonic Crystal using SCILAB & MATLAB
Avik Chakraborty1
Department of ECE, Bengal Institute of Technology and Management
(Santiniketan),WBUT.
1
Email: chakraborty.avik.ece@gmail.com
and
Krishanu Mitra2
2
M.Tech Student,
Department of ECE, Bengal Institute of Technology and Management
(Santiniketan),WBUT.
Email: 2 kmitra007@gmail.com.
1
Abstract:
The feasibility of using SiC multilayer films as one-dimensional (1D) photonic band gap crystals
was investigated by theoretical calculations using a transfer matrix method (TMM). In this paper
Silicon Carbide (SiC) based 1D photonic crystal with 3 layered unit cell are studied by transfer
matrix method to compare their various characteristics such as stop band width , pass band
width, centre band gap etc, by passing 1550nm wavelength light waves and the simulation has
been done by SCILAB as well as in MATLAB . Here the key factor is that one layer is always
we have taken as SiC based semiconductor material it help us to know the characteristics of a
light wave when it passes through semiconductor material.
Keywords: 1-D & 3-layered photonic crystal, Silicon Carbide (SiC), Transfer matrix method,
1550nm Light wave, SCILAB.
1. Introduction:
Recently, significant interest arises in the artificial periodic dielectric structures with a period
close to the wave-length of electromagnetic (EM) wave. Depending on the frequency
requirement of specific applications, the engineering of structures that are periodic in 2D and 3D
has been achieved for waves in infrared, microwave, and millimeter wave regions. For
wavelength shorter than infrared, only a few experimental and theoretical systems have recently
137 | P a g e

been demonstrated to exhibit the signature of band gaps [1, 2]. This is because most materials
have high absorption coefficients and unstable dielectric constants under prolonged irradiation
with UV/VIS light, together with difficulty in constructing samples with a small structure.
In this paper Silicon Carbide (SiC) based 1D photonic crystal with 3 layered unit cell are
analyzed we have taken as SiC based semiconductor material as a vital layer. The reason behind
that is SiC has wide forbidden energy gap of 2.86 eV in 302 K temperature & has been emerged
as an attractive substrate for high power devices due to its larger band gap , higher break down
strength , high thermal conductivity and high electron saturation drift velocity. Most important
advantage of SiC over other wide band gap semiconductor is that SiC can be thermally oxidized
to form an insulator Silicon die oxide. Although the refractive index of SiC is lower than that of
a conventional semiconductor such as GaAs or Si, a wide photonic band gap, a broadband wave
guide and a high quality nanocavity comparable to those of previous photonic crystals can be
obtained in Silicon Carbide based photonic crystals, for above many reason in this analysis
process we choose SiC.
2. 1D, 2D & 3D Photonic crystals:
Basically Photonic crystals are composed of periodic dielectric or metallo dielectric
nanostructures that affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves (EM). Since the basic
physical phenomenon is based on diffraction, the periodicity of the photonic crystal structure has
to be of the same length-scale as half the wavelength of the EM waves i.e. ~200 nm (blue) to 350
nm (red) for photonic crystals operating in the visible part of the spectrum - the repeating regions
of high and low dielectric constants have to be of this dimension. This makes the fabrication of
optical photonic crystals cumbersome and complex.
In a 1-D Photonic Crystal layers of different dielectric constant may be deposited or adhered
together to form a band gap in a single direction .A Bragg grating is an example of this type of
photonic crystal .This type of photonic crystal systems exhibits three important phenomena i)
Photonic Band gap , ii)Localized mode iii) surface state ,because the index contrast is only along
one direction , the band gaps and bound states are limited to that direction .By the help of this
concept this characteristics analysis is being processed[3].
In two dimensions, holes may be drilled in a substrate that is transparent to the wavelength
of radiation that the band gap is designed to block. Triangular and square lattices of holes have
138 | P a g e

been successfully employed. The Holey fiber or photonic crystal fiber can be made by taking
cylindrical rods of glass in hexagonal lattice, and then heating and stretching them, the trianglelike air gaps between the glass rods become the holes that confine the modes.
Yablonovite is a photonic crystal structure that has an inverse cylindrical holes arranged in
a diamond lattice. It was the first 3D photonic crystal to be fabricated with a complete photonic
band gap. The structure that Yablonovitch was able to produce involved drilling a triangular
array of cylindrical holes in layers of transparent material, where the holes of each layer are
placed on top of the remaining material in the layer below, the structure repeats every 4 layers,
and was modelled after an inverse diamond structure[4].
Fig.1- 1D, 2D & 3D
Photonic crystals
Fig.2- Reflected & Transmitted light
3. Transfer-matrix method:
The optical theory of thin-films was first presented in 1949 by Schuster [5]. The following year,
Abeles extended it to multilayers and formalized the computing technique called the transfer
matrix method (TMM). The basic formalism yields the amplitude of the electromagnetic field of
monochromatic waves reflected by and transmitted through the mentioned structure. The
139 | P a g e

solution is achieved through propagation of the fields in the homogeneous layers, and the
continuity of the tangential components of the electric and magnetic fields at the interfaces [6].
The reflection of light from a single interface between two media is described by the Fresnel
equations. However, when there are multiple interfaces, such as in the figure, the reflections
themselves are also partially reflected. Depending on the exact path length, these reflections can
interfere destructively or constructively. The overall reflection of a layer structure is the sum of
an infinite number of reflections, which is Cumbersome to calculate.
The transfer-matrix method is based on the fact that, according to Maxwells equations, there
are simple continuity conditions for the electric field across boundaries from one medium to the
next. If the field is known at the beginning of a layer, the field at the end of the layer can be
derived from a simple matrix operation. A stack of layers can then be represented as a system
matrix, which is the product of the individual layer matrices. The final step of the method
involves converting the system matrix back into reflection and transmission coefficients.
.
4. Work Flow:
In this paper unit cell photonic crystal has been considered which has 3 layers. The refractive
indices (n1, n2, n3) of the two materials are related to the thickness of the layers (d1, d2,d3) as
n1d1=n2d2= n3d3=0/6
............. (1)
Where 0= Free space (vacuum) wavelength, whose value is taken here as 1550 nanometer,
since it is the most important wavelength for optical communication.
When an electromagnetic wave with S-polarization incidents on a unit cell of two materials a
and b, the reflection and transmission coefficient can be expressed as
................................ (2)
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..................................... (3)
Where A is the complex amplitude of the electric field, and are angle of incidence and
refraction at the interface. Here S- polarized wave has its electric field vector confined
perpendicular to the plane of incidence. Here electric field E is in the y direction, so = (0, A,
0). Using S-polarization [equation (2) and (3)] we get the equation
............... (4)
.............................. (5)
Fig.3- A 2 layered unit cell Photonic Crystal where a and b indicates the two layers with
refractive indices n1 and n2.
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From the Fig- 3, First layer is for denser material and other one is for rarer material. d1 and d2 are
the thickness of each layer. Cm is the amplitude in the mth layer for waves and Cm-1 is for m-1
layer that is first layer. Am is the amplitude in the mth layer for waves and Am-1 is the amplitude
in the m-1 layer. From equation (4) & (5) it is possible to construct transfer matrix, here cosine
value is 0 for all cases (consider) and =1 in all cases but value is changed for different
material. Here m-1 layer signify the first layer and m is for second layer of an unit cell photonic
crystal. By help of equation (4) and (5) first have to construct a standard unit cell whose two
layers are made with Si and SiO2, after that just have to change the material from standard one
and place SiC on that particular position and analyze the characteristics for different material
combination where SiC is a common one.
Now we get the matrix given below,
M=
Here zm = d2 and zm1 = d1, where d1, d2 stated earlier. By the help of equation (6)
M=
.............................. (6)
We get the transmission coefficient value of overall matrix, and from equation (7)
MN =
........................ (7)
We can stack the matrix by 10 times to get the overall transmission coefficient for the entire
photonic crystal.
5. Computation of result using different parameters:
Using equation (6) transmission coefficient has been computed using SCILAB as well as in
MATLAB. For computation this paper takes the following parameters.
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Free space wavelength (0) = 1550 nanometer (nm)

Number of unit cell (N) = 10
d1 = Thickness of the first layer.
d2 = Thickness of the second layer.
d3 = Thickness of the third layer.
n1 = Refractive index of the first layer.
n2 = Refractive index of the second layer.
n3= Refractive index of the third layer.
6. Results and discussion:
Silicon_Silicon Carbide_Silica:
In that case of Silicon, Silicon Carbide and Silica the value of n1 for Silicon is 3.5 and the value
of n2 for Silicon Carbide is 2.55 and the value of n3 for Silica is 1.5, so by using equation (1)
thickness of the first layer (d1) = 1550/6*3.5 = 73.809 nm and thickness for the second layer (d2)
= 1550/6*2.55 = 101.3 nm and the thickness for the third layer (d3) = 1550/6*1.5 = 172.22 nm.
Taking all above value we simulate this on MATLAB as well as in SCILAB [8] & the plot
between Wavelength (nm) Vs. Transmission Coefficient is shown in Fig. - 4 & 5.
Fig.4- Graph between Wavelength (nm) Vs. Transmission Coefficient from MATLAB
143 | P a g e
Fig.5- Graph between Wavelength (nm) Vs. Transmission Coefficient from SCILAB 5.4.1
From the plot graphs we found that both the cases in this three layer photonic crystal Pass band
lies in between 850 nm 1320 nm (Approx), so Pass band width is 1320 850 = 470 nm. After
1880 nm we find the Pass band till the range investigates 2400 nm. We also find Stop band lies
in between 1320 nm to 1880 nm (Approx), where transmission coefficient value is 0. So the Stop
band width is 1880 1320 = 560 nm. In that graph Centre band gap lie is at 1600 nm (Approx),
so our wavelength shift towards the high frequency range.
7. Conclusion:
The design of Silicon Carbide (SiC) based 1D photonic crystal with 3 layered unit cell has been
presented by transfer matrix method and the simulation has been done in SCILAB & MATLAB.
The simulation result shows in both the cases that Stop band lies in between 1320 nm to 1880 nm
(Approx) wavelength. But 1550 nm wavelength is suitable for optical communication. So in our
future work we will varying material time to time to construct different combinations where one
thing must be caped in mind that whatever may be the combination one layer must be made of
Silicon Carbide (SiC) to get pass band range about 1550nm wavelength. It can be concluded that
144 | P a g e

our this much of work will be helpful for the further understanding the characteristics of a light
wave when it passing through Silicon Carbide (SiC) based semiconductor material.
References:
[1] Cheng, Chuan-Cheng, Nano Frabrication and Characterization of Photonic Crystals from California
Institute of Technology, 1998
[2] J. W. Haus, Photonic Band gap Structures in nanometer structures: Theory, Modelling and
Simulation (Ed: A. Lakhtakia), PHI, New Delhi, 2007, P. 45.
[3] J. D. Joannopoulos, S. G. Johnson, J. N. Winn, R. D. Meade, Photonic Crystals Molding the Flow of
Light, Princeton University Press, 2008.
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic_crystal
[5] Schuster K, Anwendungder Vierpoltheorie auf die Probleme der optischen Reflexionsminderung,
Reflexionsverstarkung und der Interferenz filter, Annalender Physik, 6, 352356 (1949)
[6] Abel`es F, Recherches sur la propagation des ondes electromagnetiques sinusodales
dans les milieux stratify. Application aux couches minces, Annales de Physique, 5,
596640, 706782 (1950)
[7] A Chakraborty, Modelling and Simulation (using MATLAB) of Silicon Carbide (SiC) based 1-D
Photonic Crystal with 3 Layered Unit Cell, ISSN: 2277-9655 (May, 2013)
[8] http://cloud.scilab.in/
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E-Learning: Changing role of librarianship on the Digital Environment

Mr. Amiya Kumar Das
Assistant librarian, Bengal Institute of Technology and Management
Bolpur, Santiniketan
amiya.lis@gmail.com , amiya.lis@hotmail.com
Abstract:
E-learning is one of the many manifestations resulting from convergence of new technologies
and emergence of the web. This is a new tool which has the potential to enhance and support the
traditional learning system and already it is becoming an integral part of the learning tools used
by every educational organization. E-learning offers new opportunities for an institution as well
as benefits for library patrons. This article focuses on some general aspects on e-learning, it
defines e-learning, and its characteristics, describes the tools of e-learning, benefits of e-learning,
impact of e-learning on library and changing role of librarianship in the digital environment.
Key words: E- learning, Digital library, librarianship
1. Introduction:
Human beings gather knowledge through learning process. The process of learning has
undergone profound changes resulting in a new mechanism called Electronic learning, popularly
known as e-learning. Growing number of learned institutions are offering E-learning facilities
.The library plays vital role in the process of education. Librarians can take the challenged to
popularize e-learning, in order to satisfy the different types of users with wide spectrum of
interest. E-learning is becoming an increasingly important approach to use education,
information literacy and also staff development. Network technologies such as the internet and
World Wide Web are dramatically changing education and training as it enables people to access
information and communicate with other across terrestrial boundaries, cultures and on a global
scale. The e-learning has comes as a cross several barriers of Traditional Education. In this paper
explore on changing role of librarianship in the digital environment.
2. Scope:
Given the exploratory nature of this Paper in addressing interactions between e-learning
environments and librarianship, the scope is necessarily fairly broad. There will be some
146 | P a g e

discussion also components of e-learning, Forms of e-learning, library services on E-learning
environment, issues in E-Learning and changing role of librarianship in the digital environment.
3. Objectives of the study:
The objectives of this study are given below:

To define and explain the concept of e- learning and there characteristics, using tools on
the digital environment; and
To defined the changing role of librarianship on the digital environment.
4. Meaning and Concepts on e-learning:

The term e-learning is used in a variety of ways such as online learning, Computer Based
Learning (CBL) Web Based Training (WBT), Online Resource-Based Learning (ORBL)
Networked Collaborative Learning (NCL), Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL).
E-learning is nothing but the extension of classroom learning, here the emphasis is on
making available the study material at the convenience of the users. E-learning is thus the hightech, net-enabled subset of the larger universe of distance education of distributed learning.
Stokes (2000): e-leaning is a means of becoming literate involving new mechanisms for
communication: computer networks, multimedia, content portals, search engines, electronic
libraries, distance learning, and Web-enabled classrooms. E-learning is characterized by speed,
technological transformation, and mediated human interactions.
Waller and Wilson (2001): e-learning is the effective learning process created by
combining electronically delivered content with (learning) support and services.
Kaplan-Leiserson (2001): e-learning covers a wide set of applications and processes
such as Web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and electronic
collaboration. It includes the delivery of content via Internet, intranet/extranet (LAN/WAN),
audio- and videotape, satellite.
The Department of Education and Skills, UK (2002): e-learning include a range of
activities, from the effective use of electronic resources and learning technologies in the
classroom, through to a personal learning experience enabled through individual access at home
or elsewhere.
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E learning is the overreaching umbrella that encompasses education, information,
communication, and training. It is the web enabled system that makes information and
knowledge accessible to those who need it, when they need it anytime, anywhere
5. Characteristics of e-learning:
The E-learning has the following characteristics.
Remote Learner-Teacher: In the e-learning environment, the learner and the teacher
need not to travel to a common physical location for the purpose of education. They can
be away from each other, yet achieving the goal of education through technological
means.
Learner Centered: E-learning can be personalized to the learner, or as it is called

customized to the needs of the learner. Unlike the classroom-based learning the e-learner
can choose his/her learning module.
Course Material: The teacher (aptly called as facilitator) and or his institution prepares
course material. This includes curriculum, courseware, assignments, glossaries, citations
to other online and offline resources, quiz, lecture presentations, examination questions,
etc. The course material is made available in the electronic format; most of the time online.
Multimedia Nature: The course material being in electronic format can be in textual,
audio or video format. A typical course material can combine all these features.
E-communication: All notices, announcements regarding admission, submission,

examination, results, etc. are sent through Internet/are made available on websites. As the
administrative work is carried out online it becomes fast and accurate.
Use of Internet: Counseling/educational instructions are provided interactively through

Internet-based services such as, blogs, chat-rooms, peer and expert discussion groups, emails, etc. The online courses also provide links to useful resources on the Internet and
Intranet. Internet empowers both the learner as well as the instructor.
Anywhere Learning: E-learning provides remote access to learning facilities through

the ICT. As such the e-learner can learn from the place of his convenience, even from
home, office, while traveling, or literally from anywhere. In the globalize world the work
148 | P a g e

style is changing. People are expected to work from anywhere and anytime. The elearning suits to this philosophy.
Anytime Learning: The time is not a constraint to the e-learner, one can learn anytime
that suits his schedule. It is truly 24x7 learning system.
Just-in-Time: The c-learning (classroom learning) adopts the philosophy of just-in-case.

So what is taught and studied in c-learning is on the thinking that such and such
knowledge, skill may be needed in future. On the contrary the e-learning is arranged to
develop skills, which are needed at the particular time.
Multiple Collaborations: In e-learning there emerge multiple collaboration, i.e.,

teacher-student; student-student, as well as teacher-teacher. Multiple collaborations also
include collaboration between the content development experts and the technology
people.
Learners Active Participation: E-learning is impossible without active participation

from the learner. If the learner does not respond to the initiatives of the teacher the
learning purpose remains unattained.
Facilitates Lifelong Learning: Being self-paced, e-learning can develop skills in the elearner which can be useful to him for lifelong learning.
6. Traditional librarianship change to digital e-learning environment:

Traditional librarianship is all about sitting down in the midst of books and expecting people to
come and read. If they do not come, then, the librarian closes at the end of the day. But a
modern-day librarian in the Digital Age must be sound in the storage, retrieval and dissemination
of information with the aid of information communication technology. This may be through
computer, internet, E-mail, CD-ROM, slides, teaching aids, telephones, including the global
system of mobile telecommunications (GSM), fax machines, etc. Archival materials could be
stored on CD-ROMs for easy retrieval and dissemination to prospective users and store archival
materials on CD-ROMs. CD-ROMs are highly compatible with most computers; this means vital
information can be preserved and retrieved easily when needed.
7. Need for E-Learning:
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E-learning is said to be a means for distance learners, it is equally benefiting regular students
also. Manjunath and Patil (2006) have listed following reasons explaining why e-learning is
necessary in present environment:
E-learning is self-paced and gives students a chance to speed up to slow down necessary,
E-learning is self-directed, allowing students to choose content and appropriate to their

differing interests, need and skills levels,
It accommodates multiple learning styles using as verity of delivery methods geared to

different learners, more effective for entrain learners,
It is designed around the learner, and eliminates geographical barriers and opens up
broader education options,
Its accessibility makes scheduling easy and allows a greater number of people to attend
classes on demand access means learning can happen precisely when needed travel-time
is reduced or eliminated,
Overall students costs are frequently less in e-learning rather than tuition, residence,
food etc.,
Its potentially lower costs for companies needing training and for the providers,
It fasters greeters students interaction and collaboration, and also fasters greater
student/instructor contact,
E-learning enhances computer and internet skills,
It draws upon hundreds of established pedagogical principles, and
It has the attention of every major university in the work, most with their own online
degrees, certificate and individual course.
Thus, e-learning is becoming an influential force in higher education today; a force,

which has some kind of presence on almost every campus and in an ever-increasing number of
university courses. It is creating a growing and dynamic environment, one in which fluidity and
change is the norm culturally, institutionally and technically.
8. Forms of e-learning:
Robin Manson (2002) describes three forms of e-learning: Web-based training,
supported online learning and informal e-learning.
150 | P a g e

The following table summarizes the key characteristics of these approaches:
Web-based Training
Content- Focused
Deliver-driven
Individual learning
Minimal interaction with tutor
No collaboration with other
learners
Supported online Learning

Learner Focused
Activity drives
Small group learning
Significant interaction with
tutor
Considerable interaction with
other learner
Informal e-learning
Group-focused
Practice-driven
Organizational learning
Participants act as learners and
tutor
Multi way Interactions among
participants
9. Tools and techniques of e- learning:

It is very much essential to know the tools and techniques of e-learning; in such case most
of the e-learning tools are associated with the content development in electronic form.
E-learning tools are called authoring tools. The concept of authoring tools is not new
one. As long as there has been computer-based learning, we had highly sophisticated tools to
assist in content development. The following are some of the e-learning authoring tools:
Author ware - Learning applications
Director - Interactive Multimedia
Plash - Web animation
Text book - Learning applications
Ready Go - Learning applications
Trainer soft - Learning applications
Dazzler Max - Learning applications
Tutor Pro - IT Training application
Dream weaver - General web development
Microsoft Front page - General web development
Course builder - E-learning templates as on add-on to dream weaver
10.Technology used in e-learning:

Many technologies are used in e-learning
Screen Last-digital recording of computer screen output-for audio narration;
E-portfolios-collection of electronic evidence usually on the web;
PDAA-Personal Digital Assistants are handhold computers;
Virtual classroom, e-mail, blogs, social networks;
151 | P a g e
E-learning: The endless road to knowledge rich learning and development;
Wiki-software to locate collective web sites;
MP3 players With multimedia capabilities;
Web based teaching materials-CBT e-learning;
Multimedia-CD-ROMs-text, audio; plain text it ermine as non-linear media of

information;
Discussion boards-internet forum for web application;
Collaborative software -computer supported collaborative work ;
Computer aided assessment, animation education;
Hypermedia in general, text chart, simulations, learning management software;
Web sites and web2.0 communities, electronic performance support system, etc.
11. Library Services in E-Learning Environment

Rapid spread of Information Communication Technologies, recent
reduction in technology costs and increasing PC awareness in learner are very much attractive.
Many libraries are in the process of delivering the information services and resources through the
online chat rooms, e-mail services, list serves or fee online databases and reference services,
teleconferencing and toll free numbers.
Access to Information Resources: In a step ahead the e-learning the library can setup
the Digital library. Digital Library will break all the barriers of data transfer. It can store a
large amount of information in various forms i.e., text, audio, video, graphic material.
Learners can make effective search for the information in digital libraries with
sophisticated search engines and download into his or her system.
Consultation Services: Consultation can be conducted through e-mail, toll free

telephone service, pre-packaged mail out information or scheduled remote site visits.
Reference Services: In the Distance education Programme learner can use forms to
make research queries electronically. Reference services on the Internet are gaining more
popularity. Reference Librarian with the help of Internet can provide both short range and
152 | P a g e

long range information services. The ready reference services in the form Frequently
Asked Questions (FAQ) is most convenient for the learner.
Inter-Library Loan and Consortia Sharing: Today there is one or the other form of
network or cooperation is existing in the form of associations or consortia. Such as
INFLIBNET, DELNET, CALIBNET etc. Further each of the member libraries possesses
the computer, online systems and networks. The effective electronic transmissions of
document demand helps quicker inter library loans and information services.
12. Issues in E-Learning:

Today e-Learning is considered as alternative tools of empowering knowledge and skills. It is
also treated as alternative means for classroom teaching. Now with the help of Internet it is
possible to deliver the information with highest degree of precision which is not possible with
traditional skills. It has overcome several constraints of traditional learning system. But still there
are some issues such as
Instruction and Training: One of the main problem in e-Learning system that learner
should have sufficient knowledge and skills of usage of Information Technology. In the
web based education require much training as the e-Learning involves different types of
multimedia files.
Interaction: There is a lack of interaction between learner and subject specialist. It may
possible for subject expert availability. But teacher may be possible to access via e-mail.
Some time face to face interaction can be made possible through online conferencing. ELearning designer should need to increase the interactivity.
Speed of Network: To access the learning material it is very much required to connect
Internet. As e-Learning involves multimedia file, higher speed of network with sufficient
bandwidth is required.
153 | P a g e
Budgetary Support: Considerable infrastructure such as hardware, software and

manpower requires heavy Investment. Organization who wants to start e-Learning system
should have enough funding.
Quality of the Services: To ensure the higher quality of the services to its user regular
survey is required to test the material and they should be repackaged on periodical basis.
Copyright: Libraries need to distribute copies of the same information to the distance
learners. So Librarian must be familiar with the sufficient rights to acquire intellectual
property.
The Changing Role of Librarianship in the digital environment:

The modern trend is for the role of the librarian to move from that of a passive
Intermediary responsible for guiding patrons to appropriate information resources to-ward that of
a much more proactive professional whose role includes analyzing and repackaging information.
Librarians have faced this challenge head on by becoming masters of the Web.
Leadership Role and Managerial Skills:
One primary role of librarians is to provide leadership and expertise in the design, development,
and ethical management of knowledge-based information systems in order to meet the
information needs and obligations of the patrons. He should enrich his management skills for
organizing, managing and disseminating e-literacy to users.
IT Skills as Digital Information Provider:
Librarian should be able to satisfy all types of users especially research scholars and young
generation who uses internet frequently for the latest up gradation of the information. He should
be able to create his own website as an easier way to share with others what they know. He
should gather electronic information and create electronic pathfinders and front-end search tools
to help users for accessing the required information.
An Evaluator of Digital Resources:
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Evaluating the right information at the right time is the most important factor in virtual library.
Batt (1999) observed that there is an increasing diversity of information resources from which to
choose the most appropriate vehicle, and that librarians must widen their selection processes in
order to decide on the right medium for each situation. Electronic sources of information are
excellent for data which must be timely and is subject to frequent change, such as stock market
data, weather reports, and population statistics. Evaluating electronic sources of information
there is also a distinction to be made between those sources of data which have been digitized for
the speed and ease of transportation, and data which is of limited usefulness, volatile and fluid in
nature. He should provide links to websites on specific topics and lead patrons to these evaluated
sites as a starting point for retrieving related and relevant information.
Classification of Online Information and Taxonomies:
Mason (1998) noted that 'the more there is on the web, the harder it becomes to find. It is ironic
that organizing vast quantities of information is becoming a demanding issue for those involved
in developing the internet and reaping internet resources. This requires keen understanding of the
traditional library management issues and the skill of adopting those organism tools in new
environment.
Staff Development Programme:
Information retrieval is the most obvious skill a librarian demonstrates to the public. Adequately
skilled staff should be recruited to meet the increased demands of the knowledge society. With a
rapidly changing environment both within and outside the library, staff development programs
are essential to the continued success of the organization.
Proactive Information Professional Role:
The modern trend is for the role of the librarian to move from that of a passive intermediary role
responsible for guiding patrons to appropriate information resources, towards that of a much
more proactive professional role which includes analyzing and repackaging information, content
information management and institutional digital repository management.
Information Literacy Programmers:
Librarians have to change their role in the e-learning environment by participating in e-learning
experiments and becoming involved in universities e-learning centers. A well learned must teach
155 | P a g e

information literacy to educate future knowledge workers, in traditional ways or via Internetbased instruction modules.
E-Resource Managers:
Academic and research libraries have a major role in ensuring that they and their home
institutions remain vital players in the changing terrain of information and education. Faculty
may not be aware of copyright issues and do not know what material is electronically available
or licensed by the library. Virtual learning systems can be connected to library systems, through
the integration of library systems at the backend via the technology components, and through the
close liaison and involvement of library staff in VLE development.
13. Conclusion:
The E-learning system is successful when it is meaningful to all groups including instructors,
learners, support service staff, and the institution. It is meaningful to learners when it is easily
accessible, well-designed, learner-centered, affordable, efficient, and flexible and has facilitated
of digital library environment. Librarians must aware of the changing trends in education and
training and the impact that these trends have on the delivery of library services. Librarian can
take advantage of the opportunity provided by knowledge management, by promoting
themselves as library knowledge manager and Information Analysts, unbounded by library walls.
If Librarian is well trained he/she can give better services to the users .The time of the reader will
also be saved, definitely-learning really changes the conventional mode of education with the
help of the internet-technologies and learning management software. Librarian should continue
to educate their students, in this new concept of education, by which not we alone, but society as
whole be benefited.
Reference:
[1] Abubakar1, B. M. And Hassan, B. (2013) Strategies for Developing an e-Learning Curriculum for
Library and Information Science (LIS) Schools in the Muslim World: Meeting the Expectations in the
Digital Age. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(1), p 164 171.
[2] Cioglu, F. E. and Brown, S. (2001) Linking Online Learning Environments with Digital Libraries:
Institutional Issues in the UK. Libri, 51, p. 195 208.
[3] Ghoricha, L. G. (2013) Changing Role of Librarians Because of E-Revolution. International journals
of scientific research, 2(2), p. 181 182
[4] Hashim, L. B. and Haliza, L. B. (2012) Preparing New Era Librarians and Information Professionals:
Trends and Issues. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2(7), p. 150 156.
156 | P a g e

[5] Joint, N. (2005) Strategic approaches to digital libraries and virtual learning environments (VLEs).
Library Review, 54(1), p. 5 9.
[6] Kavulya, Joseph M. (2007) Training of library and information science (LIS) professionals in Kenya:
A needs assessment. Library Review, 56 (3), p. 208 223.
[7] Kumbhar, R. (2009) Use of E-learning in Library and Information Science Education. Journal of
Library & Information Technology, 29(1), P. 37 41
[8] Lobo, J. and Bhandai, M. K. (2006) E- learning Indian scenario & its impact on library and
informationals professionals. 4th International Convention CALIBER-2006, Gulbarga
[9] Nahak, B. (2013) E- learning in digital library environment in India: Issues and challenges.
International journals of technical and non- technical research, IV(X), P. 227 234.
[10] Pujar, S. M. and Kamat, R. K. (2009) Librariesa Key to Harness E-Learning: Issues and
Perspective. Journal of Library & Information Technology, 29(1), p. 23 30
[11] Sarasvathy, P. Nambratha G.R and Giddaiah, D. (2012) Changing role of librarians in the
Virtual/digital era. Journals of information management, 49(5), p. 495 500
[12] Sharifabadi, S. (2006) How digital libraries can support E learning. Iranian journal of information
science and technology, 4(1), p. 38 56.
[13] Vatnal, R M; Mathapati, G C and Prakash, K. (2006) Developing Library and Information Services
for E-Learning Environment. 2nd International CALIBER-2004, New Delhi,
[14] Wang, M. Y. and Hwang, M. J. (2004) The e-learning library: only a warehouse of learning
resources? The Electronic Library, 22(5), p. 408 415
[15] ATutor e-learning platform; URL< http://ilit.cib.unibo.it/ATutor/login.php> Accessed 22/10/2011
[16] Library website, URL < http://www.sba.unibo.it/portale/formazione/corso-di-informationliteracy/
cil/cil-multimediale/eng/default.htm> Accessed 12/11/2013
[17] Library website. URL< http://www.sba.unibo.it/portale/formazione/iniziative/archiviodelleiniziative- diformazione> Accessed 12/11/2013
[18] MLANET Website. URL < http://www.mlanet.org/education/policy/knowledge.html> Accessed
12/11/2013
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Similarity flow to viscous flow and heat transfer of nanofluid over

nonlinearly stretching sheet
Poulomi De1, and Dr. Uttam kumar Bera3
13
Department of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology, Agartala, Tripura-799055,

India
Dr. Hiranmoy Mondal2
Department of Mathematics, Bengal Institute of Technology and Management, Santiniketan,

West Bengal-731236,
Email: poulomide12@yahoo.com (P. De); hiranmoymondal@yahoo.co.in (H. Mondal);
bera_uttam@yahoo.co.in (U. Bera)
Abstract
The present paper aims to study the similarity solutions to viscous flow, heat and mass transfer
of nanofluid over nonlinearly stretching sheet in presence of thermal radiation. The governing
equations are transformed into a set of nonlinearly ordinary coupled differential equations which
are then solved numerically using appropriate boundary conditions for various values of physical
parameters. Favorable comparisons with previously published work were analyzed in details.
Effects of various physical parameters as well as local Nusselt number were depicted
graphically.
Keywords: Nanofluids; Viscous dissipation; stretching surface; diffusion; boundary layer flow.
1. Introduction
Now a days heat transfer performs an important role to improve the efficiency of several
industrial applications like, metallurgical processes, annealing and tinning of copper wires, glass
blowing, manufacturing of plastic and rubber sheets. Also it has many applications in
engineering processes, such as polymer extraction, wire drawing, manufacturing of foods and
paper, glass fiber production and many others. As nanotechnology has been used in worldwide
so many researchers have found interest to carry out their research works in nanofluids. A
nanofluids is a new class of heat transfer of fluids containing base fluids and nanoparticles.
Commonly we use water, oil and ethylene glycol as base fluids whose thermal conductivity is
very low, so to increase the thermal conductivities we use nanoparticles (metals like CuO, Cu,
158 | P a g e

or nonmetals like carbon nanotubes, graphite) which range in diameter from 1-100 nm.
Many papers in nanofluids have been published in last few decades. Buongiorno [1] explained
abnormally increase of the thermal conductivity and viscosity. Khan and Pop [2] studied
boundary layer flow of a nanofluid past a stretching sheet. Rana,P., Bhargava, R. [3] studied
numerically the flow and heat transfer of a nanofluid over a nonlinearly stretching sheet.
Kuznetsov, A.V., Nield, D.A. [4] investigate the natural convective boundary-layer flow of a
nanofluid past a vertical plate. Hamad, M.A.A., Ferdows, M. [5] investigate the similarity
solutions to viscous flow and heat transfer of nanofluid over a nonlinearly stretching sheet.
Cortell [6] studied viscous flow and heat transfer over a nonlinearly stretching sheet.
In the present study, the similarity solution of two-dimensional heat and mass transfer of viscous
incompressible nanofluid past non-linear stretching sheet in presence of thermal radiation and
magnetic field is presented. The aim is to investigated the effects of various phyical parameters,
namely, solid volume fraction of nanoparticles
, magnetic parameter M, Eckert number Ec,
lewis number Le, thermal radiation parameter Nr, prandtl number Pr. Highly non-linear
momentum and heat transfer equations are solved numerically using fifth-order Runge-Kutta
Fehlberg method with shooting technique.
2. Mathematical Formulations
Consider the steady laminar two-dimensional flow of an incompressible viscous fluid coinciding
with the plane y=0, with the flow being confined to y>0. Two equal and opposite forces are
introduced along the x-axis so that the wall is stretched, keeping the origin fixed. The
temperature at the stretching surface is seemed to have a constant value T
while the ambient
temperature has a constant value T . The boundary layer equations governing the flow,
temperature and nanoparticle concentration are given as follows:
u
x
u
u
v
y
(1)
= 0,
nf
u
u
+v
=
x
y
nf
T
T
+v
=
nf
x
y
C
x
+ v
C
y
159 | P a g e
= D
nf
2 u
y 2
2T
y 2
2C
y 2
nf
(2)
B 2 ( x )u
nf
nf
( c p )
nf
( p )
nf
q r
y
(3)
(4)

where u and v are the velocity components in the x and y directions, respectively, T is the local
x n 1 is the functional form of magnetic field.

0
Further, is the effective density, is the effective dynamic viscosity, ( c ) the
p nf
nf
nf
heat capacitance,
is the effective thermal diffusivity,and K
is the effective thermal
temperature of the fluid and B ( x) = B
nf
nf
conductivity of the nanofluid which are as follows:
K
f
nf
= (1) +s, =
,(c p ) = (1)(c p ) +(c p )s, =
nf
nf
nf
f
nf
nf
(c )nf
(1)2.5
p
Where is the solid volume fraction of the nanoparticles.
Subject to boundary condition:
u = U w ( x ) = cx n , v = 0 , T = T w , H = H w at
u 0,
T T ,
H H
at
y = 0,
y
(5)
Where n is nonlinear stretching parameter and c is constant.

To obtain similarity solution of the problem we introduce the following non-dimensional
variables:
c ( n + 1)
x
2 f
= y
u = cx
f ( ),
n 1
2
, ( ) =
T T
C C
, H ( ) =
,
Tw T
Cw C
c ( n + 1 )
v =
n 1
2
n 1
f ( )
f ( ) +
n +1
(6)
Using (6), the governing Eqs. (2), (3) and (4) can be written as:

2n ' 2
f + (1 ) 2.5 (1 + s ) ff "
f Mf ' = 0
f
n +1
1 + N
Pr
1
H
Le
+ f + Ecf
"
+ fH
'
(7)
(8)
= 0
"2
(9)
= 0
Therefore, the transformed boundary conditions are:

f = 0 , f = 1, = 1,
f = 0, = 0, H = 0
16 * T 3 (thermal
Nr =
3K * k
(Eckert number),
160 | P a g e
Le
H = 1
at = 0 ,
as

radiation parameter),
nf
nf
(Lewis number),
(10)
Pr
(Prandtl number), Ec
f
f
(c ) (T
p
nf
nf
2
0
( magnetic field parameter)
2
w
w
The quantities of practical interest are the skin friction coefficient

and the local Sherwood number
C
nf
(u w
2
( x ) ) y
Nu
y=0
k
k
(T
x
T
T ) y
nf
Sh
, the local Nusselt number
y=0
he associated expressions of dimensionless local Nusselt number

Shx and skin friction coefficient
Re
Re
1 / 2
x
1 / 2
x
Sh
1
n + 1
(1 ) 2
1 / 2
n + 1
1 / 2
nf
"
(0 )
Re
1 / 2
x
Nu
nf
n + 1
k
k
(C
nf
) y
T
y=0
, local Sherwood number
1 / 2
'(0 )
H '(0 )
Where Re x = xu w / v f is the local Reynolds number based on the stretching velocity

In our present study, the transformed coupled ordinary equations are solved numerically using
fifth order Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg Scheme with shooting technique. To verify the accuracy of our
results, we compared our results with previously published work of Cortell [6] neglecting the
effect of , Le and M which shows a favorable agreement. To insight the physical interpretation,
the numerical values of different physical parameters and Nusselt number are plotted graphically
and analyzed in details.
Figs. 1-3 are the graphical representation of f '( ), temperature

for various values of nanoparticles volume fraction
() and the concentration H ()
. Here it can be seen that boundary layer
becomes thin due to the existence of nanoparticles in the base fluid and so momentum boundary
layer increases with the increase in . While in Fig. 2 the thermal boundary layer decreases with
the increase in the nanoparticle volume fraction
161 | P a g e
. This happens due to enhance of thermal

conductivity of fluid. Furthermore, it can be observed that nanoparticle concentration H()
decreases for various values of .
Figs. 4-6 depicts variation of velocity, temperature and concentration for different values of M.
It can be easily seen from fig. 4 that the velocity is considerably reduced with the increase in the
values of M because the transverse magnetic field opposes the transport phenomena due to the
fact that the presence of the magnetic field produces a drag-force called Lorentz force which acts
in the opposite direction to the fluid motion which results in decrease the fluid velocity whereas
the thermal boundary layer and nanoparticle concentration profiles increases which can be seen
in figs. 5-6.
162 | P a g e
The effect of Eckert number Ec on the temperature are depicted in fig. 7. The thickness of
thermal boundary layer is greater than that in pure water. It can be seen that at increasing values
of Ec thermal boundary layer increases.
Fig. 8 illustrated the variation of concentration with different values of Lewis number Le. The
thickness of boundary layer concentration profiles decreases for large values of Le.
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The effect of temperature profiles are shown in Fig. 9 for various values of thermal radiation
parameter Nr. It is important to note that heat is always transferred from the surface to the
ambient fluid and hence the thermal boundary layer increases for Nr=2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0.
The effect of Prandtl number Pr on the nanofluid temperature is depicted in Fig. 10. Evidently
Prandtl number depends on properties of fluid. It throws light on the relative importance of
viscous dissipation to the thermal dissipation. The thermal boundary layer decreases as we
increase the values of Pr.
164 | P a g e
The variation of local Nusselt number are illustrated graphically in figs. 11-12.In the dynamics of
fluid, we have to find out the quantity of heat exchanged between the body and fluid. At the
boundary the heat exchange between the body and the fluid takes place only due to conduction.
It can be noted that heat transfer rates decreases with the increase in Nr and M with the increase
in Ec the change in heat transfer rates increases.
4. Conclusion
Effect of flow field, heat and mass transfer of nanofluids over a stretching sheet is analyzed and
discussed in details. Governing equations are solved numerically using fifth-order Runge-KuttaFehlberg method with shooting technique. The effects of various physical parameters on
velocity, temperature are shown graphically.
Following conclusions are drawn from the numerical results:
165 | P a g e

(i) Increase in the values of M, Ec and Nr rises temperature profiles whereas reverse effect is
seen for
and Pr.
(ii) The effect of Le leads to decrease nanoparticle concentration.

(iii) With increasing values of nanoparticle volume fraction tends to increase in nanofluid
velocity while the effect of nanoparticle concentration decreases whereas reverse effect is
seen for magnetic field parameter.
(iv) Local Nusselt number decreases with increasing values of Eckert number Ec for different
values of magnetic field parameter M and thermal radiation parameter Nr.
References
[1] Buongiorno, J. Convective transport in nanofluids. ASME J Heat Transf 2006; 128: 240-250.
[2] Khan, W.A., Pop, I. Boundary-layer flow of a nanofluid past a stretching sheet. Int J Heat Mass
Transf 2010; 53: 2477-2483
[3] Rana,P., Bhargava, R. Flow and heat transfer of a nanofluid over a nonlinearly stretching
sheet: A numerical study, Commun. Nonlinear Sci. Numer Simulat.2012; 17: 212-226.
[4] Kuznetsov, A.V., Nield, D.A. Natural convective boundary-layer flow of a nanofluid past a
vertical plate. Int J Thermal Sci 2010; 49: 243-247.
[5] Hamad, M.A.A., Ferdows, M. Similarity solutions to viscous flow and heat transfer of nanofluid
over a nonlinearly stretching sheet, Applied Mathematics and Mechanics 2012; 33(7): 923-930.
[6] Cortell, R. Viscous flow and heat transfer over a nonlinearly stretching sheet. Applied
Mathematical and Computation 2007; 184: 864-873
166 | P a g e
Effects of nanofluids on MHD mixed convective heat and

mass transfer over a non-linear stretching surface with
suction/injection
1
Shweta Mishra, Hiranmoy Mondal3

Department of Mathematics, Bengal College of Engineering and Technology,
Durgapur, West Bengal-731235, India.
Sukriti Roy 2,
2
Department of Mathematics, Bengal College of Engineering & Technology,
Durgapur, West Bengal,
Uttam Bera4
4
Department of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology,
Agartala, Tripura-, India.
1,3
Abstract
An analysis is carried out to study mixed convective heat and mass transfer of nanofluids over a
non-linear stretching sheet in the presence of suction/injection parameter, magnetic parameter
and thermophoresis effects. The governing similarity equations are transformed into ordinary
differential equations using a similarity transformation, and solved numerically by Runge-Kutta
fifth order with shooting technique. A comparison with previously published work is performed
and the results are found to be in good agreement. Numerical results of the local skin friction
coefficient, the local Nusselt number and the local Sherwood number as well as the velocity,
temperature and concentration profiles are presented for different physical parameters. The result
indicates that the local rate of heat and mass transfer depends on stretching index, Boit number,
Brownian motion parameter, and thermophoresis parameter and the suction and injection
parameter has significant impact in controlling the rate of mass and heat transfer in the boundary
layer.
Key words: Magnetohydrodynamics; Mixed convection; Suction/injection
1. Introduction
A steady of hydromagnetic flow, heat and mass transfer over a non-linear stretching surface
could be very practicable in many applications in the polymer technology, plasma studies,
nuclear reactor cooling systems, textile and paper industries, boundary layer along material
handling conveyers, boundary layer control on airfoils, MHD generator. Gupta and Gupta [1]
167 | P a g e

studied the heat and mass transfer in a stretching surface with suction or injection. Chen and
Char [2] studied the effects of variable surface temperature and variable surface heat flux on the
heat transfer characteristics of a linearly stretching sheet. Gorla et al. [3] studied the MHD
effects on a vertical stretching surface with suction and blowing. Anjali Devi and Kandasamy [4]
studied the steady MHD laminar boundary layer flow over a wall of the wedge with suction or
injection in the presence of species concentration and mass diffusion. Seddeek [5] studied the
effects of heat generation or absorption on heat and mass transfer of a viscoelastic fluid with a
magnetic field over a stretching sheet. Nanofluids are the suspension of nanometer-sized solid
particles and fibres, which have been proposed as a means for enhancing the performance of heat
transfer liquids currently available, such as water, toluene, oil and thylene glycol mixture.
Nowadays, the study of convective heat transfer in nanofluids become active research area due to
its heat transfer enhancement characteristics. Because of the fact that cooling is one of the
technical challenges faced many industries including microelectronic, transportation, solid-state
lighting and manufacturing; the idea of nanofluid has been proposed as a means of alleviating
these challenges. Anwar et al. [6] analyzed the conjugate effects of heat and mass transfer of
nanofluids over a nonlinear stretching sheet. Matin et al. [7] studied the entropy analysis in
mixed convection MHD flow of nanofluid over a non-linear stretching sheet.
The boundary layer flow and heat transfer due to nanofluids over a stretching sheet are
a thrust areas of current research. Such investigations find applications over a broad spectrum of
science and engineering disciplines. An important aspect of boundary layer flow of a nanofluid
over a stretching sheet is the heat transfer characteristics. It is crucial to understand the heat
transfer characteristics of the stretching sheet so that the finished product meets the desired
quality. This is due to the fact that the quality of a final product depends on the rate of heat
transfer at the stretching surface. Accordingly, Kuznetsov and Nield [8] have studied the natural
convective boundary layer flow of a nanofluid past a vertical plate analytically. They used a
model in which Brownian motion and thermophoresis effects were taken into account. Moreover,
Khan and Pop [9] used the same model to study the boundary layer flow of a nanofluid past a
stretching sheet with a constant surface temperature. Very recentlyWubshet and Shanker [10]
168 | P a g e

have studied the boundary-layer flow and heat transfer of nanofluid over a vertical Plate taking
into account the convective surface boundary condition.
Recently, Haddad et al. [11] experimentally investigated natural convection in nanofluid

by considering the role of thermophoresis and Brownian motion in heat transfer enhancement.
They indicated that neglecting the role of Brownian motion and thermophoresis deteriorate the
heat transfer and this deterioration elevates when the volume fraction of a nanoparticles
increases. Similarly, Bachok et al. [12] numerically studied steady boundary layer flow of a
nanofluid over a moving semi-infinite plate in a uniform free stream. Further, Makinde and Aziz
[13] conducted a numerical study of boundary layer flow of a nanofluid past a stretching sheet
with convective boundary condition. Also, Vajravelu et al. [14] discussed the convective heat
transfer in a nanofluid flow over a stretching surface using Ag - water or Cu water nanofluid.
Moreover, magnetic effects on free convection flow of a nanofluid past a vertical semi-infinite
flat plate have been discussed by Hamad et al. [15]. Still, Yacob et al. [16] have further analyzed
the boundary layer flow and heat transfer applying a convective boundary condition to the
problem of flow over flat plate. In this analysis, we discuss MHD mixed convective flow heat
and mass transfer over a non-linear stretching sheet considering the effect of nanofluid with
suction/injection. By using scaling transformations, the set of governing equations and the
boundary condition are reduced to non-linear ordinary differential equations with appropriate
boundary conditions. Furthermore, the similarity equations are solved numerically by using
shooting technique with fifth-order Runge-Kutta integration scheme. Numerical results of the
velocity, temperature and concentration profiles are presented for different physical parameters.
1.
Mathematical Formulations:
We consider the steady mixed convective flow heat and mass transfer flow of a viscous,
nanofluid past a stretching surface coinciding with the plane y = 0 . Keeping the origin fixed two
equal and opposite forces are applied along the x axis which results in stretching of the sheet
and hence, the flow is generated. The non-uniform transverse magnetic field B ( x ) is imposed
along the y axis. The induced magnetic field is neglected as the magnetic Reynolds number of
the flow is taken to be very small. It is also assumed that the external electric field is zero and the
169 | P a g e

electric field due to polarization of charges is negligible. The temperature and the concentration
of the ambient fluid are T and C , and those at stretching surface are TW and CW , respectively.
It is also assumed that the pressure gradient, viscous and electrical dissipation are neglected. The
fluid properties are assumed to be constant except the density in the buoyancy terms of linear
momentum equation which is approximated according to the Boussinesqs approximation. Under
the above assumptions, the boundary layer form of the governing equations can be written as
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Where u and v denote the velocity components in x and y directions, respectively. T and C
are the fluid temperature and concentration, respectively. is the kinematic viscosity, is the
electrical conductivity, is the density of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, T is
the coefficient of thermal expansion, C is the coefficient of expansion with concentration and
B ( x ) = B0 x s is the applied magnetic field where B0 is the transverse magnetic field strength.
is the thermal diffusivity, is the ratio between the effective heat capacity of the nanoparticle
material and heat capacity of the fluid, DB is the Brownian diffusion coefficient and DT is the
thermophoresis diffusion coefficient, The stretching surface has a uniform temperature TW and
the free stream temperature is T . Also, it has a uniform concentration CW and the free stream
concentration is C. The boundary conditions are
u ( x,0) = U ( x) = C1 x m , v( x.0) = vW ( x) = C 2 x n
T = TW = T + C 3 x r , C = CW ( x) = C + C 4 x r
u ( x,1) = 0, T ( x,1) = T , C ( x,1) = C
(5)
170 | P a g e
where C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 are the constants, U ( x) = C1 x m is the stretching speed of the plate,

vW ( x ) = C 2 x n is the mass transfer velocity at the surface of the sheet with v 0 > 0 for injection
(blowing) and v 0 < 0 for blowing (suction), and v 0 = 0 corresponds to an impermeable sheet,
m 1
m 1
where s =
,n=
, and r = 2m 1
2
2
m + 1 U ( x)
2
=
x f ( )
2
x
m +1
T T
= ( ) =
TW T = C 3 x 2 m 1
TW T
(6)
C C
= ( ) =
CW C = C 4 x 2 m 1
CW C
=y
Where the stream function is defined in the usually way as u =
and v =
so the
y
x
continuity equation is automatically satisfied.
Using the above similarity variables (5)-(6), following ordinary differential equations are
obtained from (2)-(4) as
2m 2 2
2
2
f ' ' '+ f f ' '
f '
Mf '+
Gr +
Gc = 0
m +1
m +1
m +1
m +1
1
2(2m 1)
' '
f '+ f '+ Nb ' '+ Nt ' 2 = 0
Pr
m +1
1
2(2m 1)
1 Nt
' '
f '+ f '+
' ' = 0
Le
m +1
Le Nb
(7)
Where primes denote differentiation with respect to , M =
B
is the magnetic parameter,
C1
g T (TW T )
2
0
g c (CW C )
is the local solutal Grashof number, GT =
is the local
C12 x 2 m 1
C12 x 2 m 1
D B (CW C )
Grashof number, Pr =
is the Prandtl number, Nb =
is the Brownian motion
DT (TW T )
parameter Nt =
is the thermophoresis parameter, Le =
is the Lewis number.
T
DB
GC =
171 | P a g e

The corresponding boundary conditions (5) and (6) now becomes
f (0) = f W , f ' (0) = 1, (0) = 1, (0) = 1,

f ' (1) = 0 , (1) = 0 , (1) = 0
(8)
2
is the dimensionless suction velocity which determines the
(m + 1) C1
Where f W = C 2
transpiration rate at the surface with f w > 0 for suction, f w < 0 for injection, and f w = 0
corresponds to an impermeable sheet. Computation of the velocity f ( ) , temperature ( ) , and
concentration ( ) allows the subsequent determination of important engineering design
quantities. The quantities of physical interest in this problem are the local skin friction
coefficient, the local Nusselt number, and the local Sherwood numbers, which are defined by
Cf =
U 2 (x)
u
w =
y (x,0)
Nux =
x qw
,
(Tw T )
Shx =
x mw
DB (Cw C )
T
qw =
y (x,0)
C
mw = DB
y ( y=0)
(9)
Using non-dimensional variables we obtain The wall shear stress, may be expressed in terms of
the local skin-friction coefficient, C f , as
1
C f Re x2 = 2
m +1
f ' ' (0)
2
(10)
The local Nusselt number, Nu x , or the rate of heat transfer may be expressed as
1
2
Nu x Re x =
m +1
' ( 0)
2
(11)
The local Sherwood number, Shx , or the rate of heat transfer may be expressed as
m +1
' ( 0)
2
x U ( x)
Where Re x =
is the local Reynolds number.
Sh x Re x 2 =
172 | P a g e
(12)
2.
Numerical Solutions:
The set of ordinary differential Eqs. (7) with the boundary conditions (8) are solved numerically
using the Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg scheme along with shooting method. The values of f ' , , are
known at . Thus these eight end conditions are utilized to produce six unknown initial
conditions at = 0 by using shooting technique. The most crucial factor of this scheme is to
choose the appropriate finite value of . Thus to estimate the value of ., we start with some
initial guess value and solve the boundary value problem consisting of Eqs. (10) - (12) to
obtain f ' ' (0), ' (0), ' (0) . The solution process is repeated with larger values of . Until two
successive values of f ' ' (0), ' (0), ' (0) differ only after desired significant digit. The .value of
may vary depending upon the physical parameters such as Prandtl number, thermal radiation
parameter, Brownian and thermophoresis diffusion parameter, magnetic parameter, and Lewis
number so that no numerical oscillations would occur. Thus the coupled nonlinear boundary
value problem of third-order in f , second-order in , has been reduced to a system of seven
simultaneous equations of first-order for seven unknowns. Now it is possible to solve the
resultant system of seven simultaneous equations by fifth-order Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg
integration scheme so that velocity, temperature and concentration fields can easily be obtained
for a particular set of physical parameters. The results are provided in several tables and with
discussion in the next section.

The numerical results are obtained by solving Eqs. (7) using the method described in the
previous section for various values of physical parameters to describe the physics of the problem.
The numerical values are then tabulated in Tables 1 and plotted in Figs. 1-8. From Table 1 it is
observed that a comparison of the present results of local Nusselt number with those obtained by
Alel and Mahesha [17] in absence of viscous dissipation, buoyancy force, Schmidt number,
porous parameter, chemical reaction, Soret and Dufour effects, magnetic parameter, local inertia
coefficient and radiation parameter show a very good agreement. Physically, positive sign of
173 | P a g e

skin friction implies that the fluid exerts a drag force on the sheet and negative sign implies the
opposite. It is also seen from this table that the skin friction coefficient and local Nusselt number
decrease with increase in the porous parameter k1 and Prandtl number Pr .
Pr
Table 1
Comparison of wall temperature gradient ' ( 0 ) for various values of Pr with M
= Gr = Gc = Nt = Le = f W = 0.0 and m = Nb = 1.0
Abel and Mahesha [17]
Present Results
1.0
3.0
1.0
1.92368
3.72067
10.0
1.000008
1.923679
3.720671
The profiles for dimensionless velocity f ' ( ) , dimensionless temperature ( )
and
dimensionless concentration ( ) are depicted in Figs. 1-13 for various values of physical
parameters m , M , Gr , Gc, Pr, f W , Nb = Nt , Le .
Fig. 1 represents the graph of velocity profile for different values of non-linear stretching
parameter m. It is seen from these figures that the effect of increasing of non-linear stretching
parameter m is to decrease velocity profile near the plate.
Fig. 2 represents the graph of velocity profile for different values of magnetic field parameters
M. It is seen that the effect of increasing the strength of magnetic parameter is to decrease
velocity profile near the plate.
Fig. 3 and 4, represent the graphs of velocity profile for different values of local Grashof number
Gr and local solutal Grashof number Gc parameters. It is seen that the effect of increase of
values of these parameters is to increase the velocity profile near the plate and outside this range
no effect on velocity profiles is seen.
174 | P a g e

Fig. 5 and 6 shows the influence of the change of Brownian motion parameter Nb and
thermophoresis parameter Nt on velocity and temperature profile when Nb = Nt . It is noticed
that as thermophoresis parameter increase the thermal boundary layer thickness increases and the
velocity and temperature gradient at the surface increases as both Nb and Nt increases.
Fig. 7 and 8 indicates the variation of velocity and concentration profiles for different values of
Lewis number (Le ) . It is notified that the velocity and concentration decreases with an increase
in Lewis number.
4. Conclusions:
The problem of two-dimensional mixed convection flow due to a stretching sheet in the presence
of nanofluid effects was investigated. The resulting partial differential equations, describing the
problem, are transformed into ordinary differential equations by using similarity transformations.
These equations are more conveniently solved numerically by Runge-Kutta Fehlberg method
with shooting technique for the computation of flow, heat and mass transfer characteristics at the
stretching sheet for various values of magnetic parameter, local Grashof and local solutal
Grashof numbers, Brownian motion and thermophoresis parameters, Prandtl and Lewis numbers
with suction or injection parameters. The numerical results obtained are compared with
previously reported in the open literature and they are found to be in very good agreement. From
the present investigation, the following conclusions are drawn:
(i) Velocity profiles are decreases with the increase of non-linear stretching parameter.
(ii) Increasing the magnetic parameter decreases the flow velocity in the boundary layer.
(iii) Velocity profiles are increases with the increase of local Grashof and local solutal grashof
numbers.
(iv) Velocity and temperature profiles are decreases with the increase of Prandtl numbers.
(v) Increasing of suction/injection parameter decreases the velocity, temperature and
concentration in
the boundary layer.
(vi)Velocity and Temperature profiles are strongly influenced by the Brownian motion and
thermophoresis effects and hence both velocity and temperature profiles increase with
increase in
Brownian motion and thermophoresis parameter.
(vii) Increasing of Lewis number decreases the velocity and concentration in the boundary layer.
References:
175 | P a g e
[1] Gupta, P.S., Gupta, A.S., 1979. Heat and mass transfer on a stretching sheet with suction or blowing.
Can. J. Chem. Eng. 55, 744-6.
[2] Chen, C.K., Char, M.I., 1998. Heat transfer of a continuous stretching surface with suction or
blowing. J. Math. Anal. Appl. 135, 568-80.
[3] Gorla, R.S.R., Abboud, D.E., Sarmah, A., 1998. Magnetohydrodynamics flow over a vertical
stretching surface with suction and blowing. Heat Mass Transfer 34, 121-5.
[4] Anjali Devi, S.P., Kandasamy, R., 2002. Effects of chemical reaction, heat and mass transfer on nonlinear MHD laminar boundary layer flow over a wedge with suction or injection. Int. Commun. Heat
Mass Transfer 29, 707-16.
[5] Saddeek, M.A., 2007. Heat and mass transfer on a stretching sheet with a magnetic field in a
viscoelastic fluid though a porous medium with heat source or sink. Comput. Mater. Sci. 38, 781-7.
[6] Anwar, M.I., Khan, I., Sharidan, s., Salleh, M.Z., 2012. Conjugate effects of heat and mass transfer of
nanofluid over a nonlinear stretching sheet. Int. J. Physical Sciences 7(26), 4081-4092.
[7] Matin, M.H., Heirani, M.R., Nobari, Jahangiri, P., 2012. Entropy analysis in mixed convection MHD
flow of nanofluid over a nonlinear stretching sheet. Int. J. Thermal Science Technology 7, 104-119.
[8] Kuznetsov, A.V., Nield, D.A., 2010. Natural convective boundary-layer flow of a nanofluid past a
vertical plate. Int. J. Thermal Sciences 49, 243-247.
[9] Khan, W.A., Pop, I., 2010. Boundary layer flow of a nanofluid past a stretching sheet. Int. J. Heat
Transfer 53, 2477-2483.
[10] Ibrahim, W., Shanker, B., 2012. Boundary-Layer Flow and Heat Transfer of Nanofluid over a
Vertical Plate With Convective Surface Boundary Condition. J.Fluids Eng-Trans ASME 134/081, 203-1.
[11] Haddad, Z., Nada, A., Oztop, F., Mataoui, A., 2012. Natural convection in nanofluids: Are the
thermophoresis and Brownian motion effect significant in nanofluids heat transfer enhancement?. Int. J.
of Thermal Sciences 57, 152-162.
[12] Bachok, N., Ishak, A., Pop, I., 2010. Boundary-layer flow of nanofluids over a moving surface in a
flowing fluid. Int. J. of thermal Sciences 49, 1663-1668.
[13] Makinde, O.D., Aziz, A., 2011. Boundary layer flow of a nanofluid past a stretching sheet with
convective boundary condition. Int. J. of thermal Sciences 50, 1326-1332.
[14] Vajravelu, K., Prasad, K.V., Jinho, L., Changhoon, L., Pop, I., Robert, A. ,Gorder, V., 2011.
Convective heat transfer in the flow of viscous Ag-water and Cu-water nanofluids over a stretching
surface. Int. J. of thermal Sciences 50, 843-851.
[15] Hamad, M.A., Pop, I., Ismali, A.I., 2011. Magnetic field effects on free convection flow of a
nanofluid past a vertical semi-infinite flat plate, Non-Linear Analysis: RealWorld Applications 12, 13381346.
[16] Yacob, A., Ishak, A., Pop, I., Vajavelu, K., 2011. Boundary layer flow past a stretching/Shrinking
surface beneath an external uniform shear flow with convective surface boundary condition in a
nanofluid. Nanoscale Research Letters 6:314, 1-7.
[17] Abel, M.S., Mahesha, N., 2008. Heat transfer in MHD viscoelastic fluid flow over a stretching sheet
with variable thermal conductivity, nonuniform heat source and radiation Applied Math. Model. 32,
1965-83.
176 | P a g e
Fig.1. Effect of non-linear stretching m on velocity distribution f ' ( ) .
Fig.2. Effect of magnetic field M on velocity distribution f ' ( )
177 | P a g e
.
Fig.3. Effect of local Grashof number Gr on velocity distribution f ' ( ) .
178 | P a g e
Fig.4. Effect of local solutal Grashof number Gc on velocity distribution f ' ( )
Fig.5. Effect of Brownian motion and thermophoresis parameters Nb = Nt on velocity

distribution f ' ( ) .
179 | P a g e

Fig.6. Temperature profile for different values of Brownian motion and
thermophoresis parameters Nb = Nt .
Fig.7. Effect of Lewis number Le on velocity distribution f ' ( ) .
Fig.8. Variation of the concentration profile for different values of Lewis number Le .
180 | P a g e
An Assessment of Profitability Strength of Eastern Coalfields

Limited (ECL) and Central Coalfields Limited (CCL) during 200304 to 2012-13: A Comparative Study for Quality Decision Making
Dr. Ganesh Chandra Chattopadhyay,
Assistant Professor
Department of Business Administration, Bengal Institute of Technology & Management, Email:
chattopadhyay.ganesh@gmail.com
Abstract
The operating efficiency of a firm and its ability to ensure adequate return to its shareholders /
owners or other investors mainly depends on the profits earned by it. Thus, profitability reflects
the final result of business operations. Failure to do that not only results in loss of creditors
confidence but it may also cause for the closure of the firm.
Considering the above fact, the Profitability Strength of the two leading subsidiary companies of
Coal India Limited (CIL), namely Eastern Coalfields Limited (ECL) and Central Coalfields
Limited (CCL) are studied and analyzed for the period 2003-04 to 2012-13 (i.e.10 years) using
Profitability Ratios, a traditional but most frequently used powerful tool, to find out a
comparative picture of profitability strength of the two companies with respect to the Industry,
here CIL, during the said period. For this purpose mainly companys annual reports and accounts
have been used as a secondary source. We have also used some statistical measures namely
Mean, Standard Deviation, Co-efficient of Variation etc for proper analysis of the data. In this
article we have tried to find out comparative strengths and weaknesses of profitability strength of
the selected companies to suggest remedial measures, if any, for future improvement.
Keywords: Profitability, Ratio Analysis, Operating Efficiency, Coefficient of Variation,
Industry Average etc.
1. Introduction
Profitability of a company refers to its ability to make profits on a continuous basis. A company
must earn reasonable profits to survive and grow over a long period of time. Without profit a
business will find difficulties to assure its creditors and owners the safety of their funds. Further,
181 | P a g e

the operating efficiency of a firm finally on the profits earned by it. Thus, profitability of a
company is extremely significant and essential for smooth running of the business.
Here we mainly concentrate on a comparative study of Profitability Strength of Eastern
Coalfields Limited (ECL) and Central Coalfields Limited (CCL), the two important subsidiaries
of Coal India Limited (CIL) which represents the industry, based on cross-sectional analysis and
industry analysis to understand clearly the comparative strengths and weaknesses of both the
subsidiaries. In case of variation either from the industry or from the competitive firm, we have
identified probable reasons and accordingly suggested remedial measures for improvement. In
this paper we have computed certain profitability ratios which are suitable to assess strengths of
these companies in making profits from operating activities.
2. Profile of CCL AND ECL
Formed on 1st November 1975, Central Coalfields Limited (CCL) and Eastern Coalfields
Limited (ECL) are two of the important subsidiaries of Coal India Ltd (CIL) being the first
holding company for coal in the country. The corporate office of CCL is at Darbhanga House,
Ranchi, Jharkhand. Presently it has 58 mines (21 underground, 37 Opencast) in Six Operating
Coalfields. Facilities include seven coal preparation plants (washeries), three for non-coking coal
and four for medium coking coal. As on 01.04.2012 the geological coal reserve in CCL
command area up to 1200 meters was 42.37 Billion Tonne representing 14.4 % of total National
coal reserve (293.50 BT). It is a Category-I Mini-Ratna Company since October 2007. During
2012-13, its production reached to the highest-ever figure of 48.06 million tonne and net sales to
Rs. 8556.24 crore, with 48,126 employees as on 31. 03. 2013. In contrast, corporate office of
ECL is at Sanctoria, Asansol, WB. Its command area is 1620 sq km situated in two states, West
Bengal and Jharkhand. It is one of the best quality coal producing companies in India having a
reserve of 25.869 BT of premium grade coal at Raniganj Coalfields and total coal reserve of
around 44.392 BT up to a depth of 600 meters as on 01.04.2011 (as per GSI). Presently, it has
111 working mines, 87 being underground mines, 17 opencast mines and 7 mixed mines (as per
Long Term Plan). During 2012-13, its production reached to the highest-ever figure of 33.90
million tone and net sales of Rs. 9191.91 crore with 74,276 employees as on 31-03-2013.
3. Literature Review
182 | P a g e

It is observed that there have been only few research works in the areas of finance whereas most
of the works relate to technical areas of the coal industry. Thus, we have tried to present the
essence of a few important and related research works in our Literature Review part:
Dey, A. K. (1993) has pointed out shortage of working capital as per requirement of ECL, poor
inventory management system, shortage of cash balances due to continuous loss from operating
activities. Chakraborti, U. K. (1997) has revealed irregular trend of coal production and
productivity of labour in ECL during the period 1973 to 1996, no matching between average
costs of production and price of coal, underutilization of new technologies and huge operating
loss for significant increase in money wage. Beynon, H.C. (1999) has described, how coal which
once commonly described as King Coal in the post war period, is reduced far below regal
status in British society since 1945 for passing of Clean Air Acts in 1956 and 1968 and further
for privatizations. Dutta, R. (2000) found that growth of ECL as compared to WCL was affected
due to decreasing trend in production and productivity for under utilization of assets,
unfavourable technologies, very poor relationship between executives and workers, excess of
operating costs over sales revenue etc. the. Pan, S.K. (2003) has observed financial incentive
scheme is the most powerful motivating tool. Study reveals whenever incentive schemes are
introduced, ECL has a favourable effect on cost of production and performance. Mehta &
Dasgupta (2003) in their study Why Long wall in India has not succeeded as in other
developing country like China have concluded that in India the basic factor is the difference in
attitude and determination to go ahead with this globally accepted technology. Kumar, V. et al.
(2003) in their article Hydraulic Stowing of Pond Ash in Underground Mines of Manuguru,
India have indicated that pond ash is a cost effective and a good substitute of sand for stowing
into underground coal mines. Lahiri-Dutt, K. (2007) has discovered the causes of illegal coal
mining in Eastern India that are buried under the layers of complexities of outdated colonial laws
of land acquisition and state-ownership of coal resources, lack of safeguards and protection of
poor people, and disregard for social impacts by mining engineers and technologists. Singh, G.
(2008) has concluded that coal is the only natural resource and fossil fuel, which is available in
abundance in India. Thus, the challenge is to apply the right technology in the most efficient and
environmental friendly way. Rai, S.K. (2010) has investigated the cost structure of coal
production in Gevra Area of SECL and successfully reduced roughly 30 % of the total cost
183 | P a g e

concentrating on stores cost with the help of certain tools like material budget etc. especially in
opencast mines. Tadeusz, W. et al (2010) suggested that current focus on carbon capture and
geological sequestration might be misplaced and the global community should, instead, be
devoting its attention to conservation and increasing efficiency of electrical power generation
from coal rather than capacity.
4. Objectives of the Study
Following are the objectives of the study:
i) To make a comparative study of Profitability Strength of ECL and CCL, a rival company with
same nature and CIL representing the industry to find out a comparative picture of Profitability
during 2003-04 to 2012-13.
iii) To identify comparative strengths and weaknesses of different aspects of Profitability of the
selected companies to suggest for improvements in future.
5. Hypothesis of The Study
The present study is of empirical type mainly based on the published data to examine the
profitability strength of the selected companies and thus we have not formulated any hypothesis.
However, we have interpreted the facts and data collected to reach the conclusion.
6. Methodology
We have mainly used secondary data collected from the Annual Reports, publications and the
like of the selected companies for a period of ten years from 2003-04 to 2012-13. However,
primary data in the form of clarifications is collected for justification. Moreover, we have done
editing, classification and tabulation of financial data as per the need of the study. We are very
grateful to the officials of the companies for their ungrudging help and co-operation in this
respect. For analyzing the data two types of tools are used; i) Accounting tools and ii) Statistical
Tools. Under accounting tools, we have mainly used ratio analysis, which is universally accepted
tool for judging financial performance of a company and under statistical tools we have used
Average, Standard Deviation, Co-efficient of Variation etc. for analyzing the profitability
strength of the company.
7. Limitation of the Study
i) The study is limited to 10 years performance of the companies from 2003-04 to 2012-13.
184 | P a g e

ii) The data are collected mainly from published annual report and as per requirements and
necessity some data are grouped and sub-grouped.
iii) Ratios are an aid to analysis and interpretation but not a substitute for sound thinking. Thus,
the financial analyst has to use his expertise to give his proper judgment.
iv) Because of negative networth and negative capital employed of ECL during the study period
we have nothing but to use some selective ratios for analysis.
8. Analysis of Profitability Ratios of CCL and ECL
Under Profitability Ratios shown in Table 1 we have considered Gross Profit Ratio (GPR), Net
Profit Ratio (NPR), Cash Profit Ratio (CPR) and Return on Total Assets Ratio (ROTA) and one
expense ratio that is Salary & Wages to Total Expenses Ratio (SWTER) which we consider more
relevant here to make a comparative study of Profitability Strength of the selected companies
during our study period. The analysis is done after presentation of these ratios.
Table 1: Comparative Profitability Ratios of ECL, CCL and CIL during 2003-04 to
2012-13
Yea
r
200304
200405
ECL
-18.25
-19.95
8.10
1.34
-33.35
-55.86
5.48
2.84
CCL
16.59
15.68
32.30
28.44
25.20
15.49
28.25
CIL
22.04
19.66
30.94
29.35
27.24
15.08
31.61
ECL
-11.88
-22.28
10.88
3.36
-32.21
-54.87
6.38
CCL
12.53
12.54
29.79
26.16
23.73
14.66
CIL
21.37
18.92
30.62
29.06
26.78
14.68
ECL
1.05
-14.57
18.23
10.12
-24.00
-44.35
12.40
9.61
19.37
CCL
24.16
22.46
41.18
39.25
33.68
23.29
37.50
39.79
34.03
CIL
30.10
28.24
39.68
39.74
37.06
25.02
41.59
42.47
45.51
ECL
62.37
66.62
57.34
58.83
63.27
69.71
63.21
64.75
68.26
69.08
CCL
35.57
38.6
31.44
32.75
36.67
44.58
41.28
41.51
57.00
CIL
47.19
49.09
44.02
42.74
46.78
52.99
47.90
48.86
54.21
ECL
-10.03
-23.06
10.69
3.91
-37.62
-75.11
9.30
2.74
CCL
11.11
10.30
21.91
17.97
14.74
8.82
18.95
CIL
17.55
15.35
22.74
19.96
17.09
9.29
19.72
1.
200506
200607
200708
200809
200910
201011
201112
201213
Mean
13.08
21.63
-7.49
23.91 319.09
30.94
26.18
31.43
25.05
6.68
26.67
32.90
34.17
36.64
27.96
6.93
24.80
1.81
11.65
20.64
-6.65
23.52 353.57
27.93
30.79
26.16
31.36
23.57
7.50
31.85
31.3
32.77
34.08
36.57
27.62
7.12
25.77
22.16
1.00
21.84 2179.77
36.87
33.22
7.24
21.80
45.27
37.47
7.24
19.33
64.34
4.19
6.51
53.74
41.31
8.46
20.47
52.47
48.63
3.76
7.73
16.01
22.02
-8.12
29.81 367.29
20.71
19.7
26.82
17.10
5.75
33.64
20.23
19.88
20.55
18.24
3.77
20.65
SD CV
Gross Profit Ratio (GPR) = (Gross Profit / Net Sales) *100
2.
3.
Net Profit Ratio (NPR) = (PBT / Net Sales) *100
Cash Profit Ratio (CPR) =( Cash Profit / Net Sales) * 100
4. Salary & Wages to Total Exp Ratio (SWTER) = (Salary & Wages / Total Exp.) *100
5. Return on Total Assets (ROTA)= (PBT / Total Assets) *100
Source: Computed from the data given in Annual Reports and Accounts of ECL, CCL & CIL
185 | P a g e
Analysis of the Profitability Strength on the basis of Profitability Ratios:

i) Gross Profit Ratio (GPR): This ratio is calculated based on the following formula:
Gross Profit Ratio = (Gross Profit / Net Sales) * 100.
This ratio indicates the proportion of cost of production to sales. A high gross profit margin is a
sign of good management as it implies that cost of production of the firm is relatively low.
Alternatively, a low margin is definitely a danger signal.
Table 1 shows that Gross Profit ratio of the ECL is not satisfactory as compared to the industry
average as well as CCL. When, on an average, industry maintains 27.96 percent of sales as gross
profit and CCL maintains 25.05 percent, ECL sustains a gross loss ratio 7.49 percent of sales. It
implies that cost of production of ECL is too high as compared to the industry and even CCL.
Further, when CCL has improved from 16.59 percent of gross profit at the beginning of the study
period to 31.43 percent and industry from 22.04 percent to 36.64 percent at the end of 2012-13,
ECL has failed to do so. However, one of the reasons behind this result of ECL is its excessive
work force and hence extra remuneration. It may be noted here that the highest cost of
production of the year 2008-09 was due to heavy expenditure on remuneration of the employees
on account of pay revision as per National Coal Wage Agreement (NCWA) - VIII and provision
for actuarial gratuity and leave encashment. It is observed that around 57 to 69 % of the total
expenditure of ECL is usually incurred for the salary & wages of the employees. Further, the
highest degree of C.V. of gross profit ratio (319.09 %) of ECL indicates that gross profit ratio of
ECL has the highest degree of variability as compared to the industry (i.e. CIL) and CCL.
Figure 1 showing graphical view of this ratio reflects that though this ratio has improved for all
the companies, ECL has a substantial improvement and now has an upward trend after a great
shock in 2008-09 indicating a favourable signal towards turnaround of the company.
186 | P a g e

ii) Net Profit Ratio (NPR): This ratio is calculated based on the following formula:
Net Profit Ratio = (Profit before Tax / Net Sales) * 100.
The net profit margin is an indicator of managements ability to operate the business with
sufficient surplus. By net profit we have considered here Profit before Tax (PBT). Reason is that
Profit before Tax can highlight on the operating efficiency of the company which is further very
important for a sick company like ECL and further this formula is followed by the industry
(CIL). Thus, it is very useful for comparing its performance with the industry.
Table 1 exhibits the same thing as we observe in case of gross profit ratio. Thus, we can
conclude that Net Profit ratio of ECL is not satisfactory. On an average, when industry maintains
27.62 percent of net profit ratio and CCL maintains 23.57 percent, ECL has incurred net loss of
6.65 percent of sales. Again, we observe that when CCL has improved from 12.53 percent at the
beginning of our study period to 31.36 percent and industry has improved net profit ratio from
21.37 percent to 36.57 percent at the end of the year 2012-13, ECL has failed to do so. However,
it has a great improvement in the recent years. Further, the highest degree of C.V. of net profit
ratio (353.57 %) of ECL indicates that net profit ratio of ECL has the highest volatility as
compared to CCL and the industry. However, this signifies ECLs substantial improvement from
the negative net profit ratio to a decent positive net profit ratio which is evident from the Table.
Other way, net profit ratio of the industry is less volatile and stable in nature. Again, we find
from our study and from comparison between Gross Profit Ratio and Net Profit Ratio that
maximum part of the cost of production of the coal industry in general is direct in nature.
From the Annual Reports of ECL and from consultation with company officials, we have found
that a part of loss for the year 2003-04 and 2004-05 and 2007-08 was for pay revision as per
NCWA-VII and NCWA-VIII negotiation respectively. A huge loss for the year 2008-09 was
mainly due to enormous provision for pay revision as well as for actuarial gratuity and leave
encashment. Moreover, one interesting thing may be observed from the Table that net profit ratio
of the years 2003-04 and from 2005-06 to 2009-10 has been better than gross profit ratio which
is very unusual. Our enquiry reveals that this has happened due to waiver of interest in 2003-04,
waiver of electricity charges and for interest received from Term Deposit with bank in 2005-06
and 2006-07 whereas it is due to interest received in the years 2007-08 to 2009-10.
187 | P a g e

Figure 2 showing graphical view of the net profit ratio exhibits that though this ratio for ECL has
deteriorated significantly in 2008-09, there is enormous improvement after 2008-09 and now has
an upward trend of this ratio, a good signal for ECL.
iii) Cash Profit Ratio (CPR): This ratio is calculated based on the following formula:
Cash Profit Ratio = (Cash Profit / Net Sales) * 100.
This ratio is more reliable indicator of performance in terms of cash generation as it is not
affected by the method of depreciation. It is very essential for a company to earn cash profit from
operations for smooth running of its day to day operating activities and for its survival.
Table 1 clearly shows that Cash Profit ratio of ECL is not satisfactory as compared to the
industry and CCL. ECL is lagging behind the industry and CCL. When industry maintains an
average of 37.47 percent of sales as cash profit and CCL maintains 33.22 percent of sales as cash
profit, ECL has failed to do so and has attained an average of 1.00 percent of sales as cash profit
during our study period. However, ECL has improved this ratio substantially from the lowest
- 44.35 percent in the year 2008-09 to 22.16 percent being the highest ratio in the year 2012-13
during our study period. Further, the reasons for negative ratios of ECL are mainly due to
increase in remuneration and retirement benefits for its higher workforce as compared to other
companies within the industry. For ECL, the highest degree of C.V. (2179.77 %) of cash profit
ratio indicates that this ratio of ECL has the highest volatility as compared to the industry and
other profitability ratios of ECL. Accordingly, we observe that cash profit ratio of the industry is
more uniform and stable in nature. Figure 3 showing graphical view of the cash profit ratio
exhibits that ECL has remarkable improvement after 2008-09 and accordingly has a sharp
188 | P a g e

upward trend of this ratio as compared to the industry and CCL, a good signal necessary for a
sick company like ECL for its turnaround.
iv) Salary and Wages to Total Expenses Ratio (SWTER): This ratio is calculated below:
Salary and Wages to Operating Expenses Ratio =
(Total Salary and Wages for the period / Total Expenses) * 100.
This ratio indicates the portion of total expenses which is represented by salary and wages. A
high ratio which is above the standard or industry average is a cause of concern for a company.
For that we have computed this particular expense ratio to find out the impact of salary and
wages on total expenses and on profit of the company during the study period.
Table 1 exhibits that salary and wages to total expenses ratio of ECL is much higher than the
industry average as well as CCL. It has been since formation of ECL in November 1975. Thus,
right now this ratio for ECL is not at all satisfactory. The position of CCL is much better than
ECL and better than the industry up to 2010-11. On an average, ECL is spending 64.34 % of
total expenses for salary and wages. That is nearly 23 % more than the CCL and around 16 %
more than the industry average. We also observe that when industry pays 52.47 % of total
expenses for salary and wages in 2012-13 and CCL pays 53.74 %, ECL has incurred 69.08 % of
total expenses for salary and wages in 2012-13. This is mainly for huge work force in ECL as
compared to the industry. The lowest degree of C.V. of this ratio (6.51 %) for ECL indicates the
highest degree of consistency in this ratio as compared to the industry and CCL. This implies
that the proportion of wages & salaries to total expenses for ECL is roughly constant. This is a
189 | P a g e

cause of concern and main reason for poorer Profitability Ratio of ECL. In case number of
employees decrease and payments like overtime wages etc. are controlled then this expense can
be brought down to an optimum level. However, CCL has a sudden increase in this ratio from
2011-12 onwards due to more provision for gratuity and salary & wages which needs attention.
Figure 5 showing the graphical presentation of this ratio exhibits that the ratio has an upward
trend for the industry as a whole. It also reflects CCLs sudden increase in this ratio from 201112 onwards. Interestingly, though number of employees has reduced over the years, ratio of
salary to total expenses has not reduced to that extent owing to enhancement and revision in pay
structure as per different wage negotiations (i.e. National Coal Wage Agreements). If this area
improves in the coming years overall profitability of the industry would also improve.
v) Return on Total Assets (ROTA): It is calculated based on the following formula:

Return on Total Assets = (Profit before Tax / Total Assets) * 100.
This ratio is used here as a measure of overall profitability and operational efficiency of the
companies. It shows an interaction between profitability and activity (assets utilization) ratio.
Table 1 shows that though ECL has a poorer rate of return than CCL, it has a remarkable
improvement in the recent time and now it is better than the industry average. This is mainly
because of proper utilization of its assets and overall improvement in the performance of the
company in recent years. When CCL has recovered from the lowest 8.82 percent of 2008-09 to
26.82 percent at the end of 2012-13 and industry has recovered from the lowest 9.29 percent of
2008-09 to 20.55 percent, ECL has significantly improved from the lowest 75.11 percent of
2008-09 to the highest 22.02 percent at the end of 2012-13. Further, main reason for the
190 | P a g e

mammoth negative return of ECL for the year 2008-09 is because of huge provision for pay
revision as per NCWA-VIII, actuarial gratuity and leave encashment of its massive work force.
Thus, the overall profitability ratio (ROTA) of ECL at the present situation is very satisfactory.
However, CCL is performing better than the industry at the present situation. The highest value
of C.V. of ROTA of ECL indicates the highest volatility in this ratio as compared to CCL and the
industry. However, this is towards improvement, i.e. from a large negative ratio (- 75.11 %) to a
decent positive ratio (22.02 %) which is higher than the industry average (20.55 %).
Figure 5 showing graphical view of the return on total assets ratio confirms the remarkable
progress of ECL by showing upward rising curve after 2008-09 comparing with CCL and CIL.
9. Findings of the Study:

Overall profitability strength of CCL is very satisfactory and improving further whereas for ECL
though it was very unsatisfactory in the earlier years, it has tremendously improved after 200809 with constant profit making at a faster rate. For ECL the year 2012-13 has achieved the
highest performance for overall improvement where as huge loss for the year 2008-09 is due to
heavy provision for pay revision as stated. But both the companies are lagging behind the
industry. However, our findings in detail supporting the above statement are presented below:
i) Gross Profit ratio exhibits very unsatisfactory picture of ECL as compared to the industry
average as well as CCL whereas CCL has an impressive picture. It is because of higher cost of
production of ECL as compared to the industry and CCL. One of the reasons is its excessive
work force and hence extra remuneration. However, ECL has improved significantly after a great
191 | P a g e

shock in 2008-09 indicating a favourable signal to the company. ECL has turned its negative
ratio of the beginning of the study period into a respectable positive ratio.
ii) Net Profit Ratio exhibits the same thing as in case of gross profit ratio. It shows that CCL has
an inspiring picture of net profit ratio whereas ECL has an unsatisfactory ratio as compared to
the industry. We see that though this ratio of ECL has deteriorated significantly in 2008-09, it
has tremendously improved after that and has a respectable figure at the end of 2012-13. This
improvement gives a good signal for the survival and turnaround of ECL.
iii) The Cash Profit Ratio clearly shows that cash profit ratio of ECL is unsatisfactory as
compared to the industry and CCL, a rival firm. However, ECL has shown a great improvement
after 2008-09. Earning cash profit from operations is very vital for any concern, for smooth
running of its daily operating activities, in general, and for a sick company like ECL in particular
for its survival and turnaround. Thus, this ratio for ECL at present gives a pleasant result.
iv) Salary and Wages to Total Expenses Ratio exhibits that this ratio of ECL is much higher than
the industry average as well as CCL. The position of CCL is much better than ECL and even it
was better than the industry up to 2010-11. Actually, for ECL around 57 % to 69 % of the total
expenses is spent for remuneration of the employees. The upward trend of this ratio also implies
that though number of employees has gone down over the study period, the proportion of salary
has not decreased to that extent because of enhancement and revision in pay structure as per
different wage negotiations under various National Coal Wage Agreements. Thus, this situation
especially for ECL calls for corrective measures to improve overall profitability of the company.
v) Return on Total Assets Ratio exhibits that though ECL has a poorer rate of return than CCL
and the industry, it has a remarkable improvement after 2008-09 and now in 2012-13 it has a
better ratio than the industry. This is mainly because of proper utilization of assets and overall
improvement in the performance of ECL in the recent time. For ECL, however, any control over
remuneration and / or proper utilization of manpower would further improve overall profitability.
vi) From comparative study on profitability we observe that both CCL and ECL are lagging
behind the industry. However, both the companies presently have better overall profitability
ratios. Further, ECL has shown a great improvement in its profitability strength in the recent
years. The main reason for poor profitability of ECL is the higher production cost mainly due to
192 | P a g e

higher salary and wages expenses for its larger size of work force, lack of modern cost saving
technology and less number of opencast mines as compared to the industry. Thus, cost of
production of ECL is naturally more and hence its profit from sale of coal per tonne is less.
10. Suggestions
There is huge demand-supply gap of coal which is likely to increase further in the coming years.
Thus, opportunities exist for the companies to augment profits further. As both the companies
have high production potential and skilled manpower they should open new mines and renovate
old mines with state of the art technology to enhance production to meet the emerging demand.
Further, CCL may set up some more washeries to enhance production of clean coal to enhance
profits and even acquire new mines abroad. It has no problem for that as it is a Mini-Ratna
Category I company with financial autonomy and further it has sufficient amount of liquid funds
and can even raise debt from the market for that purpose. In contrast, ECL may increase open
cast mines to enhance production and further can enhance production of premium grade coal at
Raniganj Coalfields which can easily be sold at higher prices as it has average ash content less
than 20% and can be blended with high ash coal from other subsidiaries to satisfy MoEF
stipulations to improve profits further. Reserves of Coal down to a depth of 600 meter at
Jharkhand have a scope for pretty easy extraction by open cast mining. To arrange funds for that
purpose equity fund may be increased by issue of shares through CIL, if possible.
11. Conclusions
It is clear from the study that the profitability strength of CCL is very satisfactory and better than
ECL. All the profitability ratios and expense ratio (i.e. Salary & Wages to Total Expenses Ratio)
of CCL are better than ECL but poorer than the industry, except Overall Profitability Ratio i.e.
Return on Total Assets Ratio which is far better than the industry. Thus, CCL is in a better
position and is progressing towards stability. In contrast, Profitability strength of ECL is not up
to the mark. However, ECL has shown tremendous improvement after 2008-09 and the year
2012-13 has achieved the highest performance in all respect for overall improvement. We also
know that ECL has been declared sick on March 31, 1997 and still under BIFR (Board for
Industrial and Financial Reconstruction). Thus, it has to improve constantly for its survival and
turnaround. Precondition is that the company has to improve its production and productivity
regularly through mechanization in production process. If these things improve and are
193 | P a g e

supported by better prices for quality coal, decreasing manpower etc. the company would
improve profitability in near future.
However, both the companies must deal with the emerging demand of coal carefully to improve
profitability in future. It is to magnify earning per share for CCL whereas for ECL it is for
survival and its much awaited turnaround. At last, we would like to mention here that by nature,
the position of ECL as compared to CCL is not supposed to be better, at least, at the present.
Firstly, Manpower in ECL is more than CCL since its inception, Secondly; ECL still uses fewer
technologies as compared to CCL. Thirdly, ECL has less number of opencast mines as compared
to CCL. Thus, cost of production of ECL is naturally more and hence profit is less.
[
References
A. Books
[1] Banerjee, Bhabatosh: Financial Policy and Management Accounting, 7th Edn, PHI, N.Delhi.
[2] Chandra, Prasanna: Financial Management, 8th Edn, Tata McGraw Hill Ltd, New Delhi.
[3] M.Y.Khan & P.K.Jain: Financial Management, Text, Problems and Cases, 4th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
[4] Pandey I.M: Financial Management, 9th Edition, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Noida
[5] Paul, S.K: Management Accounting, 3rd Edn, New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd, Kolkata.
[6] Ravi M. Kishore: Financial Management, 6th Edn. Taxman Allied Services (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
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[1] Beynon, H. C. (1999). The Decline of King Coal. Wales: Cardiff University.
[2] Chakraborti, U. K. (1997). A Study of the Performance of Eastern Coalfields Limited (ECL) Since the
Nationalization of Coal Industry in 1973. University of Burdwan, Department of Commerce. Burdwan:
Unpublished PhD. Thesis submitted to The University of Burdwan.
[3] Chattopadhyay, G.C. (2011). An Assessment of Long-Term Solvency of Eastern Coalfields Limited
during 2000-01 to 2009-10. International Journal of Functional Management (ISSN 2319-1406, Issue- 2,
Vol-6, April-June 2013, pp 44-48).
1.Dey, A. K. (1993). Problems of Working Capital of Public Enterprises with Special Reference to ECL.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted to The University of Burdwan, Burdwan.
[4] Dutt, K. L. (2007) Illegal coal Mining in eastern India:Rethinking legitimacy and limits of Justice.
Economic & Political Weekly , pp. 57-66.
[5] Dutta, R. (2000). Performance Appraisal of ECL and WCL: A Comparative Analysis (1986-87 to
1993-94). Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted to The University Of Burdwan, Burdwan.
[6] Kumar, V. e. (2003). Hydraulic Stowing of Pond Ash in Underground Mines of Manuguru, India., VI,
pp. 1-10. Manuguru.
[7] Mehta, S. R., & Dasgupta, S. (2003). Why Longwall in India has not Succeeded as in other
Developing Country Like China. IE(I) Journal-MN , 17-20.
[8] Pan, S.K. (2003). An Analysis of Different Incentive Schemes and Their Effect on Human Resources
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The University of Burdwan.
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194 | P a g e

[10] Singh, G. (2008). Assesment of Environmental Impacts of Over Burden Dumps in Mining Areas.
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C. Journals & Reports
[1] CCL, Annual audited Financial Accounts and Report.
[2] CIL, Black Diamond Project: A Comprehensive Study of Coal Companies
[3] ICAI, The Management Accountant, (various issues).
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[1] http//www.cil.com/www.coalindia.in.
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[[[[[[[
195 | P a g e
Corporate Social Responsibility in developing countries like India

H.R. Biswas
Principal, Department of Hospitality & Tourism Management
E-mail ID: principalhtm@bitm.org.in
and
Pradip Laha
Asst. Prof., Dept. of Business Administration, BITM, Santiniketan
E-mail: pradiplaha1963@gmail.com
Abstract
The social responsibilities are almost equally applicable to both private and public enterprises,
though there is some basic difference between the two. The basic difference centres round profit
motive so far as the social responsibilities are concerned. In this respect, absence of profit motive
differentiates the public sector from the private sector. It is true that public enterprises can
produce and distribute goods and services at cost price or below price for public welfare, but that
will, no doubt, amount to relief work and increase public taxation. So in order to diminish the
burden of taxation and to avoid inefficient ant uneconomic working, the public enterprises
should also be self-supporting and reasonably profitable. Even the Soviet economists recommend
profitability as the standard to measure efficiency of a public enterprise. The extension of Stateownership should not invite a crisis of confidence. Public sector is needed to supplement the
private sector which is generally shy in basic industries, heavy investments and in industries
demanding long gestation period. It is also required to improve abuses and malpractices of
private sector. So both of them should act as the two complementary wings of the national
economy and they should not forget their organic links. Every sector should play its respective
role to strengthen the national economy by showing a splendid sense of urgency and high
organisational ability with full use of the talent and resources of the country.
Keywords: PSU-Public Service Undertaking, CSR-Corporate Social Responsibility Shareholder,
Stakeholder.
1. Introduction
The term 'social responsibility' has three different meanings, viz., social obligation, social
reaction and social responsiveness. According to Milton Friedman and his followers, a
corporation engages in social responsible behaviour when it pursues a profit within the
196 | P a g e

constraints of law as imposed by society. Since society permits business to exist, business is
obliged to repay society for that right by taking profits. This means that legal behaviour in
pursuit of profit is socially responsible behaviour, and any behaviour not legal or not in pursuit
of profit is socially irresponsible. As Friedman stated: "There is one and only one social
responsibility of business to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its
profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, that is to say, engages in open and free
competition
without
deception
or
fraud".
Following figure depicts how this environment takes meaning for a business firm as a network of
other organisations and institutions with which it must interact. In this context. Corporate social
responsibility is defined as an obligation of the organisation to act in ways that serve both its
own interests and the interests of its many external publics. These publics are considered
shareholders, the persons and groups who are affected is one way or another by the behaviour of
an organisation. They are people affected by the organisation's performance and who may be
affected in one way or another by its commitment to social responsibility.
Societal
Influences
Government
Influences
CORPORATE
SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY
DESICIONS
Ethical
Influences
Competitive
Influences
Influence on the Corporate Social Responsibility Decision
The three general meanings of social responsibility can be depicted as a continuum, as shown in
Table 1 The continuum formed by the three classes of socially responsible behaviour ranges
from an emphasis on profit making to an emphasis on social and economic concerns.
197 | P a g e
A Continuum of Social Responsibility (Table 1)

Type of Behaviour
Primary emphasis
Socially Obligated
Socially Reactive
Socially Responsive
The organisation's
the organisation's
The organisation's
economic and legal
economic, legal and
economic, legal, social
responsibilities
social responsibilities
and citizenship
responsibilities
From the above table shows that at one extreme is social obligation business behaviour that
reflects the firm's economic and legal responsibilities. Social reaction occupies the middle
position behaviour that is demanded by groups having a direct stake in the organisation's
actions. The farthest extreme, social responsiveness is anticipatory, proactive and preventive
behaviour.
In the real world, a corporation can choose to be anywhere along the continuum. To be socially
reactive implies the firm's acceptance of social obligation as well. In a like manner, to be socially
responsive requires both social obligation and social reaction. In short, the three meanings refer
to different degrees of departure from the normal activities and performance of profit-seeking
business firms. Few terms have been defined in as many different ways as social responsibility.
Some of the more popular meaning include "profit making only," "going beyond profit making",
"voluntary activities," "concern for the broader social system," and "social responsiveness." Most
of the debate has focused at the extremes. On one side, there is the classicalor purely
economicview that management's only social responsibility is to maximise profits. On the
other side stands the socio-economic position, which holds that management's responsibility
goes well beyond making profits to include protecting and improving society's welfare.
2. BASIC COMMON FEATURES OF BUSINESS ENTERPRISES:
Some businesses are owned by a single individual and some by more than one individual. Some
businesses may be privately owned and some may be owned by the government whatever may
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be the characteristics of each of such business enterprises, they have some basic common
features which may be stated briefly as follows:
(1) Entrepreneur: Whatever may be the size of the business, it should have an en entrepreneur
who takes the initiative for the establishment of a business and shoulders the responsibility for its
management. This entrepreneur may be an individual, a group of persons, private individuals
government. So business comes into existence through entrepreneurial activities, and remains
going concern under the leadership of such a person or group of persons.
(2) Organisation:
Business requires co-ordination of factors of production. This coordination is effected through
organisation. Organisation means structural relationship between various factors in an enterprise
and refers to a completed body with all its correlated function Business pulsates with life through
organisation and so it is said that organisation is the very pulse and heart-beats, the circulation,
the respiration and the vital movement' of a business. So n business can be carried on without an
organisation and as, such, it is one of the basic common features of every business. Organisation
may be large or small, but every business must have on.
(3) Finance:
Business requires finance for its working. It is necessary to purchase land construct buildings,
buy different kinds of assets and raw materials, pay the employees during the period of
production activities, etc. The requirements of finance may be large or small, but ever business
requires some amount. A business without finance is like a stomach without food. S business
cannot sustain without finance and as such, it is one of the indispensable factors of ever business.
(4) Forecasting:
Business is carried on in anticipation of demand or market. It should store something or produce
something today for its marketing tomorrow. This means storing 01 producing in anticipation of
demand, or study of future events in advance. So it involves some amount of forecasting.
Forecasting is necessary to provide the customers with goods and services when they are in need
of them. So this is a common feature of almost all business enterprises.
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(5) Risk and uncertainty:

Risk and uncertainty are inherent in forecasting of future events. If forecasting is correct risk and
uncertainty will be minimised. The danger of risk and uncertainty may not overburden
government undertakings but it looms large in case of private business. Business is not a bed of
roses. It is a bed of thorns and is thus risky and full of uncertainties. So these conditions are
present in all sort* of business and as such, they are inherent features of every business.
(6) Surplus creation:
Business is carried on with a view to profit. Profit is the surplus which remains for distribution
among the proprietors of a business. So surplus creation is one of the basic features of business.
Greater the surplus, better the business. It is the criterion of business success and implicit in
business activities. This profit motive invites capable businessmen to enter into business with
necessary energy and drive needed for its success.
(7) Service motive:
Profit through service is the slogan of business in modem times. Business is to serve its
customers by supplying goods and services according to their requirements. If a business cannot
meet the requirements of the customers, it comes to a standstill. So it is said that an industrial
organisation exists only because it serves. Thus service motive is one of the basic common
features that command the attention of all business enterprises.
(8) Public purpose:
Business activities were formerly limited to the processes of production and distribution of goods
and services and business success was measured .solely by the volume of profits. But nowadays,
business recognises a broader responsibility to society. It should now serve public purpose, i.e.,
interest of the public at large and thus benefit the society as a whole. A businessman is a member
of the society. Society's well-being means his well-being. So it is the duty of the businessman to
be imbued with this civic sense or social virtue. In the present set-up of the society, this virtue is
interlinked with business success and as such, it should be present in all business enterprises.
(9) Recurring activities:
The activities relating lo business are of recurring character and they constitute one of the most
essential basic features of all business enterprises. Business is a continuous process and as such,
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all its activities must take place as a regular practice instead of being of a casual or sporadic
nature. Business" is thus a long drawn out affair and is not intended o be started for a single
deal for its liquidation at the next deal.
(10) Clear vision and full knowledge:
Business success is not a matter of simple affair. Its success also demands clear vision and full
knowledge about everything around it. Business is dynamic and it will have to adjust itself lo
changing circumstances. It will have to study likes, dislikes, demand, etc., of its customers and
employees. It will also have to know the altitude of the Government, the public and other
business enterprises towards it. Clear vision and full knowledge about all these aspects may be
said to be sine qua nan and preconditions for success in business. That is why clear vision and
full knowledge of all aspects may be considered as one of the basic features of all business
enterprises.
The phases of CSR for sustaining of corporate objectives:
There are four phases of CSR Development in India which are follows
(a) The First Phase
(b) The Second Phase
(c) The Third Phase
(d) The Fourth Phase
The history of CSR in India has its four phases which run parallel to India's historical
development and has resulted in different approaches towards CSR. However the phases are not
static and the features of each phase may overlap other phases.
The First Phase:
In the first phase charity and philanthropy were the main drivers of CSR. Culture, religion,
family values and tradition and industrialization had an influential effect on CSR. In the preindustrialization period, which lasted till 1850, wealthy merchants shared a part of their wealth
with the wider society by way of setting up temples for a religious cause.
Moreover, these merchants helped the society in getting over phases of famine and epidemics by
providing food from their godowns and money and thus securing an integral position in the
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society. With the arrival of colonial rule in India from 1850s onwards, the approach towards
CSR changed. The industrial families of the 19th century such as Tata, Godrej, Bajaj, Modi,
Birla, Singhania were strongly inclined towards economic as well as social considerations.
However it has been observed that their efforts towards social as well as industrial development
were not only but also the driven by selfless and religious motives but also influenced by caste
groups and political objectives.
The Second Phase:
In the second phase, during the independence movement, there was increased stress on Indian
Industrialists to demonstrate their dedication towards the progress of the society. This was when
Mahatma Gandhi introduced the notion of "trusteeship". Various Industrialists act towards
building the nation and its socio-economic development. According to Gandhi, Indian companies
were supposed to be the "temples of modern India". Under his influence businesses established
trusts for schools and colleges and also helped in setting up training and scientific institutions.
The operations of the trusts were largely in line with Gandhi's reforms which sought to abolish
untouchability, encourage empowerment of women and rural development.
The Third Phase:
The third phase of CSR (196080) had its relation to the element of "mixed economy",
emergence of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) and laws relating labour and environmental
standards. During this period the private sector was forced to take a backseat. The public sector
was seen as the prime mover of development. Because of the stringent legal rules and regulations
surrounding the activities of the private sector, the period was described as an "era of command
and control". The policy of industrial licensing, high taxes and restrictions on the private sector
led to corporate malpractices. This led to enactment of legislation regarding corporate
governance, labour and environmental issues.
In 1965 Indian academicians, politicians and businessmen set up a national workshop on CSR
aimed at reconciliation. They emphasized upon transparency, social accountability and regular
stakeholder dialogues.
The Fourth Phase:
In the fourth phase (1980 until the present) Indian companies started abandoning their traditional
engagement with CSR and integrated it into a sustainable business strategy. In 1990s the first
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initiation towards globalization and economic liberalization were undertaken. Controls and
licensing system were partly done away with which gave a boost to the economy the signs of
which are very evident today. Increased growth momentum of the economy helped Indian
companies grow rapidly and this made them more willing and able to contribute towards social
cause. Globalization has transformed India into an important destination in terms of production
and manufacturing bases of TNCs are concerned.
CONDITIONS PREVAILING IN INDIA
Translating the philosophy of social responsibility into real action is not, however, an easy task.
Yet many Indian companies have moved in this direction.
The Coca-Cola Company has spent several million dollars to improve the health, living
conditions, and working conditions of its workers. The Tatas provided financial resources for
scholarships, research awards, and aid-to-education grants. It is a matter of common knowledge
that recently in India a number of companies in the private corporate sector have taken initiative
in promoting rural development. Indeed there is now talking everywhere of integrated rural
development, and about the social responsibility of business.
Effort to harness industrial enterprises to the task of rural development has gained momentum in
recent years. The Tatas, Sandoz (India) ITC Ltd. A.C.C. and quite a few others have gone ahead
with their rural development programmes. The most important thing that is being asked of
industry is to make available its managerial resources; it seems that without raising real
purchasing power it would not be possible to create a strong demand for industrial goods.
In India the stress is now being placed on social audit. It is now widely believed that corporate
management and professional auditors have social obligation to shareholders and other interested
parties in the matter of fullest disclosure about the company's real state of affairs. The
Government of India has incorporated social audit rules in the Companies Act (1956)
However, in developing countries like India, the major social responsibility of business lies in
planning, organising and managing on a scale appropriate to the magnitude of technical and
managerial resources required for modern technology, economical operations, low-cost
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production and mass distribution. Business enterprises will also have to make a signal
contribution in social capital formation, viz., construction of rural roads, digging and repairing of
wells and tanks, planting trees, land improvement, drinking water supply, participation in
programme of health and education, water supply, participation in programme of health,
education, etc.
Another direction in which the business community can make a major contribution is by
promoting the growth of small-scale industries. Such industries have enough employment
potential and in which capital-output ratio is low. The private sector can survive in India or
elsewhere only it discharges its social responsibilities and proves its value to society.
It had been declared by the Government of India in 1997 that the main objectives of the
Government's industrial policy would be to maximise production of consumer goods and the use
of human and natural resources, prevent monopoly and concentration of economic power in
private hand, develop employment-oriented industries and make industry responsive to social
needs. Maximum priority should be given to industries where there exist maximum employment
opportunities.
ROLE & IMPORTANCE OF CSR:
The issue of corporate social responsibility drew little attention before the 1960s. But managers
are now regularly confronted with decisions that have a dimension of social responsibility
philanthropy, pricing, employee relations, resource conservation and product quality.
It depicts how this environment takes meaning for a business firm as a network of other
organisations and institutions with which it must interact. In this context. Corporate social
responsibility is defined as an obligation of the organisation to act in ways that serve both its
own interests and the interests of its many external publics. These publics are considered
shareholders, the persons and groups who are affected is one way or another by the behaviour of
an organisation. They are people affected by the organisation's performance and who may be
affected in one way or another by its commitment to social responsibility.
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The main importances of CSR are as follows:
1. Public expectation: Social expectations of business have increased much since the 1960s.
Public opinion in support of business pursuing social as well as economic goals is now very
strong.
2. Long-run profits: Socially responsible businesses tend to have more secure long-run profits.
This is the normal result of the better community relations and improved business image that
responsible behaviour brings.
3. Ethical obligation: A business firm can and should have a conscience. Business should be
socially responsible because responsible actions are right for their long-term survival.
4. Public image: Firms seek to build or improve their public image to gain more customers,
better employees, access to money markets, and other benefits. Since the public considers social
goals to be important, business can create a favourable public image by pursuing social goals.
5. Better environment: Involvement by business can solve difficult social problems, thus creating
a better quality of life and a more desirable community in which to attract and hold skilled
employees.
6. Discouragement of further government regulation: Government regulation adds economic
costs and restricts management's decisions flexibility. By becoming socially responsible,
business can expect less government regulation.
7. Balance of responsibility and power: Business has a large amount of power in society. An
equally large amount of responsibility is required to balance it. When power is significantly
greater than responsibility, the imbalance encourages irresponsible behaviour that works against
public (social) welfare.
8. Shareholder interests: Social responsibility will improve the price of a business's stocks of
shares in the long run. The stock market will view the socially responsible company as less risky
and open to public attack. Therefore, it will give its shares a higher price-earnings ratio.
9.
Possession of resources:
Business has the financial resources, technical experts, and
managerial talent to provide support to public and charitable projects that need assistance.
10. Superiority of prevention over cures: Social problems must be dealt with and if necessary
solved at some time. Business should act on them before they become more serious and costly to
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correct and take management's energy away from achieving its goal of producing goods and
services.
LEVELS OF SOCIAL INVOLVEMENT:
The activities through which corporations meet their social responsibilities range from producing
safe, reliable, quality products to supporting the arts; from providing safe and healthful working
conditions to assisting minority enterprises. Each of these activities benefits some group, often to
the disadvantage of some other group. Managers must make choices among various interests
both inside and outside the corporation.
The beneficiaries of corporate action are either internal or external. Internal beneficiaries include
customers, owners, and employees. External beneficiaries include groups representing
minorities, women, the disabled, and the aged. The contemporary demands placed on
corporations are the result of an evolutionary process. In earlier times, when corporations were
relatively insignificant, society expected them to meet their social obligations. As corporations
became larger and more pervasive, society's expectations shifted towards social reaction and
responsive corporate behavior.
Managers are the referees of competing demands on corporate resources. Their ethical standards
filter these demands and determine which will be satisfied. Ethical standards are influenced by
the principles of maximum personal benefits (egoism), maximum social benefits (altruism), and
obligation to a formal principle. Managers and the public are increasingly concerned about ethics
in US business because many believe that ethics have declined in the last decade, the costs of
unethical conduct by management are often high, and the dynamics of ethics in management are
complex and challenging. Some organisations are responding to these concerns by developing
ethics codes and establishing training seminars in ethics for employees.
In addition to the arguments in favour of a liberal corporate social responsibility, there are other
influences on corporate social responsibility decisions. These are regulatory, ethical, societal and
competitive influences.
Mainly due to concern over environmental protection managers must be cognizant of their own
responsibilities for instilling acceptable ethical standards throughout their organisation. They
must also be cognizant of the necessity to create organisational procedures and policies that
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encourage disclosure of unethical behaviour. The standard of process and management behaviour
must not only be legal but ethical, too. All management and organisation action must be the
lawful conduct of behaviour
Social responsibility adds an ethical imperative to do those things that make society better and
not to do those that could make it worse. Social responsiveness refers to the capacity of a firm to
adapt to changing social conditions.
Social involvement provides a number of benefits to a firm that more than offset their cost. This
would include a positive consumer image; a more dedicated and motivated work-force and less
interference from regulators (government authorities).
The question here is: how are the people to whom business managers are responsible? Classicists
would say that shareholders or owners are their only legitimate concern. The modern view is that
managers are responsible to any individual or group that is affected by the organisation's
decisions and policies. These stakeholders are any constituency in an organisation's environment;
government agencies, trade unions, employees, customers, suppliers and public at large
Few terms have been defined in as many different ways as social responsibility. Some of the
more popular meaning include "profit making only," "going beyond profit making", "voluntary
activities," "concern for the broader social system," and "social responsiveness." Most of the
debate has focused at the extremes. On one side, there is the classicalor purely economic
view that management's only social responsibility is to maximise profits. On the other side stands
the socio-economic position, which holds that management's responsibility goes well beyond
making profits to include protecting and improving society's welfare.
The classical view holds that management's only responsibility in running a business is to
maximise profits. This narrow "shareholder" model is supported by Milton Friedman, a Nobel
prize winner economist, who argues : "Few trends could so thoroughly undermine the very
foundations of our free society as the acceptance by corporate official of social responsibility
other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible", Among the arguments of
this viewpoint against corporate social responsibility are :
(i) Loss of business profits.
(ii) Increased business costs.
(iii) Dilution of business purpose.
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(iv) Too much social power for businesses.
(v) Lack of business accountability to public.
The socio-economic view holds that any organisation must be concerned for the broader social
welfareand not just for corporate profits. Among the arguments for social responsibility are:
1. Long-run profits for businesses.
2. Public expectations support business social responsibility.
3. Public image of business will improve.
4. Better environment for everyone.
5. Businesses may avoid more regulation.
6. Businesses have the resources.
7. Businesses have the ethical obligation.
EVALUATING CORPORATE SOCIAL PERFORMANCE:
There are many areas in which social responsibility can be pursued by business Firms and other
types of organisations. These include concerns for ecology and environmental quality, consumer
protection, aid to education and service to community needs, employment practices affecting
weaker sections of society, progressive labour relations and employee assistance, and general
corporate philanthropy, among others.
At the organisational level , a social audit can be used at regular intervals to systematically assess
and report on an organisation's resource use and actual performance in these and other areas of
social performance. One way of evaluating corporate social performance is a social audit which
is based on the following four criteria:
1. Is the organisation's economic responsibility met?
2. Is the organisation's legal responsibility met?
3. Is the organisation's ethical responsibility met?
4. Is the organisation'a discretionary responsibility met?
As we move down the list, the criteria progress toward ever-greater demonstrations of socially
responsible activities. As organisation is meeting its economic responsibility when it earns a
profit through the provision of goods and services desired by customers. This is consistent with
the classical view of social responsibility presented earlier. Legal responsibility is fulfilled when
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an organisation operates within the law and according to the requirements of various external
regulations. This means that the organisation meets minimum expectations of society's governing
legal framework. Ideally economic responsibilities are met in a legally responsible manner. An
organisation meets its ethical responsibility when its actions voluntarily conform not only to
legal expectations, but also to the broader values and moral expectations of society.
The highest level of social performance comes through the satisfaction of an organisation's
discretionary responsibility. Here the organisation voluntarily moves beyond basic economic,
legal, and ethical expectations to provide leadership in advancing the well-being of individuals,
communities, and society as a whole.
Provision for CSR in companies Bill 2012
Under the Companies Act, 2013(amended), any company having a net worth of rupees 500 crore
or more or a turnover of rupees 1,000 crore or more or a net profit of rupees 5 crore or more
should mandatorily spend 2% of their net profits per fiscal on CSR activities. The rules will
come into effect from 1 April 2014.
Till date it is very difficult exercise to analyze the spending of CSR by various firms and private
companies and such information is not maintained at government level, even among the top 35
firms by revenue, there are many who do not report their CSR spends or even declare the social
causes they support, that is because they are not required to do so by law and no provisions for
CSR exists in the Companies Act, 1956 so currently the Ministry does not maintain such details.
The Companies Bill, 2012 incorporates a provision of CSR under Clause 135 which States that
every company having net worth Rs. 500 crore or more, or a turnover of Rs.1000 crore or more
or a net profit of rupees five crore or more during any financial year, shall constitute a CSR
Committee of the Board consisting of three or more Directors, including at least one Independent
Director, to recommend activities for discharging corporate social responsibilities in such a
manner that the company would spend at least 2 per cent of its average net profits of the previous
three years on specified CSR activities. It is proposed to have detailed rules after passing of
Companies Bill 2012 by Rajya Sabha to give effect to this provision
According to Schedule-VII of Companies Bill, 2012 the following activities can be included by
companies in their CSR Policies:-
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(i) Eradicating extreme hunger and poverty;
(ii) Promotion of education;
(iii) Promoting gender equality and empowering women;
(iv) Reducing child mortality and improving maternal health;
(v)Combating human immunodeficiency virus, acquired immune deficiency syndrome, malaria
and other diseases;
(vi)Ensuring environmental sustainability;
(vii)Employment enhancing vocational skills;
(viii)Social business projects;
(ix) Contribution to the Prime Ministers National Relief Fund or any other fund set by the
Central Government or the State Governments for socio-economic development and relief and
funds for the welfare of the Scheduled Caste, the Scheduled Tribes, other backward classes,
minorities and women; and
(x)Such other matters as may be prescribed.
The Companies Bill, 2012, Clause 135 also provides for constitution of a CSR Committee of the
Board. The CSR Committee is required to;
(a) formulate and recommend to the Board, a CSR Policy which shall indicate the activities to be
undertaken by the company as specified in Schedule VII;
(b) recommend the amount of expenditure to be incurred on the activities referred to in clause
(a); and
(c)monitor the Corporate Social Responsibility Policy of the company from time to time.
(d)the format for disclosure of CSR policy and the activities therein as part of Boards report will
be prescribed in the rules once the Bill is enacted.
Comments: Key for success of CSR
The principles of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and good corporate citizenship are key
for success of any corporate sector. The four key areas should be the motto of any business
enterprise i.e. Client and marketplace, workplace, environment and community.
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Client and marketplace: It is expected for sustaining development of business with due skill,
care and diligence, client and market place should be considered first.
Workplace: for increasing productivity any corporate sector a healthy and safe working
environment.
Environment: The internal & external business environment has greater influence in the area of
CSR. There should be the aim for the suppliers who demonstrate global environmental and social
concerns, through continued commitment for actively engaging in CSR.
Community: Community has the greater impact for the prosperity of business. Health local
community enhances business profit by distributing goods and services in proper time with
reasonable prices and accurate quantity.
CRITICISM:
1. Violation of profit maximization: This is the essence of the classical viewpoint. Business is
most socially responsible when it attends strictly to its economic interests and leaves other
activities to other institutions.
2.
Loss of purpose: The pursuit of social goals leads to loss of business's basic purpose
economic productivity. Society may suffer as both economic and social goals are poorly
accomplished.
3. Costs: Many socially responsible activities dont pay their own way. Someone has to pay
these costs. Business normally passes them on to consumers in the form of higher prices,
4. Too much power: Business is already one of the most powerful institutions in our society. If it
pursues social goals, it would have even more power. Society has given business much power.
5.
Lock of skills: The outlook and abilities of business leaders are oriented primarily toward
profits and gains. Business people are not competent enough to deal with social issues and solve
social problems.
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6. Lack of accountability: Political representatives pursue social goals and are held accountable
for their actions. Such is not the case with business leaders.
7. Lack of broad public support: These are not much support from society for business to become
involved in social issues.
CONCLUSIONS:
From the above discussions it can be concluded that not only PSUs are performing social
responsibilities but also private sector plays an important role in performing CSR. The Top 35
companies of India performed in the CSR in the financial year 2012 and spent funds in the
following areas:
*The datum is expressed all in Rs. in crores.
* source National bulletin 2012
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In Education, ones endeavour is to spark the desire for learning and knowledge at every stage
through :
Formal schools
Quality primary education
Girl child education
Adult education programmes
In Health care ones goal is to render quality health care facilities to people living in the villages
and elsewhere through Hospitals:
Primary health care centres
Mother and Child care projects
Immunisation programmes with a thrust on polio eradication
Health care for visually impaired, and physically challenged
Preventive health through awareness programmes.
In Sustainable Livelihood, programmes aim at providing livelihood in a locally appropriate and

environmentally sustainable manner through:
Formation of Self Help
Groups for women empowerment
Agriculture development and better farmer focus Watershed development
Partnership with Industrial Training Institutes.
In Infrastructure Development for setting up essential services that form the foundation of
sustainable development through:
Basic infrastructure facilities
Housing facilities
Safe drinking water
To bring about Social Change, one should advocate and support:
Dowryless marriage
Widow remarriage
Awareness programmes on anti social issues
De-addiction campaigns and programmes
Espousing basic moral values etc.
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References :
[1] Chahoud, Dr. Tatjana; Johannes Emmerling, Dorothea Kolb, Iris Kubina, Gordon Repinski, Catarina
Schlger (2007). Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility in India - Assessing the UN Global
Compact's Role.
[2] Understanding and Encouraging Corporate Responsibility in South Asia. MAY,2001.
[3] State of CSR in India& Executive summary and recommendations:CSR in India-perspectives for
business. 1 May 2007.
[4] Khanna, Parul; Gitika Gupta (January 2011). PARUL KHANNA Paper_Corporate_Social_Responsibility.
[5] Sathish, Ramya. "Corporate Social Responsibility in India - Putting Social-Economic Development on
a Fast Track".
[6] "Implications of Companies Act, 2013 Corporate Social Responsibility". Grant Thornton India LLP.
Retrieved 7 March 2014.
[7] "The Flag Off of CSR Rules: India Inc.s To-Do List for Compliance to Section-135". Forbes, 4
March 2014.
[8] William Haynes Entrepreneurship & Management.
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Characteristics of Atmospheric Boundary Layer in Pre monsoon

and Monsoon seasons over Kolkata
Sharadia Dey1,
1
Department of Engineering Science,
Bengal Institute of Technology and Management, Santiniketan, West Bengal-731236, India.
Email: sharadiadey1985@gmail.com
and
Srimanta Gupta2
2
Department of Environmental Science, The University of Burdwan,
Burdwan, West Bengal- 713104 , India
Email: srimantagupta@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
The characteristics of Atmospheric Boundary Layer in Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons over
Kolkata (2232' N, 8820' E) have been studied by using suitable statistical methods. The vertical
profiles of different meteorological parameters like temperature, dew point temperature, relative
humidity, mixing ratio, wind speed, wind direction, potential temperature and equivalent
temperature within the atmospheric boundary layer portrays characteristic trend in Pre monsoon
and Monsoon seasons. Along with other important results, the study reveals that the surface
temperature difference between the Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons at 00 UTC is much
higher than that of 12 UTC.
Key words: Atmospheric Boundary Layer, Pre monsoon, Monsoon, Meteorological parameters
1. Introduction
In 1904, the concept of a boundary layer, where a moving fluid meets a solid boundary, was first
described by Ludwig Prandtl. He showed that the flow could be split into two regions the bulk of
the flow where viscosity could be neglected (which was what most of the previous work had
assumed), and the boundary layer around the surface of an object where viscosity was important,
and where the tangential velocity of the flow to the surface fell rapidly to zero. This enabled the
drag on objects to be understood, which was of particular use in the design of aircraft winds and
the development of manned flight. The Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) can be defined as
the part of the troposphere which is directly influenced by surface characteristics, and responds
to these surface forcing in about an hour or less [Stull, 1988]. These surface forcing include
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frictional drag, evaporation and transpiration, heat transfer, pollutant emission and terrain
induced flow modification. Due to the vertical extent, biomass, and roughness of
forests the physical and chemical properties of the overlying atmospheric boundary layer are
markedly modified [Panofsky & Dutton (1984); Oke (1987); Stull (1988); Garratt (1992);
Kaimal & Finnigan (1994)]. Turbulent nature is one of the most important features of ABL [2].
Diurnal variation is one of the key characteristics of boundary layer over land. Presently,
estimation of the vertical distributions of meteorological parameters (like temperature, wind
velocity, humidity etc) in the earths atmosphere is one of the main subjects of research for the
analysis and modeling of climate. Komarov & Lomakina (2008) investigated the climatic
characteristics of temperature, humidity and wind velocity in the atmospheric boundary layer
over Siberia. It is important to note that while the statistical structures of the vertical temperature,
wind velocity and humidity profiles in the free atmosphere have now been well investigated
[Zuev & Komarov (1987)], the same structure in ABL are still not well understood, especially
over Kolkata (2232' N, 8820' E). The application of statistics is important in understanding the
nature of structure and characteristics of ABL. It is well known that hot season of April and May
is the traditional period when the winter pattern of pressure and wind gets disturbed prior to the
establishment of the summer monsoon and hence, is often referred to as Pre Monsoon season
and the months of June and July generally considered as Monsoon season. A monsoon seasonal
change is characterized by a variety of physical mechanisms which produce strong seasonal
winds, a wet summer and a dry winter.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Meteorological data
The location of the study is Kolkata (2232' N, 8820' E) (station no. 42809). The upper air
Radiosonde (RS)/Rawinsonde (RW) data at 00 and 12 UTC used in the present study have been
collected from the website of the Department of Atmospheric Science, University of Wyoming
for the pre-monsoon season (April-May) and Monsoon season (June & July)during the period
from 1997 to 2006.The dataset have been taken from www.weather.uwyo.edu. The dates of
Thunderstorm have been collected from IMD, Kolkata. Few important meteorological
parameters like temperature, dew point temperature, relative humidity, mixing ratio, wind speed,
216 | P a g e

wind direction, potential temperature and equivalent temperature have been recorded at surface,
925hPa and 850 hPa pressure levels for the for the detailed study of ABL over Kolkata.
2.2. Methodology
The data set explored in the present study has been categorized into Pre monsoon and Monsoon
season which is further sub-categorized on the basis of time that is 00 UTC data and 12 UTC
data. The data sets have been arranged properly to obtain the Mean, Standard deviation and
Variance of the important meteorological parameters. The mean of each parameter at different
pressure levels (surface, 925 hPa, 850 hPa) have been compiled to obtain the Vertical Profile of
that particular parameter in Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons both at 00 UTC and 12 UTC
within the boundary layer.
2. Result and Discussion
In both Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons, the temperature gradually decreases with increase in
altitude. At all the three pressure levels, temperature is slightly higher in Pre monsoon season
than in Monsoon season in 00 UTC (Fig. 1) and 12 UTC (Fig.2). At 00 UTC, the surface
# REF! #REF!
a)
P
(h
sl
e
v
el
er
us
se
r
P
Pr e s s u r e lev e l s (h P a )
temperature difference between the Pre monsoon and Monsoon season is significant.
#REF! #REF!
0
0
0
# RE F! # RE F!
0
0
0
1
Temperature(K)
Fig. 1 -Vertical profile of Temperature(K) in Pre

monsoon(April-May) and Monsoon(June-July) in
different pressure levels(hPa) within the
Boundary Layer at 00 UTC
# RE F! # RE F!
Tempera ture(K)
F ig .2 -V ertical pro file o f Tempera ture(K) in

P re mo nso o n(A pril-May ) a nd Mo nsoo n(J uneJ uly ) in different pressure levels(mb) o f
Bo unda ry La y er a t 1 2 U TC
Dew point temperature gradually decreases with altitude in both Pre monsoon and Monsoon
season. In both 00 UTC (Fig.3) and 12 UTC (Fig. 4), the difference in dew point temperature in
pre monsoon and Monsoon season at three different pressure levels gradually increases with
217 | P a g e

altitude. This implies that the decrease in dew point temperature with altitude is much faster in
Pre monsoon season than in Monsoon season.
925
At 00 UTC, the relative humidity gradually decreases with increase in altitude in monsoon
season. In Pre monsoon season, relative humidity increases from surface to 925 hPa pressure
level and then decreases upto 850 hPa pressure level (Fig. 5). At 12 UTC, the relative humidity
remains almost constant in all the three pressure levels with slight increase in 925 hPa (Fig. 6).
Like 00 UTC, the relative humidity increases from surface to 925 hPa pressure level and then
decreases upto 850 hPa pressure level in Pre monsoon season. In both 00 UTC and 12 UTC, the
relative humidity is considerably higher in Monsoon season than in Monsoon season.
925
218 | P a g e
At 00 UTC (Fig. 7) and 12 UTC ( Fig.8), the mixing ratio gradually decreases with increase in
altitude in Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons. The mixing ratio remains considerably higher in
monsoon season than in Pre monsoon season.
850
925
At 00 UTC (Fig. 9) and 12 UTC (Fig. 10), the surface wind is south-easterly in Pre monsoon and
Monsoon seasons. But at 925 hPa and 850 hPa pressure levels, wind blows from the south-west
direction. At 12 UTC, the surface wind is south- easterly and south-westerly wind blows at 925
hPa and 850 hPa pressure levels. But at 00 UTC, south-westerly wind prevails at all the three
pressure levels within the boundary levels. The surface wind is slightly higher in Pre monsoon
season both at 00 UTC and 12 UTC.
925
925
0
219 | P a g e

At 00 UTC, the wind speed remains almost same in Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons at 925
hPa pressure level (Fig. 11). But at 850 hPa pressure level, wind speed is higher in Monsoon
season than in Pre monsoon season at 00 UTC. At 12 UTC, the surface wind is slightly higher in
Pre monsoon season (Fig. 12). But at 925 hPa and 850 hPa pressure levels, wind speed is
considerably high in Monsoon season than in Pre monsoon.
At 00 UTC, the potential temperature is much higher at the surface in Pre monsoon season than
in Monsoon (Fig. 13). At 925 hPa, the potential temperature decreases slightly in Pre monsoon
season and again it increases at 850 hPa pressure level. In Monsoon season, potential
temperature gradually increases with increasing altitude. At 12 UTC, potential temperature
gradually increases with increase in altitude (Fig. 14). But at all the pressure levels within the
boundary layer, potential temperature is higher in Pre monsoon season than in Monsoon season.
925
220 | P a g e
925

Both in Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons, the equivalent potential temperature gradually
decrease with increasing altitude at 00 UTC (Fig. 15) and 12 UTC (Fig. 16). But in both the
cases, the gradient of equivalent potential temperature is higher in Pre monsoon season than in
Monsoon season.
925
#REF! # REF!
)a
P
h(
sl
ev
e
L
er
us
se
r
P
#REF! #REF!
#REF! #REF !
a)
P
h(
lse
0
ve
l
er
us
se 925
r
P
#REF! #REF!
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Equivalent Potential Temperature(K)

Fig. 15 -Vertical profile of Equivalent Potential
Temperature (K) in Pre monsoon(April-May)
and Monsoon(June-July) in different pressure
levels(hPa) within the Boundary Layer at 00
UTC
0.5
1
Eq uivalent potential temperature (K)
Fig. 16 -Vertical profile of Equivalent p otential
temperature(K) in Pre monsoon(April-May)
and Monsoon(June-July) in different p ressure
levels (hPa) within the Boundary Laye r at 12
UTC
Comparative Study of different meteorological parameters in Thunderstorm and Non-thunderstorm days
Temperature gradually decreases with increase in height in both thunderstorm and nonthunderstorm days (Fig 17). The temperature is maximum at the surface. Thunderstorm days
show higher temperature at all the three pressure levels (i.e. surface, 925 hPa, 850 hPa) than the
non-thunderstorm days. This result infers that high temperature is required for the occurrence of
thunderstorm.
In thunderstorm days, dew point temperature is maximum at the surface (Fig. 18). At 925 hPa, a
small decrease in dew point temperature is observed. But at 850 hPa level, the dew point
temperature shows a sharp decrease in thunderstorm days. In non- thunderstorm days, dew point
temperature shows a gradual decrease with increase in height from the surface. In thunderstorm
days, the moisture incursion is higher at different levels, that is why the rate of decrease of dew
point temperature with altitude is less rapid than in non- thunderstorm days. The gradient of dew
point temperature (i.e. dTd/dz) is steeper in thunderstorm days than in non-thunderstorm days.
221 | P a g e
Thunderstorm days
Non-thunderstorm days
Thunderstorm days
310
)
K
( 300
re
ut
ar 290
ep
m
e 280
T
t
in 270
o
P
w
e
D
305
300
295
290
285
surface
925
surface
925
Pressure lev els (hPa) 850
Fig. 18 -Variation of Dew Point
Temperature on Thunderstorm days and
Non-thunderstorm days at three pressure
levels within boundary layer over Kotkata.
850
Fig. 17 - V ariation of Temperature on

Thunderstor m days and Non-thunderstorm
days at three different pressure levels
within the boundary layer over Kotkata.
Relative humidity increases from surface to 925 hPa pressure level and then gradually decreases
till 850 hPa pressure level in both thunderstorm and non-thunderstorm days (Fig. 19). This shows
that 925 hPa pressure level has the maximum moisture content. But the amount of moisture is
higher in all the pressure levels (surface, 925 hPa and 850 hPa) in thunderstorm days than in nonthunderstorm days.
In thunderstorm days, the mixing ratio increases from surface to 925 hPa pressure level an then
gradually decreases upto 850 hPa pressure level (Fig. 20). Due to south- westerly wind direction,
moisture incursion from Bay of Bengal occurs which increases the mixing ratio at 925 hPa .But
at 850 hPa pressure level, the wind is north-westerly. So the dry air flow results in decrease of
mixing ratio at that level. In non- thunderstorm days, the mixing ratio gradually decreases with
increase in altitude.
Thunderstorm days
80
)
%
( 60
yit
di 40
m
u
H 20
ev
it
al
0
e
R
)g
20
/kg
(
iot 15
a
R10
g
ni
xi 5
M 0
surface
925
850
Pressure levels(hPa)
Fig . 19- Variatio n of Relative Humidity on
Thunderstorm days and Non-thunderstorm
days at three pressure level s within
boundary layer over K otkata.
222 | P a g e
Thunderstorm days
25
surface
925
850
Pressure level (hPa)

Fig . 20-Variation of Mixing Ratio on
Thunderstorm days and Non-thunderstorm
days at three pressure levels within the
boundary layer over Kotkata.

In thunderstorm days, the surface wind is southerly (Fig. 21). At 925 hPa pressure level,
moisture laden south-easterly wind flows. The presence of sufficient amount of moisture helps in
the occurrence of thunderstorm. But at 850 hPa pressure level, dry air blows from north-west
direction.
In non-thunderstorm days, the surface wind is south-easterly. At 925 hPa and 850 hPa pressure
levels, the wind blows from south-west direction.
In thunderstorm days, wind speed slightly decreases from surface to 925 hPa pressure level (Fig.
22). But at 850 hPa pressure level, the wind speed abruptly increases.
In non-thunderstorm days, the wind speed is least at the surface and increases upto 925 hPa
pressure level. But at 850 hPa pressure level, the wind speed shows a slight decrement than that
of 850 hPa pressure level
In both thunderstorm and non-thunderstorm days, potential temperature gradually increases with
increase in altitude (Fig. 23). Under normal, stably stratified conditions, the potential temperature
increases with height and vertical motion is suppressed .
The gradient of potential temperature is higher in thunderstorm days than in non-thunderstorm

days. The atmosphere remains in highly chaotic state before the occurrence of the thunderstorm,
so the convection acts quickly to mix the atmosphere and return to a stably stratified state.
223 | P a g e

In thunderstorm days, equivalent potential temperature increases from surface to 925 hPa
pressure level (Fig. 24). But from 925 hPa to 850 hPa pressure level, equivalent potential
temperature shows a decreasing trend. In non-thunderstorm days, equivalent potential
temperature gradually decreases from surface to 850 hPa pressure level.
CONCLUSION
Little solar radiation is absorbed in the boundary layer, most is transmitted to the ground where
typical absorptivities on the order of 90% result in absorption of much of the solar radiation. It is
the ground that warms and cools in response to the radiation, which in turn forces changes in the
boundary layer via transport processes. Indirectly, the whole troposphere can change in response
to surface characteristics, but this response is relatively slow outside the boundary layer.
In the present study, the variation of different meteorological parameters have been extensively
studied for a time duration of ten years (1997-2006) which portrays the boundary layer structure
over Kolkata in Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons and also in Thunderstorm and Nonthunderstorm days. The vertical profile of different parameters within the boundary layer shows
characteristic trend in Pre monsoon and Monsoon seasons over Kolkata.
Although thunderstorms are rarely considered to be boundary layer phenomena, their interaction
with the boundary layer is noticeable. Before and after thunderstorm, important meteorological
parameters show characteristic changes within the boundary layer. In fact thunderstorms can
modify the boundary layer in a matter of minutes by drawing up boundary layer air into the
cloud, or by laying down a carpet of cold downdraft air.
224 | P a g e

Thus, the present study of different meteorological parameters within the boundary layer can
help in understanding thunderstorms over Kolkata.
References:
[1] Garratt, J.R. (1992). The Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Cambridge University Press.
[2] Kaimal, J. C. & Finnigan, J, J. (1994). Atmospheric Boundary Layer Flows. Their
structure and measurement. Cambridge, Oxford University Press, 289 pp.
[3] Komarov, V.L., & Lomakina, N.Ya. (2008). Global Climatology and Ecodynamics.
Springer Praxis Books, 333-362, 12
[4] Oke, T.R., (1987). Boundary layer climates. London, Methuen, 435 pp.
[5] Panofsky, H.A., Dutton, J.A.,(1984). Atmospheric Turbulence. Models and Methods for
Engineering Applications. New York, John Wiley and Sons, 397 pp.
[6] Stull, R.B. (1988). An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology. Kluwer Academic
Publishers,Dordrecht , The Netherland
.
[7] Zuev V.E. andKomarov V.S. (1987). Statistical Models of the Temperature and Gaseous
Components of the Atmosphere. D. Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 306pp.
225 | P a g e
Study on the system testing procedure for evacuated tube solar

water heating system
Tarak Nath Chell
Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Bengal Institute of Technology and Management /
West Bengal University of Technology, India
Email: talk2tarak@gmail.com
Abstract:
Evacuated tube solar water heating system use are gradually increase because of their good
thermal efficiency and higher water temperature achieves as compare to flat plate solar water
heater in India. But so far their thermal performance has not been systematically evaluated and
therefore not well known to the user. This paper reports our experimental and numerical works
on evaluating the performance of evacuated tube solar water heaters for domestic hot water
application. These are the single phase open thermosyphon system. Our result shows that single
phase solar water system performance is batter as domestic thermal application. Although in
system procedure scan time will be changes the performance of the system changes. The
performance increases due to fact that the integration average of the solar radiation over the
longer scan interval will make the radiation profile less fluctuating.
Keywords - evacuated tube solar collector, single phase open water in glass, solar domestic hot
water system, storage tank, thermosyphon.
1. Introduction
The thermosyphon flow can be designed as illustrated in Fig. (1); it can work with either forced
or natural flow in domestic water storage and distribution. The evacuated tube designed for
single-phase open thermosyphon consists of two concentric borosilicate glass tubes sealed
at the lower end. The selective coating at the outside of the inner glass tube increases solar
absorption and reduces heat radiation losses. Heat absorption at the inner tube develops a
buoyant ow of water up the tube and this is displaced by an inow of coldwater from the
tank.
The key important point of these systems is that the storage tank is always located higher than
the collector. The solar radiation after passing through outer glass tubes fall on the inner glass
226 | P a g e

tubes which are coated with absorbent materials. So these solar radiations are absorbed by the
absorbent materials in the inner tube and get converted in to heat after absorption. Due to
absorption, surface of inner tubes gets heated up and this heat is transferred to the water exist
inside the inner tubes. The temperature of the water in the tubes rises making it less dense or
lighter and hot. This lighter water naturally moves up to the top of collector and goes to the
storage tank. This makes the colder and heavier water in water tank moves down to the bottom of
the collector. That continuous displacement occurs naturally.
Fig. (1) Single-phase open thermosyphon.

In order to their year round energy performance has been studied based on the Indian
weather conditions. An experimental rig was first set up to monitor the thermal performance
during hot summer and cold winter days. Computer models were then developed and validated
by the experimental data.
2. Experimental evaluation
An experimental rig with the open thermosyphon type was set up, as shown in Fig. (2).
227 | P a g e
Fig. (2) Solar hot water system experimental rig with open thermosyphon type.
Table 1
Technical data of the experimental solar hot water system
Collector type
Open
Heat transfer fluid in tubes
Water
Length of tube
2.05 m
Inner/outer diameter of tube
47 mm/ 58 mm
Numbers of tube
15
Collector Area
2.18 m2
Volume of water in tank
120 L
Collector tilt angle
45o, south-facing
Tube thermal properties
Absorptance 94%, emittance 6%
Storage tank is an open steel tank complete with thermal insulation. Table 1 shows the key
collector parameters. This experimental rig was installed at the roof laboratory of our
university campus. Copper-constantan thermocouples were fixed at different positions of the
solar collector system, including the connecting pipes and storage tank for temperature data
acquisition. Performance data were recorded in both cold and hot periods of the year. The
water was consumed (and emptied)only in the evening hours. The automatic refilling took
place in the early morning. For computer model calibration/validation purpose, hot water in
tank can remain unused (no drawn-off) during consecutive test days.
228 | P a g e
Fig. (3). Computational ow chart of a single-phase open thermosyphon evacuated tube

solar water heater.
The transient efficiency of the single-phase thermosyphon collector is shown in Fig. 4. In our
system, the working fluid is water. The properties of the working fluid have an effect on
the system performance.
3. Numerical evaluation
Nomenclature
Ac
Gross area of solar collector, m2
Aa
Absorber area of solar collector, m2
Ap
Total outside surface area of the connecting pipes, m 2
Ap
Total outside surface area of pipes which may be for loosing heat during
2
night-test, m
As
Outside surface area of storage tank, m2
Cp
Specific heat of water, J/kg K
F
Collector efficiency factor
GT
Solar irradiance on the inclined plane of the solar collector, W/m 2
GT
Average value of solar irradiance on the inclined plane of the solar
collector during day-test, W/m2
(MC)s
Thermal capacitance of the water in the storage tank only (J/K).
Q
Total energy collected by the solar collector during period of the daytest (kWh)
229 | P a g e

The total solar irradiance on the collector during test period, (MJ/m 2)
Time , s
Ambient air temperature, C
Average ambient air temperature during day-test, C
Cold water temperature from mains, C
Temperature of water in storage tank
Storage temperature at the end of night-test, C
Storage temperature at the end of the day-test, C
Storage temperature at the start of the day-test, C
Overall heat loss coefficient of the system during day-test, W/m2 K
Qc
t
Ta
Tad
Tm
Ts
Tsfn
Tsfd
Tsid
USys, d
UL
Overall heat loss coefficient of solar collector, W/m2 K
t
Time duration of solar test, s
sys,o
Maximum efficiency of the system
hsys
Efficiency of solar hot water system averaged over the test period
()eff
Effective transmittance absorptance product of the solar collector for
solar radiation
Up
Overall heat loss coefficient of piping, W/m2 K
Us
Overall heat loss coefficient of storage tank, W/m 2 K
The following energy balance equation would determine the thermal performance of the solar
hot water system during the day-time
Rate of change in Rate at which useful Rate at which energy
energy contents of energy is supplied to is lost from water in
the water in the water in the storage the storage tank to
storage tank
tank by solar collector the ambient air
Mathematically, this may be expressed as follows:
(MC)s dTs = AaF' [GT()eff UL(Ts Ta)] (AsUs + ApUp )(Ts Ta )

dt
(3.1)
Rearranging and integrating equation (3.1) with respect to time, between the time period t1 to t2
during which the energy is collected, one gets
t 2d
t 2d
(MC)s(Tsfd Tsid) = AaF' GT()eff , dt (AaF' UL + AsUs + ApUp ) (Ts Ta )dt
t1d
t1d
(3.2)
The total energy incident on the collector during the time period from t1d to t2d is given by the
following expression
230 | P a g e
t 2d
Qc = Ac GTdt
t1d
(3.3)
Dividing equation (3.2) by equation (3.1), one gets
sys = sys,0 Usys, d.X
(3.4)
Where
sys =
(MC)s(Tsfd Tsid)
t 2d
Ac GTdt
t1d
t 2d
AaF' GT ( )eff.dt
t1d
sys,0 =
t 2d
Ac GT.dt
t1d
Usys, d =
AaF' UL + AsUs + ApUp

Ac
t 2d
(T
X = t1d
(3.5)
(3.6)
(3.7)
Ta )dt
t 2d
GTdt
t1d
(3.8)
4. Simulation results and discussions

4.1 System performance
The system validation test can be start 3.50 hour before solar noon at test area (Kolkata, West
Bengal) and the process was running till 3.50 hour after solar noon. I this duration all data was
recorded through automatic data logger. Collecting data put into the equation 3.6 and find out
system efficiency on that particular day and also find out the system performance X. Number of
conjunctives data plotted and find out total performance of the solar water heating system [7].
Number of data was rejected due to low radiation, rain, cloudy condition, high wind flow or
some time system failure.
231 | P a g e

0 .8 0
E ffic ie n c y
0 .6 0
0 .4 0
0 .2 0
0 .0 0
0 .0 0
0 .0 2
0 .0 4
0 .0 6
0 .0 8
X (m 2 K /W )
Fig. (4) Variation of System Efficiency With X

For different values of X, Efficiency are plotted in Fig.4 from the linear regression fitting of the
plotted data the flowing equation is found
Y = -2.270651943 * X + 0.5010580803
(4.1)
From Equation, 4.1 at X=0, sys,0 =0.5010

4.2 Impact of Time Constant on Performance Efficiency
The system simulation program was developed selected as our computer analysis platform and
calculated the all data in aspect of theoretical evaluation. Flow chart fig. 5 was show that the
evolution system with different scan time interval.
232 | P a g e
Fig. (5) Flow Chart Develop Coding For Automatically Evaluating System Efficiency & X
in Different Scan Time Interval
In fig. 6 show the different radiation pattern and temper pattern with different time interval. It
was find out increase the time interval then increase the system efficiency. The table 2 show that
233 | P a g e

different efficiency with different scan time interval and also show that deviation percentage of
system efficiency.
1 2 0 0
D a te
O
T
F
T
R a d ia t i o n ( W / m 2 )
1 0 0 0
n
w
iv
e
e
o
e
n
: 3 0 -0 3 -2 0 1 0
m in
m in
m in
m in
u
u
u
u
te in
te in
te in
te in
te rv
te rv
te rv
te r v
a
a
a
a
l
l
l
l
8 0 0
6 0 0
4 0 0
2 04 0
8
1 0
1 0
1 2
1 4
1 6
1 2
1 4
1 6
3 6
T e m p e ra tu re ( C )
3 8
3 4
3 2
3 0
2 8
T im
e ( H o u r s )
Fig. (6) Variations of Solar Radiation and Ambient Temperature in Different Interval
Scans Time.
Table:2
1 min
Date
interval
2 min interval
5 min interval
10 min interval
0.3547220
0.3549640
0.3564320
0.0000860
0.0242502
0.0003280
0.0924892
0.0017960
0.5064347
Efficiency
30-03-10
234 | P a g e
0.3546360
Efficiency
Deviation
% of Deviation
5. Conclusion
Our experimental and numerical works on evaluating the performance of common types of
evacuated tube solar water heaters for domestic hot water
applications have been
described. Our experimental results indicate that, for applications in the subtropical
climate of India the daily thermal performance of the single-phase open thermosyphon
solar collector is better in domestic hot water application as well as aspect of cost of the
system.
It is observed that the efficiency of the system gradually increases with the increase in scan time
interval. The possible reason of the better performance is due to the fact that the integration
average of the solar radiation over the longer scan interval will make the radiation profile less
fluctuating.
Acknowledgments
The work described in this article was supported by the grants from the Regional Test Centre
(Solar Thermal) at School of Energy Studies, Jadavpur University.
References
[1]
A. El Fadar, A. Mimet, A. Azzabakh, M. Perez-Garcia, J. Castaing. Applied Thermal Engineering
29 (2009) 12671270. Study of a new solar adsorption refrigerator powered by a parabolic trough
collector.
[2]
A. El Fadar, A. Mimet, M. Perez-Garca. Solar Energy 83 (2009) 850861.Modelling and
performance study of a continuous adsorption refrigeration system driven by parabolic trough solar
collector.
[3]
Bo-Ren Chen, Yu-Wei Chang, Wen-Shing Lee, Sih-Li Chen. Solar Energy xxx (2009) xxxxxx.
Article in press. Long-term thermal performance of a two-phase thermosyphon solar water heater.
[4]
C.D. Ho, H.M. Yeh, T.W. Cheng, T.C. Chen, R.C. Wang. Applied Energy 86 (2009) 14701478.
The influences of recycle on performance of baffled double-pass flat-plate solar air heaters with internal
fins attached.
[5] Hamid El Qarnia. Energy Conversion and Management 50 (2009) 247254. Numerical analysis of a
coupled solar collector latent heat storage unit using various phase change materials for heating the water.
[6]
I. Budihardjo, G.L. Morrison. Solar Energy 83 (2009) 4956. Performance of water-in-glass
evacuated tube solar water heaters.
[7] John A. Duffie & William A. Beckman., Third edition, 2006. Solar Thermal Engineering of Thermal
Processes.
235 | P a g e
A Novel linear controller for grid connected Doubly fed Induction

Generator (DFIG)
Chandan Dutta,
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Bengal Institute of Technology & Management
Email: chand.bitm@gmail.com
Himadri Ghosh,
Email: joybiet.123@gmail.com
Purushottam Mishra
Email: purusottam.af@gmail.com
Abstract
The advent of rising electrical energy consumption gave rise to a steady increase in the demand
on power generation. So , in addition to conventional power generation units a number of
renewable energy units are increasingly being integrated into the system. A wind electrical
generation system is the most cost competitive of all the environmentally clean and safe
renewable energy sources in world. The stator of the wind energy conversion systems generally
Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) is directly are connected to the grid through Voltage
Source Converters (VSC) to make variable speed operation possible. The stator of the generator
is directly connected to the grid while the rotor is connected through a back-to-back converter
which is dimensioned to stand only a fraction of the generator rated power. The rotor side
converter (RSC) usually provides active and reactive power control of the machine while the
grid-side converter (GSC) keeps the voltage of the DC-link constant. In the linear controller for
DFIG, a vector-control scheme for the grid-side PWM converter and Instantaneous Reactive
Power Theory(IRPT) for rotor-side PWM converter is applied .The proposed model of the linear
controller and the conventional linear controller using Synchronous Reference Frame
Theory(SRF) are both simulated in MATLAB/Simulink platform .A comparative study is done
between the linear controller using SRF theory and the proposed linear controller in order to
show how the proposed linear controller improves the performance of the grid connected Doubly
Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) .
236 | P a g e

Keywords: Comparative Study, DFIG
,Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory(IRPT),
Synchronous Reference Frame Theory(SRF).
1. Introduction
Wind electrical power system are recently getting lot of attention, because they are cost
competitive, environmental clean and safe renewable power sources, as compared fossil fuel and
nuclear power generation. The reason
for the worldwide interest in developing wind generation plants is the rapidly increasing demand
for electrical energy and the consequent depletion reserves of fossil fuels, namely, oil and coal.
Many places also do not have the potential for generating hydel power. Nuclear power
generation was once treated with great optimism, but with the knowledge of the environmental
hazard with the possible leakage from nuclear power plants, most countries have decided not to
install them any more. The growing awareness of these problems led to heightened research
efforts for developing alternative of energy sources for generation of electricity. The most
desirable source would be one that non-pollutant, available in abundance and renewable and can
be harnessed at an acceptable cost in both large-scale and small scale system. The most
promising source satisfying all these requirement is wind, a natural source energy source
.Overall, the contribution of these renewable energy systems to the power system has been
increased rapidly from the last two decades [1].
Among all the available technologies, the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) is most
accepted because it combines the advantages of reduced converter ratings for power conversion
and an efficient power capture due to the variable speed operation.[2]. Among these, a wind
energy conversion system integrated with a DFIG is the most popular option to harness wind
energy due to varying nature and unpredictability of the wind speeds. A DFIG offers advantages
of improved efficiency, reduced converter rating, reduced cost and losses, easy implementation
of power factor correction, variable speed operation, and four quadrant control of active and
reactive power control capabilities [3],[4]. Due to variable speed operation, total energy output is
20%30% higher in case of DFIG, so capacity utilization factor is improved and the cost per
kWh energy is reduced.
237 | P a g e

Generally, the stator windings of the DFIG are directly connected to the grid and the rotor
windings are fed through bidirectional PWM voltage source converters (VSCs) to control the
rotor and stator output power fed to the grid for variable speed operation [5], [6]. In a DFIG, both
the stator and the rotor are able to supply active power, but the direction of this power flow
through the rotor circuit is dependent on the wind speed and accordingly the generator speed.
Below the synchronous speed, active power flows from the grid to the rotor side and rotor side
converter (RSC) acts as the voltage source inverter while the grid side converter (GSC) acts as a
rectifier but above the synchronous speed, RSC acts as the rectifier, and GSC acts as the inverter.
The converter handles only around 25% of the machine rated power while the range of the speed
variation is 33% around the synchronous speed [5]. An effective control strategy addresses the
dynamics of a DFIG-based variable speed wind turbine and the operation of the converters under
sub-synchronous and super-synchronous modes of operation and during the transition period of
these two modes.
In this paper, the two parts of the linear controller for DFIG ,one is the grid-side
controller(GSC) and the other one is the rotor side controller(RSC) is taken into consideration
.The vector control scheme is applied to GSC and Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory is
applied to the RSC .This new linear controller is simulated in MATLAB/SIMULINK platform.
The conventional linear controller using synchronous Reference Frame Theory is also simulated
in the same platform. Now a comparative study is done between the proposed linear controller
and the conventional linear controller .Simulation studies say how the new linear controller gives
better performance than the conventional one.
2. Doubly Fed Induction Generator
DFIGs are variable speed generators with advantages compared to other solutions [7].They are
used more and more in wind turbine applications due to easy controllability, high energy
efficiency and improved power quality. Fixed speed generators and induction generators had the
disadvantage of having low power efficiencies at most speeds. To improve the efficiency,
controlled power electronics converters are commonly used. Voltage source inverters are used to
convert the voltage magnitude and frequency to match the grid values. As power converters in a
238 | P a g e

DFIG system only deal with rotor power, electronics costs are kept low, about approximately 2025% of the total generator power. This is due to the fact that the rotor voltage is lower than the
stator voltage. This implies that the converter is dimensioned to suit the rotor parameters. This
makes the system more economical than using a full power rated converter in a series
configuration. [8], [9], [10], [11].
The drive system operates in four quadrants. This implies that a bidirectional flow of power
is possible. The possibility of supplying and consuming reactive power enables the generator
system to act as a power factor compensator. By the control of the back to back inverters, the slip
may be controlled. In the case of the squirrel cage induction machine, for example, as the rotor
cannot be driven, the slip only depends on the stator and load inputs. As for synchronous
machines, a relatively large torque may cause the machine to oscillate [12], [13]. The DFIG does
not pose any synchronization problems.
In Figure 1 a basic layout of a DFIG wind turbine system is shown. The rotor circuit is
connected through slip rings to the back to back converter arrangement controlled by PWM .The
voltage magnitude and power direction between the rotor and the supply may be varied by
controlling the switch impulses that drive the IGBTs. Back to back converters consist of two
voltage source converters (ac-dc-ac) having a dc link capacitor connecting them. The generator
side converter takes the variable frequency voltage and converts it into dc voltage. The grid side
converter has the ac voltage from the dc link as input and voltage at grid parameters as output
[7], [14].
Fig.-1 DFIG Wind Turbine System
The gearbox has the role of matching the speed between the blades and the rotor. The
transformer couples the generator to the grid adjusts the voltage of the machine to that of the
239 | P a g e

grid.[15].The DFIG has windings on both the stator and the rotor. The stator is connected to the 3
phase supply - the mains. To match the stator voltages with the ones of the mains a 3 phase
transformer could be used. The shaft of the generator receives mechanical power through a
coupling. For the practical case of wind application, the mechanical power originates from the
wind powered blades of the turbine. To emulate the mechanical input, in laboratory testing, an
electrical machine may be used in motoring regime. Often DC machines are used as their speed
may be controlled by controlling the voltage. Torque received from DC machine emulates the
wind speed transmitted through the blades of the wind turbine. In order feed the DC machine a
rectifier and current control are used.
Linear controller
Grid Side Controller:
The control mechanism for DFIG grid-side converter is based upon
the decoupled d-q vector control concept .The fundamentals of vector control implementation
can be explained with the help of fig. 2 where the machine model is represented in a
synchronously rotating reference frame. The inverter is omitted from the figure, assuming that it
has unity current gain, that is, it generates currents ia , ib and ic as dictated by the corresponding
commands currents ia* , ib* and ic* from the controller. A machine model with internal
conversions is shown on the right. The machine terminal phase currents ia, ib and ic are
converted to Ids and Iqs component by 3 / 2 transformation These are then converted to
synchronously rotating frame by the unit vector components cos and sin before applying
them to the d-q machine model as shown in the fig 2. The controller makes two stage of inverse
transformation, as shown, so that the control currents ids*and iqs* corresponds to the machine
current ids and iqs, respectively. The transformation and inverse transformation including the
inverter ideally do not incorporate any dynamics therefore; the response to ids and iqs is
instantaneous.
240 | P a g e

Inverse Transformation
Machine
Transformation
Fig.-2 Vector control implementation principle with machine ( d-q) model
The grid side control strategy is explained through a block diagram below in fig 3. Here, the DC
link voltage is compared with a reference voltage and fed to a DC voltage regulator which in turn
produces the grid-side converter control reference current. The d and q grid controller currents
are obtained .After being compared with their corresponding reference currents they are finally
fed to the current regulator from which we finally obtain the grid controller voltage to be fed to
the
PWM
generator
for
generating
the
required
pulses.
Fig.-3 Block diagram showing Grid Side Controller strategy
Conventional Rotor Control Strategy

The active power set point can be obtained from the instantaneous values of rotor speed r and
rotor current Irq is controlled in the stator flux oriented reference frame to obtain the desired
active power according to the optimum torque speed characteristics .The set point for the active
power can be obtained from the active power set point and a desired power factor. In the stator
flux oriented reference frame, the d-axis rotor current is used to control the required reference
reactive power (Qsref).[18]The reference rotor currents ( and components, respectively)are
generated from the reference active and reactive power set points. These reference values of
rotor currents are compared with the sensed values of rotor currents and the obtained error signal
is processed with a PI controller to generate the control voltages for the PWM generator on the
d-q reference frames. The block diagram for the conventional rotor control strategy is given in
fig 4 below.
241 | P a g e
Fig.-4 Block Diagram of Conventional Rotor Side Control strategy
Proposed Rotor Control Strategy

The fig 5 below shows the block diagram of application of instantaneous reactive power theory
to the current measurement block of rotor side controller .Here current unit templates and
instantaneous symmetrical component theory along with complex Fourier Transform is used for
signal generation .[16],[17]The three phase rotor current is taken and applied to the instantaneous
reactive power theory block and the d-axis rotor current is obtained from the first processing
block which is given by the equations (1)-(4). The q-axis current is then obtained from the
second processing block which is given by the equations (5)-(7).
Equations for the d-axis current:[17]
Uad = ia/iLmag
Ubd = ib/iLmag
Ucd = ic/iLmag
(1)
(2)
(3)
Where,
iLmag =
Equations for q-axis current :
Uaq = (-ubd + ucd)/
Ubq = (3uad +ubd - ucd)/
Uaq = (-3uad +ubd - ucd)/
242 | P a g e
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Fig.-5 Block diagram showing application of IRPT to current measurement block of Rotor Side Controller
Application of IRPT to the current measurement block that is production of d and q axes
rotor current (Ird and Irq respectively) is done.
MATLAB Modeling and Simulation
MATLAB Model of Grid Side Controller:
The Grid Side Controller for DFIG is modeled and simulated using the MATLAB and its
Simulink and Sim Power System toolboxes. The MATLAB model of the Grid Side Controller is
shown in Figure-6. The model contains of three main blocks namely the DC voltage
regulator,current regulator and the grid side pulse generator .The DC voltage regulator regulates
the DC link voltage of the capacitor, the current regulator regulates the current and also produces
Vd and Vq components of voltage and the grid side pulse generator produces pulses to be fed to
the Grid Side Converter . The system data are given in Appendix.
Vdc_nom
Vdc_nom
Iq_ref
Idq
Idq
Vd
Vdc
Vdc
DCVoltage
Regulator
Vdq0
Idq_gc
4
w
3
Vdqs
Vdqs
Vd
Idq_gc
Vq
Vdq0
Vq
5
Current
Regulator
Uctrl_grid_conv
Uctrl_grid_conv
PLL
Theta_PLL
GridsidePulse
Generator
Figure-6: MATLAB model of Grid Side Controller for DFIG
MATLAB Model of Rotor Side Controller:
243 | P a g e

The Rotor Side Controller for DFIG is modeled and simulated using the MATLAB and its
Simulink and Sim Power System toolboxes. The MATLAB model of the Rotor Side Controller
is shown in Figure-7. The model contains of four main blocks namely the Flux controller, DC
voltage regulator ,current regulator and the grid side pulse generator .The Flux controller is
mainly responsible for the production of the d-axis reference rotor current .The DC voltage
regulator regulates the DC link voltage of the capacitor, the current regulator regulates the
current and also produces Vd and Vq components of voltage and the grid side pulse generator
produces pulses to be fed to the Rotor side converter . The system data are given in Appendix.
1
Vdqs
Vdqs
[Idqs]
Idqs
Idqs
Id_ref
Tem_cmd
Tem
2
Idr_ref
[w]
Flux Controller
Vd
Vd
Vq
Vq
Iq_ref
Vdq0
Vd
11
Vd
7
Idqr
12
Iqmax
wr
Iqmax
8
Qref
Vdq0
Idqr
Pulses_rotor_conv
wr
Current
Regulator
4
Theta_PLL
Iq_ref
Qref
9
1
Pulse_rotor_conv
PLL
Rotor side Pulse

Generator
Qmeas
Qmeas
10
Vmeas
Vmeas
Voltage
Regulator
A.
Figure-7: MATLAB model of Rotor Side Controller for DFIG

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Simulation Result of Conventional linear controller for DFIG:
A 9MW wind farm consisting of six 1.5 MW DFIG wind turbines is connected to a 25-kV
distribution system exports power to a 120-kV grid through a 30-km, 25-kV feeder. A single line
to ground fault causes voltage sag that drops the stator voltage to 0.5 p.u. is introduced at 0.03 s
for 0.13s duration (i.e. 4 cycles at 60Hz).
Various parameters were taken into consideration for the like the stator flux, stator current,
dc-link voltage, rotor speed and electromagnetic torque. The graphical analysis is carried out to
find out how the proposed linear controller gives better performance than the conventional linear
controller. The results for conventional linear controller are seen in fig 8(a) to 8(i).
244 | P a g e
Fig.-8(a) Stator current of conventional linear controller for DFIG

.
Fig.-8(b) THD evaluation of stator current conventional linear controller
Fig.-8(c) DC link voltage of conventional linear controller for DFIG
Fig.-8(d) THD evaluation of DC link voltage of conventional linear controller
Fig.-8(e) Rotor speed of conventional linear controller for DFIG
245 | P a g e
.
Fig.-8(f) THD evaluation of rotor current of conventional linear controller
Fig.-8(g) Torque of conventional linear controller for DFIG
Fig.-8(h) THD evaluation of Torque of conventional linear controller
Fig.-8(i) Stator flux waveform of conventional linear controller

B.
Simulation Result of Proposed linear controller for DFIG:
Here for the same system but with the proposed linear controller similarly a voltage sag that
drops the stator voltage to 0.5 p.u. is introduced at 0.03 s for 0.13s duration (i.e. 4 cycles at
60Hz) .The same parameters for comparison are considered and results are seen below in fig 9(a)
to 9(i).
246 | P a g e
Fig.-9(a) Stator voltage of the proposed linear controller for DFIG
Fig.-9(b) THD evaluation of stator voltage of the proposed linear controller
Fig.-9(c) DC link voltage of the proposed linear controller for DFIG
Fig.-9(d) THD evaluation of DC link voltage of the proposed linear controller
Fig.-9(e) Rotor speed of the proposed linear controller for DFIG
Fig.-9(f) THD evaluation of rotor speed of proposed linear controller
247 | P a g e
Fig.-9(g) Torque of the proposed linear controller for DFIG
Fig.-9(h) THD evaluation of Torque of the proposed linear controller
Fig.-9(i) Stator flux of proposed linear controller for DFIG
Type of
Controller
used
%
of % of
THD in THD
in
Stator DC
Current link
voltage
Conventional 73.60% 80.57%
Linear
Controller
33.46% 77.85%
Proposed
Linear
Controller
% of
THD
in
Rotor
speed
% of
THD
in
Torque
79.80% 59.87%
51.89% 57.82%
THD Analysis: Total harmonic distortion is an important criterion for power quality
improvement. For the basis of presented harmonics in a power line THD is being calculated.
This table created by the help of MATLAB FFT Analysis Result. The level of THD for the
conventional linear controller and the proposed linear controller is presented in this table. From
this presented table we can see that the proposed linear controller gives much better performance
248 | P a g e

than the conventional linear controller because the harmonics which is generated in the supply or
in the DFIG itself is eliminated by the help of the proposed linear controller.
3. Conclusion
This paper has presented the DFIG using the conventional linear control system using
Synchronous Reference Frame Theory. Then the Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory is
introduced .In the latter part of this paper this theory is applied in the rotor side control of the
linear controller .The corresponding simulation has been done in MATLAB/SIMULINK
platform .Finally a comparative study has been done between the performance of the two linear
controllers ,one is conventional linear controller using Synchronous Reference Frame Theory
and the other is the linear controller modified by Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory. A few
parameters have been selected for comparison like stator flux, stator current, dc-link voltage,
rotor speed and electromagnetic torque.
While conducting the comparative study it is seen that the total harmonic distortion of the
stator flux, stator current, dc-link voltage, rotor speed, electromagnetic torque of the proposed
linear controller is much lesser as compared to that of the conventional controller. Stator flux
becomes smooth and its oscillations are well damped out .Stator current oscillations are well
damped and they behave smoothly and remain in their limits. The dc-link voltage also becomes
smoother. Rotor speed and electromagnetic torque have much lesser harmonics as their
oscillations are quite damped out. So the application of Instantaneous Reactive Power theory on
the rotor side control of the linear controller of the DFIG improves its performance thereby The
simulation results presented shows good accuracy with results.
APPENDIX
AC line voltage: 415 V, 50 Hz
3 phase Transformer1:DY configuration, turns ratio= 1:1
3 phase Transformer2:DY11 configuration ,step down
Transformer
3 phase Transformer3:YY,turns ratio=1:1
Discrete PWM generator: 3 arm bridge, 6 Pulse,
Frequency =1080 Hz.
Inverter specification: 2 IGBT based 3 arm six pulse bridge
Carrier frequency =1080Hz
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Sample Time=50s
Transmission line parameter: Linelength=30km,
Frequency=50Hz
3 mutual inductance: Z1-Z0
2500MVA,X0/X1=3:1,frequency=50Hz
Grounding Transformer: Voltage=25KV(ph-ph),
turns ratio=1:1.
Filter circuit1 : Star grounded,RLC
Filter circuit2 :RL
Asynchronous machine : Rotor type=Wound, Reference
frame=rotor, Machine
type=Induction Generator
REFERENCES
[1] A. Miller, E. Muljadi, and D. Zinger, A variable speed wind turbine power control,
[2] X.G.Wu, J. B. Ekanayake, andN. Jenkins, Comparison of fixed speed and doubly-fed
induction wind turbines during power system disturbances, [3] Y. Tang and L. Xu, A flexible
active and reactive power control strategy for a variable speed constant frequency generating
system,
[4] I. Boldea, Variable Speed Generators. New York: CRC Press, Taylor& Francis, 2006.
[5]. A. Tapia, G. Tapia, J. X. Ostolaza, and J. R. Saenz, Modeling and control of a wind turbine
driven doubly fed induction generator,
[6] L. Xu and Y. Wang, Dynamic modeling and control of DFIG-based wind turbines under
unbalanced network conditions,
[7] P. W. Carlin, A. X. Laxson, and E. B. Muljadi, The History and State of the Art of VariableSpeed Wind Turbine Technology,
[8] Modelling of the Wind Turbine With a Doubly Fed Induction Generator for Grid Integration
Studies; Yazhou Lei, Alan Mullane, Gordon Lightbody.
[9] Vladislav Akhmatov, "Variable-Speed Wind Turbines with Doubly-Fed Induction
Generators, Part I: Modelling in Dynamic Simulation Tools,"
[10] M. Machmoum, R. L. Doeuff, and F. M. Sargos, Steay state analysis of a doubly fed
asynchronous machine supplied by a current controlled cycloconverter in the rotor,
[11] P. G. Holmes and N. A. Elsonbaty, Cycloconverter excited divided winding doubly fed
machine as a wind power converter,
[12] D.P. Sen Gupta and J.W. Lynn Electrical machine dynamics
[13] Transformers and Electrical Machines; Ion Boldea.
[14] A. Neris, N. Vovos, and G. Giannakopaulos, A variable speed wind energy conversion
scheme for connection to weak ac systems,
[15] Dynamic modeling of a wind turbine with doubly fed induction generator Slootweg,
J.G.Polinder, H. Kling, W.L.
250 | P a g e

[16] Instantaneous p-q Power Theory for Compensating Nonsinusoidal Systems E. H. Watanabe,
Senior Member, IEEE, H. Akagi, Fellow, IEEE and M. Aredes, Member, IEEE
[17] A Robust Control Algorithm for Self Supported Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) Parag
Kanjiya, Bhim Singh, Fellow, IEEE and P. Jayaprakash, Student Member IEEE
[18] DFIG-Based Wind Power Conversion With Grid Power Leveling for Reduced Gusts Vijay
Chand Ganti, Bhim Singh, Fellow, IEEE, Shiv Kumar Aggarwal, and Tara Chandra Kandpal
251 | P a g e
Study of Recent Development & Research Challenges in Cognitive

Radio with the growth of Wireless Communications
Moumita Majumdar1,
1
Assistant Engineer
1
Department of ECE, Surendra Institute of Engineering & Management (Siliguri), WBUT.
Email: 1majumdar.ece@gmail.com
Krishanu Mitra2,
, 2M.Tech Student, 2, 3 Department of ECE, BITM (Santiniketan), WBUT.
Email: 2kmitra007@gmail.com
Avik Chakraborty3
3
2, 3
Department of ECE, BITM (Santiniketan), WBUT.
3
Email: chakraborty.avik.ece@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Recently licensed and unlicensed frequency spectrum facing of a massive demand by the rapid
growth in wireless communications. Here cognitive radio plays an important role to overcome
poor spectrum utilization problem and increase the spectral efficiency by utilizing unused
frequency bands. Using complex calculations, cognitive radios can identify potential
impairments to communications quality in their environment, for example, interference, path
loss, shadowing and multipath fading. They can then adjust their transmitting parameters, such as
power output, frequency, and modulation to ensure an optimized communications experience for
users xG and xMax are registered trademarks of xG Technology. In this paper we have discuss
the research challenges about key functionalities of spectrum & recent development of cognitive
radio.
Keywords: Cognitive radio networks, Spectrum sensing, OFDM Based Cognitive radios,
Research Challenges in Cognitive Radio.
1. Introduction:
In Wireless communication the radio frequency spectrum is a very important medium which
make a bridge between transmitter and receiver. The government or the government aided
organization like Tele communication Regulatory Authority of India regulate and licence the
252 | P a g e

entire frequency spectrum. Under this regulation, all the frequency bands are assigned to
different purpose. A large amount of frequency of assigned spectrum does not used for the
significant purpose. To solve this inefficiency of spectrum, recently proposed a dynamic
spectrum access technique [1].
In the static spectrum allocation, almost no available band left for the future wireless network
use. However, the recent studies show that the fixed spectrum management policy enforced
today results in poor spectrum utilization. To address this problem, cognitive radio arises to be a
tempting solution to the spectral congestion problem by introducing opportunistic usage of the
frequency bands that are not heavily occupied by licensed user.
Cognitive radio networks (CNR), like xGs xMax system [2, 3], represent an innovative
approach to wireless engineering in which radios are designed with an unprecedented level of
intelligence and agility.
Cognitive radios (CR) are able to monitor, sense, and detect the
conditions of their operating environment, and dynamically reconfigure their own characteristics
to best match those conditions.
2. COGNITIVE RADIOS KEY BENEFITS:
Cognitive Radio offers optimal diversity (in frequency, power, modulation, coding, space, time,
polarization and so on which leads to:
Spectrum Efficiency- This will allow future demand for spectrum to be met and is the basic
purpose of implementing CR.
Higher bandwidth services- Demand of MBMS is constantly on the rise which will be
facilitated by the implementation of CR & Improved Quality of Service (QoS) (latency, data rate,
cost etc) Suitability, availability and reliability of wireless services will improve from the users
perspective [4].
Future-proofed product- A CR is able to change to services, protocols, modulation, spectrum
etc. without the need for a user and/or manufacturer to upgrade to a new device.
Common
hardware platform- Manufacturers will gain from economies of scale because they no longer
need to build numerous hardware variants, instead using a single common platform to run a wide
range of software. This also assists in rapid service deployment.
Benefits to the
Licensee- CR can pave the way for spectrum trading, where licensees would be allowed to lease
253 | P a g e

a portion of their spectrum rights to third parties on a temporal, spatial or other appropriate basis
to recoup some of the expense of its 24hr-a-day license and even make money [5].
3. CRN architecture design & Challenges:
CR users are able to use two different architecture. They are
1. CRN with infrastructure- Here CR base station plays an important role for all
communications. Through CR base station all the user can access licensed and unlicensed
spectrum bands they can also access the primary base station through licensed channels by only
specifying MAC (Medium Access Control) protocol with different access technology.
2. CRN without infrastructure- CR users communicates with other CR users through an ad hoc
(without infrastructure) connection on both licensed and unlicensed spectrum channels.
Fig.1 Cognitive Radio Network Architecture
There are three major challenges to design the cognitive radio network architecture
254 | P a g e

i) Interference avoidance CRNs want to use the primary network without any interference.
The spectrum sensing is monitor the available spectrum channels, detect the spectrum hole[6,7].
ii)
QoS awareness Cognitive Radio Networks want to provide QoS communication in
allocation of spectrum channels, dynamic spectrum access, and different environments and
polices. The key function spectrum decision is introduced to resolve this challenge.
iii) Seamless communication cognitive Radio Network want to provide seamless
communication to the CR users when primary network want the specific portion of the spectrum.
The key function spectrum mobility and spectrum sharing are introduced to resolve this problem.
4. Cognitive Radio Capabilities:
a) SPECTRUM SENSING:
Spectrum sensing is the ability to measure, sense and be aware of the parameters related to the
radio channel characteristics, availability of spectrum and transmit power, interference and noise,
radios operating environment, user requirements and applications, available networks
(infrastructures) and nodes, local policies and other operating restrictions. It is done across
Frequency, Time, Geographical Space, Code and Phase.
b) Spectrum Analysis:
Spectrum Analysis is based on spectrum sensing which is analyzing the situation of several
factors in the external and internal radio environment (such as radio frequency spectrum use by
neighbouring devices, user behaviour and network state) and finding the optimal communication
protocol and changing frequency or channel accordingly. It is also known as channel estimation.
c) Spectrum Decision Making:
Spectrum Decision Making calls for reconfiguration for the channel and protocol required for
constantly adapting to mobile changing environments and adjustment of output power or even
alteration of transmission parameters (such as modulation formats (e.g. low to high order QAM),
variable symbol rates, different channel coding schemes) and characteristics by the Cognitive
radio devices. CR should be able to use multiple antennas for interference nulling, capacity
increase or range extension.
Spectrum Sensing Methods:
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A number of different methods are proposed for identifying the presence of signal transmission
all of which are in early development stage. They are:
i)
Energy Detection Based
ii)
Waveform Based
iii)
Cyclostationary Based
iv)
Radio Identification Based
v)
Matched filtering Based
All above are Non-cooperative spectrum sensing techniques. There is some cooperative
cognitive radio spectrum sensing system also there where sensing will be undertaken by a
number of different radios within a cognitive radio network [7]. For example (a) Centralized (b)
Distributed (c) Relay- Assisted which shown in Fig.2
Fig
.2- Classification of Cooperative Sensing (a) Centralized (b)Distributed (c) Relay Assisted
5. OFDM BASED COGNITIVE RADIO:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) signal can be considered as group of
narrow band signals, and by increasing the number of subcarriers, the bandwidth of each
Subcarrier becomes narrower.
By choosing the subcarrier spacing to be less than the coherence bandwidth of the channel, each
subcarrier is going to be affected by a flat channel and thus no channel equalization is
needed[8,9].
a) Issues of concern in OFDM:
Mutual interference should be carefully considered when designing cognitive radio systems.
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Spectrum sensing and shaping using OFDM is shown in Fig.3.The side lobes of modulated
OFDM subcarriers are known to be large. As a result, there will be power leakage from used
subcarriers to nulled subcarriers which causes interference to the licensed users. One method is
to make the sinc decay faster by windowing the time domain OFDM sample.
Fig.3 - Spectrum sensing and shaping using OFDM

b) Advantages of using OFDM with CR:
Efficient Spectrum Utilization- Waveform can be easily shaped by simply turning off
some subcarriers, where primary users exist.
Spectrum sensing-Inherent FFT Operation of OFDM eases spectrum sensing in frequency
domain [10].
Advanced antenna Techniques-MIMO techniques are commonly used with OFDM
mainly because of the reduced equalizer complexity.
Adaptation / Scalability Parameters includes- FFT size subcarrier spacing, CP size,
modulation, coding, subcarrier power.
Multiple accessing & spectral allocation- Support for multiuser access is already
inherited in the system.
Interoperability WLAN, WMAN, WRAN, WPAN all use OFDM as their PHY
techniques.
6. RESEARCH CHALLENGES:
Although cooperative sensing improves detection accuracy, it increases network traffic, resulting
in higher latency in collecting information due to channel contention and packet retransmissions.
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Other then, each cooperating user may have different sensing accuracy due to its location. Thus,
cognitive radio networks are required to consider this factor to find an optimal operating point.
The multi-user environment, consisting of multiple CR users and primary users, makes it more
difficult to sense spectrum holes and estimate interference. Hence, spectrum sensing functions
should be developed considering the multi-user environment [11].
In CRNs, multiple spectrum bands can be used simultaneously used for transmission.
Moreover, the cognitive radio networks do not require the selected multiple bands to contiguous.
If primary user appears in a particular spectrum band, the CR user has to vacate this band.
However, since the rest of spectrum bands will be maintain the communication. Currently,
certain spectrum bands are assigned to different purposes, whereas some bands remain
unlicensed. Thus, a CR network should support spectrum decision operations on both the
licensed and unlicensed bands.
A Common Control Channel (CCC) facilitates many spectrum sharing functionalities.
However, because a channel must be vacated when a primary user chooses a channel,
implementation of a fixed CCC is infeasible. Moreover, in a cognitive radio networks a channel
common to all users is highly dependents on topology and varies over time. Consequently, either
CCC mitigation techniques must be exploited for clusters of nodes. The CR ad hoc user
determines transmission power in a distributed manner without support of the central entity,
which may cause interference due to the limitation of sensing area even if it does not detect any
transmission in its observation range [12].Thus, spectrum sharing necessitates sophisticated
power control methods for adapting to time varying radio environment so as to minimize
capacity with the protection of the transmission of Primary users.
Once, the best available spectrum is selected. The next challenge is to design new mobility
and connection management approaches to reduce delay and loss during spectrum handoff. The
available bands also changes as a user moves from one place to another. Hence, continuous
allocation of spectrum is a major challenge in cognitive radio network.
7. CONCLUSION:
The problem of spectrum scarcity and inefficiency in spectrum usage are addressed by the newly
emerging cognitive radio paradigm that allow radios to opportunistically transmit in the vacant
258 | P a g e

portions of the spectrum already assigned to licensed users. The architecture and spectrum key
functionalities of cognitive radio networks are described in this research work. Also research
challenges in the different spectrum aspects of cognitive radio network are described. However,
to ensure efficient spectrum communication, more research is required along lines introduced in
this study. This cognitive radio network leaves wide open research to meet these demanding
applications.
8. REFERENCES:
[1] Samuel Cheng Foundation of cognitive radio systems, 2012, Janeza Trdine in Croatia.
[2] H. Zheng and L. Cao Device-centric spectrum management, IEEE DySPAN, Nov. 2005, pp. 56-65.
[3] R. Menen, R. M. Buehrer and J. H. Reed Outage probability based comparison of underlay and
overlay spectrum sensing techniques IEEE DySPAN, Nov. 2005, pp. 101-109.
[4] X. Lin and S. Shankar Sensing-based opportunistic channel access, Mobile Networks and
Applications, 2006, pp. 577-591.
[5] S. Geirthor, L. Tong, and B. Sadler A measurement-based model for dynamic spectrum access in
WLAN channels IEEE Military communication conference, Washington, D.C., USA, Oct 2006.
[6] Joe Evans, U. Kansas Gary Minden, U. Kansas Ed Knightly Technical Document on Cognitive
Radio Networks IEEE Communications, Sep. 2006.
[7] J. Mitola III Cognitive radio: an integrated agent architecture for software defined radio, Ph.D.
Thesis, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2000.
[8] SIDDHARTH JAIN and RAVI BAID JAIN SPECTRUM SENSING METHODS IN COGNITIVE
RADIO B.Tech Thesis, National Institute of Technology,Rourkela,2011.
[9] S. Haykin Cognitive Radio: brain empowered wireless communications IEEE Journal on Selected
Areas in Communications, Feb 2005, pp. 201-220.
[10] I. F. Akyildiz et al Next Generation/Dynamic Spectrum Access/ Cognitive Radio Wireless
Networks: A Survey, Elsevier Computer. Networks J, Sept 2006, pp. 2127-2159.
[11] Chao Chen, Yu-Dong Yao Investigation of Primary User Emulation Attacks in Cognitive Radio
Networks Ph.D. dissertation, Stevens Institute of Technology 2010.
[12] Federal Communications Commission Notice of proposed rulemaking and order: Facilitating
opportunities for flexible, efficient, and reliable spectrum use employing cognitive radio technologies ET
Docket No. 03-108, Feb 2005.
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Structural Relationship between Destination Image, Tourist

Satisfaction and Destination Loyalty: Model development

Assistant .Professor, Dept. of Business Management
E.mail- baksi.arup@gmail.com
Nibir Khawash
Lecturer, Dept.of Management
Camellia School of Business Management
E.mail- khawashnibir@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Destination image has been apprehended to be critical in moulding tourist satisfaction which, in
the long run, culminates into destination loyalty. The paper investigates the relative importance
of destination image on tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty and focuses on developing a
structural model for testing.
Keywords: Destination image, Tourist satisfaction, Destination loyalty
1. Introduction
India has several main varieties of cultural tourism destination in different areas of the country,
like: a) Monumental heritage related with art and architecture b) the religious heritage c) the
natural heritage d) traditional arts and crafts e) music and dance.
In Santiniketan, West
Bengal(WB) has all the above mentioned varieties of cultural tourism destinations and for that
reason, foreign tourists (especially Asian) love to visit this places to must have a profound
cultural impact in broadest sense, where all tourism destinations in India involves at least an
aspect of cultural contact and is therefore potentially cultural tourism. Thus tourism in India is a
very vital component to play as a foreign exchange earner. Tourism is the largest service industry
in India, with a contribution of 6.23% to the national GDP and 8.78% of the total employment in
India. The number of Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) in India during 2010 increased to 5.78
million as compared to 5.17 million in 2009. The growth rate of 11.8% in 2010 for India was
260 | P a g e

better than UNWTOs projected growth rate of 5% to 6% for the world in 2010. Tourism
continues to play an important role as a foreign exchange earner for the country. In 2010, foreign
exchange earnings (FEE) from tourism were US$ 14.19 billion as compared to US$ 11.39 billion
in 2009, registering a growth of 24.6%. Tourist satisfaction is a measure of how a service
supplied by a company meets or surpasses clients expectation. It is seen as a key performance
indicator within business and is an indication of how successful the company is at providing
products and or services to the market. Customer satisfaction is a conceptual concept and the
actual happening of the state of satisfaction will vary from person to person, product to product
and also service to service. In a competitive market where business competes for customers,
customer satisfaction is considered a key element of business strategy (Gitman & McDaniel,
2005). Tourist destinations with multiple attractions have become more important than individual
attractions as a result of better highways and state roads & various service provider for travelers
over the past one decades in Santiniketan. As a result, short holidays during the weekends seem
to be favored by the locals with multiple vacation experiences. Thus, much effort is needed to
establish and improve strategic marketing and operating procedures by the managers with the
aim to influence and bring in more visitors among competing destinations. To develop strategic
and tactical marketing plans, it is crucial for managers to deeply understand the stimulus factors
and dimensions of tourist behavior. The understanding of this process is viable to reposition
unfavorable destinations and improve higher demand and supply of repeat visits with the
intention to make profit. Constant improvements are made to develop a unique destination in
order to deliver satisfaction. To gain satisfaction, tourists have to be satisfied with all the services
they should receive. Satisfied visitors will surely repeat their visits to the same destinations.
However, visitors attitudes and behavior are difficult to predict and measure, hence making it
difficult to create an effective travel motivations and emotional promotions image. The need to
build strong and consistent images as a long term entity will eventually create a strong
perception towards the destinations. This study is to explore and hypothesized the relevant causal
relationships on travel destination image, tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Destination
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Image

Destination image is a mental perception made by tourists through multiple sources of
information. There are many ways that image is built upon however, there is no specific
agreements among researchers since most empirical investigation were derived mostly from
factor analysis. Furthermore, the measurement scales of destination image are made up of too
many tough factors (Coban, 2012). The literature examination results points out that the principal
contents in determining the formation of destination image are innate, attainable, cultural
resources, and security cannot be denied to strengthen the result. However, Baloglu & McCleary
(1999), Lobato et al. (2006) and Prayang (2008) claim that there are two main elements of
image; the cognitive image and affective image (emotions). Cognitive image was described as
the beliefs and information that visitors have about a place. This element evaluates the
community who live in that place and the events happening in that place. Affective image
evaluates and describes what visitors feel about the place. It is about the like and dislike of the
destination. Emotional image that people have about the destination, such as knowledge, beliefs
and thoughts can be said to be connected to the cognitive image (Coban, 2012). Hence, the vast
differences among destination image are the different uniqueness, culture, and bonded either by
human made or natural environment. Fredericks & Salter (1995) view that image is an ingredient
of the customer value package that comes in together with price, product quality, service quality,
innovations and determines the extent of loyalty. Eskildsen et al. (2004) also concludes that
image determines the influence of perceived value, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty. A
favorable image is viewed as a critical aspect of a companys ability to maintain its market
position in the competitive industry.
2.2 Tourist Satisfaction
Tourist satisfaction is defined as the degree of positive feelings activated from the experience at
the destination. The main focus of evaluating satisfaction is the increase in itself when customers
compare their sensations to their initial expectations with the disconfirmation theory (Yuksel
&Yuksel, 2002;Prayang, 2008).This theory reveals that customers would compare between
performance of the destination organization and their expectations through information that
they have received such as promotions and word-of-mouth. A satisfied tourist would be happy
when he perceives a higher service performance than the service expectation. However, if the
perceived service performance is lower than the service expectation, it is considered as
262 | P a g e

discontentedness of the customers experience (Coban, 2012). Literature has proven that satisfied
customers will always want to buy more. However, a number of scholars have noticed a high
customer defection despite of high satisfaction rating (Oliver, 1999). This phenomena, has led
scholars to look into what goes beyond satisfaction. Recently, satisfaction measurement has been
displaced by customers loyalty since it is seen as a better predictor of actual behavior (Chi &
Qu, 2008). They also found that there are statistically significant relationships between
destination image, overall satisfaction and destination loyalty. Yuksel (2007) also supported that
the existence of tourists shopping satisfaction has a direct effect on loyalty intention.
2.3 Destination Loyalty
Loyalty refers as committed behavior that is manifested by propensity to participate in a
particular recreation service (Backman &Crompton, 1991). Researchers do agree that destination
loyalty emphasizes on longitudinal perspective. It is about looking at lifelong visitation behavior
of travelers rather than just a cross-sectional perspective in which todays visitation might not
necessarily to be related to previous visit. Destination loyalty is desired by destination providers,
because it secures the relationship between visitors and destination providers when the visitors
are faced with increasingly attractive destination competitive offers, or by their own
shortcomings. Loyal visitors are more likely to identify, have trust in, and be committed to the
destinations that they prefer when faced with adversity. Further, if there is an error made
in the provision of the destination, loyalty travelers or the visitors are willing to give a second
chance to the destination provider. According to Weiner (2000) loyal customers will generally
attribute service errors to unstable factors (i.e. uncontrollable factors) instead of factors that are
controlled by the destination provider, thus remaining loyal in spite of dissatisfying experiences
by the visitors. According to Lobata et al. (2006), the measurement of loyalty can be classified
into two; firstly, it is about tourist attitude on repeat purchasing, and secondly, on tourist
tendency towards tourism destination. This is a more complete measurement since it includes the
two elements of tourist attitude and tourist manner towards a destination.
2.3 Research gap identified
Literatures remained inconclusive about impact of destination image on tourist satisfaction and
that tourist satisfaction has an influence on destination loyalty. Destination loyalty created
263 | P a g e

through positive impact of tourist satisfaction & which creates from destination image has also
remained unexplored.
2.4 Formulation of hypotheses and research model framework
H 1: Destination image has a direct positive influence on tourist satisfaction.
H 2: Tourist satisfaction has a direct positive influence on destination loyalty.
H 3: Destination image has a direct positive influence on destination loyalty.
3 Research Methodology
The study seeks to identify the structural relationships between the Destination Image, Tourist
Satisfaction and Destination Loyalty. Based on the hypotheses identified, the following structural
model has been developed:
Tourist
satisfaction
Destination image
Destination
loyalty
Fig.1: Structural model involving the variables
Conclusion
The structural model developed on the basis of literature reviewed and research gap identified
thereof may be tested for robustness through structural equation modeling (SEM) approach by
using a confirmatory factor analysis test to check for the fit indices of the factors. The model
may be further extrapolated by taking into consideration a number of moderating variables
relevant to induce effects on the link addressed in the title.
References
[1] Jamaludin,Mazlina. Johari,Shazali. Aziz,Azlizam. Kayat, Kalsum. Raheem Mohamad Yusof,
Abdul .(July, 2012).Examining Structural Relationship between Destination Image, Tourist
Satisfaction and Destination Loyalty. International Journal of Independent Research and Studies
IJIRS. Vol. 1, No.3, 89-9.
264 | P a g e

[2] Ghosh Prosenjit & Sofique M.A. (November 2012), Tourist Satisfaction with Cultural
Heritage destinations in India: with special reference to Kolkata, West Bengal. Asian Journal of
Multidimensional Research Vol.1 Issue 6. Gitman/Mcdaniel's (2005)the Best of the Future of
Business: The Essentials [0-324-32217-8] Gitman.
[3] Backman, S. J., & Crompton, J. L. (1991).The usefulness of selected variables for predicting
activity loyalty. Leisure Sciences, 13, 205-220.
[4] Baloglu, S. (1999).A path analytic model of visitation intention involving information
sources, sociopsychological motivation, and destination image. Journal of Travel & Tourism
Marketing, 8(3), 81-90.
[5] Balogly, S., & McCleary, K. W. (1999). A Model of destination image formation. Annals of
[6] Bigne, J., Sanchez, M., & Sanchez, J. (2001). Tourism image, evaluation variables and after
purchase behavior: Inter-relationships. Tourism Management, 22(6), 607-616.
[7] Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications
and programming. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey.
[8] Chen, C. F., & Tsai, D. (2007). How destination image and evaluative factors affect
behavioural intentions? Tourism Management, 28, 1115-1122.
[9] Chi, C., & Qu, H. (2008). Examining the structural relationships of destination image and
destination loyalty: An integrated approach. Tourism Management, 29, 624-636.[10]
[10] Coban, S. (2012). The effects of the Image of Destination on Tourist Satisfaction and
Loyalty: The Case of Cappadocia. European Journal of Social Sciences, 29(2), 222-232.
[11] Echtner, C. M., & Ritchie J.R. B. (1993). The measurement of destination image: An
empirical assessment. Journal of Travel Research, 31(4), 3-13.
[12] Eskilden, J., Kristensen, K., Juhl, J., & Ostergaard, P. (2004). The drivers of customer
satisfaction and loyalty: The case of Denmark 2000-2002. Total Quality Management, 15(5/6),
859-868
[13] Fredericks, J. O., & Salter, J.M. II (1995). Beyond customer satisfaction. Management
Review, 84(5), 29-32.
[14] Hair, J. F, Black, W. C., Babin. B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010).Multivariate data analysis
(7th edition). Pretice-Hall International, USA.
[15] Lobato, L. H., Radilla, M. M. S., Tena, M. A. M., & Garcia, J. S. (2006).Tourism
Destination Image, Satisfaction and Loyalty: A study in Ixtapa Zihuataneho, Mexico. Tourism
Geographies, 8, 343-358.
[16] Lee. T. H. (2009). A structural model to examine how destination image, attitude and
motivation affect the future behavior of tourist. Leisure Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Journal,
31(1), 215-236.
[17] Lee, C., Lee, Y., & Wicks, B. (2004).Segmentation of festival motivation by nationality and
satisfaction.Tourism Management, 25(1), 61-70.
[18] Mahadzirah, M., Abdul M. A., & Nur I, A. G. (2011). A structural model of destination
image, touristssatisfaction and destination loyalty. International Journal of Business and
Management Studies, 3(2), 167-177.
[19] Martin, H. S., & Rodriguez , B. I. A. (2008). Exploring the cognitive-affective nature of
destination image and the role of psychological factors in its formation. Tourism Management,
29(2), 263-277.
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[20] Murphy, L. (1999). Australias image as a holiday destination: Perceptions of backpacker
visitors. Journal of Travel and Tourism Management, 3(3), 21-45.
[21] Nikhashemi, S. R., Yasmin, F., Khatibi, A. (2011). Study On Customer Perception Towards
Online- Ticketing In Malaysia. Indian Journal of Commerce & Management Studies, 2(6), 3-13.
Oliver, R. L. (1999). Whence consumer Loyalty? Journal of Marketing, 63 (special issue), pp.
3345.
[22] Prayang, G. (2008). Image, satisfaction and loyalty The case of Cape Town, Anatolia. An
International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 19(2), 205-224.
[23] Tasci, A. D. A., & Gartner, W. C. (2007).Destination image and its functional relationship.
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[24] Weiner, B. (2000). Attributional thoughts about consumer behavior, Journal of Consumer
Research, 27,382-387.
[25] Yoon, Y. & Uysal, M. (2005).An examination of the effects of motivation and satisfaction
on destination loyalty: A Structural Model. Tourism Management, 26, 45-56.
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External Satisfaction amongst Hotel Customers in Malaysia. International Journal of Economics
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expressed loyalty intentions. Tourism Management, 28(3): 703713.
[28] Yuksel, A., & Yuksel, F. (2002).Measument of tourist satisfaction with restaurant services:
A segmentbased approach. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9(1), 52-68.
266 | P a g e
Least Square Curve fitting of heat and mass transfer rate

with Rayleigh number in a cavity lled with porous media
with non-uniform boundary condition
Dr. Sabyasachi Mondal
Department of Mathematics, Bengal Institute of Technology and Management, Santiniketan-731
236, West Bengal, India
Email: sabya.mondal.2007@gmail.com
Abstract
Least Square Curve Fitting of average Nusselt number and average Sherwood number with
Rayleigh number of a non-uniformly heated and concentrated cavity lled with porous media are
analyzed in this paper. It is assumed that the left vertical wall and bottom wall are heated and
concentrated (uniformly and non-uniformly), while the other vertical wall is maintained at a
constant cold temperature and the top wall is well insulated. The governing equations are solved
numerically using staggered grid nite-dierence method for local Nusselt number, local
Sherwood number, average Nusselt number and average Sherwood number for various values of
Rayleigh number. The values of coecient and power with Standard Error of Least Square
Curve tting formula of average Nusselt number or Sherwood number with Rayleigh number at
bottom and left vertical walls for uniform and non-uniform boundary conditions are described
here. The results are compared with previously published work and excellent agreement has been
obtained.
Key words: Double-diusive convection; Finite-dierence method; Non-uniformly heated and
concentrated; Least Square Curve Fitting.
1. Introduction
Fluid ow, heat and mass transfer induced by double-diusive natural convection in uid
saturated porous media have practical importance in many engineering applications. This aspect
of uid dynamics has gained considerable attention in recent years among the researchers.
Migration of moisture in brous insulation, drying processes, chemical reactors, transport of contaminants in saturated soil and electro-chemical processes are some examples of double-diusive
natural convection phenomena. Double-diusion occurs in a wide range of scientic elds such
as oceanography, astrophysics, geology, biology and chemical processes. So, the researchers
267 | P a g e

have keen interest in the study of heat and mass transfer in enclosure and cavity. Doublediusive natural convection in cavities has been subject to an intensive research due to its
importance in various engineering and geophysical problems. This includes nuclear reactors,
solar ponds, geothermal reservoirs, solar collectors, crystal growth in liquids, electronic cooling
and chemical processing equipments.
The numerical investigation of natural convection in a porous trapezoidal enclosures has been
performed for uniformly or non-uniformly heated bottom wall by Basak et al. [1]. Teamah [2]
studied double-diusive convective ow in a rectangular enclosure with the upper and lower
surfaces being insulated and impermeable by imposing constant temperature and concentration
along the left and right walls of the enclosure and a uniform magnetic eld was applied in a
horizontal direction. Minkowycz et al. [3] discovered that the discontinuity can be avoided by
choosing a non-uniform temperature distribution along the walls (i.e. non-uniformly heated
walls), in an investigation on mixed convection ow over a vertical plate, which is nonuniformly heated /cooled. Roy and Basak [4] solved the nonlinear coupled partial dierential
equations for ow and temperature elds with both uniform and non-uniform temperature
distributions prescribed at the bottom wall and at one vertical wall. Karimi-Fard et al [5] studied
a numerical study of double diusive natural convection in a cavity lled with porous medium.
Recently, Mahapatra et al. [6] numerically examined the eects of buoyancy ratio and thermal
Rayleigh number on double diusive natural convection in a cavity when boundaries are
uniformly and non-uniformly heated and concentrated.
The aim of the present investigation is to study the local Nusselt number, average Nusselt
number, local Sherwood number and average Sherwood number when the bottom wall and left
vertical wall are heated and concentrated (uniformly and non-uniformly), right vertical wall is
cooled by means of a constant temperature and top wall is well insulated. The values of
coecient and power with Standard Error of Least Square Curve tting formula of average
Nusselt number or Sherwood number with Rayleigh number at bottom and left vertical walls for
uniform and non-uniform boundary conditions have been analyzed here.
2. Governing equations and boundary conditions
An unsteady-state two-dimensional square cavity of height L as shown in Fig.1 is considered. It
268 | P a g e

is assumed that the top wall is considered to be adiabatic. The bottom wall and left vertical wall
are heated (uniformly and non-uniformly) and right vertical wall is cooled by means of a
constant temperature. The thermophysical properties of the uid are assumed to be constant
except the density variation in the buoyancy force, which is approximated according to the
Boussinesq approximation. This variation, due to both temperature and concentration gradients,
can be described by the following equation:
= 0[1 T (T Tc) S(C Cc)]
(1)
where T and S are the thermal and concentration expansion coecients, respectively. In the
cartesian coordinate system, the fundamental governing equations are as follows:
where, X and Y are the distances measured along the horizontal and vertical directions
respectively; U and V are velocity components in the X-and Y directions respectively; T and C
denote the temperature and concentration respectively; , and D are kinematic viscosity,
thermal diusivity and mass diusivity respectively; P is the pressure and is the density; T h
269 | P a g e

and Tc are the temperatures at the hot and cold walls respectively; Ch and Cc are the
concentrations at the hot and cold walls respectively; L is the side of the square cavity. We now
introduce dimensionless variables given as follows:
Here x and y are dimensionless coordinates along the horizontal and vertical directions
respectively; u and v are dimensionless velocity components in the x-and y-directions
respectively; and S denote the dimensionless temperature and concentration respectively; p is
the dimensionless pressure parameter. Using these dimensionless variables, we obtain the
following dimensionless governing equations from the equations (2) (6):
270 | P a g e

The dimensionless boundary conditions are
w
t = 0 for 0 : x, y : 1:
HereheN, Le, Pr, GrC, GrT, Ra and Da are buoyancy ratio, Lewis number, Prandtl number, solutal
n
Grashof number, thermal Grashof number, Rayleigh number and Darcy number respectively.
u(x, y) = 0 = v(x, y),
(22)
The heat transfer coecient in terms of the local Nusselt number
(Nu)
is
Nu
=
()/(n),
where
(x, y) = 0, S(x, y) = 0,
(23)
w
t > 0 forat0the
: x,left
y : 1:
n denotes
the normal direction to a plane. The local Nusselt number
vertical wall and
he
bottom
n walls are dened as
u(x, 1) = u(x, 0) = u(0, y) = u(1, y) = 0,
(24)
Nul = ()/ (x) |x=0 and Nub= ()/ (y) |y=0
v(x, 0) = v(x, 1) = v(0, y) = v(1, y) = 0,
(25)
(x, 0) = 1 o (x, 0) = sin(x), y (x, 1) = 0,

(26)
The average Nusselt numbers at the bottom wall and left vertical wall are given by,
r
(0, y) = 1 o (0, y) = sin(y), (1, y) = 0,
(27)
r
S
S(x,
0)
=
1
o
S(x,
0)
=
sin(x),
y
(x,
1)
=
0,
(28)
The local Sherwood number at the left vertical wall and bottom walls are dened as
r
Shl= (S)/ (x) |x=0 and Shb = (S)/ (y) |y=0.The average Sherwood numbers at the
S(0, y) = 1 o S(0, y) = sin(y), S(1, y) = 0.
(29)
r
Where
271 | P a g e
GrT
= gT (Th Tc)L3/2, GrC = gS(Ch

Cc)L3/2 , (30)

bottom wall and left vertical wall are given by,
3.
Solution procedure
Now the iteration process is described [7] to obtain the solutions of the basic equations with
appropriate boundary conditions. In the derivation of pressure-Poisson equation, the divergence
n
term at n-th time level (Dij ) is retained and evaluated in the pressure-Poisson iteration. It is done
n
because the discretized form of divergence of velocity eld, i.e, Dij is not guaranteed to be zero
initially.
The solution procedure starts with the initializing the velocity eld. This is done either from the
result of previous cycle or from the prescribed initial and boundary conditions. Using this
velocity eld pressure-Poisson equation is solved using Bi-CG-Stab method. Knowing the
pressure eld, equation for umomentum, vmomentum, temperature and concentration (see
Fig. 2) are updated to get u, v, and S at (n + 1)th time level. Then using the values of u and v at
(n+1) th time level, the value of the divergence of velocity eld is obtained and checked for its
5
limit. If its absolute value is less than 0.510 and steady state is reached then iteration process
stops, otherwise pressure-Poisson equation is solved again for pressure.
4. Results and discussion
Grid independence test is provided in Table 1 for various grid sizes when Pr =0.7, Le =2.0, N =
3
1, Da = 10 and Ra = 10 . It is important to note that as the number of grid points are increased,
the number of iterations required for getting the converged results for | min | drastically
increases. But when the number of grid points increases from 80 80 to 160 160, no
signicant change found in the value of | min |. Hence, all the results are computed taking 80
80 grid points.
A Comparison of the average Nusselt number at the hot wall (x = 0) in absence of
concentration equation, thermal radiation and heat generation of the generalized model in the
272 | P a g e

6
non-Darcian regime with same boundary conditions and N =0,Pr =1, Da = 10 , =0.4 is made
with Nithiarasu et al. [8], Medeiros et al. [9] and Mahapatra et al. [10] for various values of
Rayleigh number in Table 2. It is noted from this table that an average Nusselt number increases
with increase in the value of Rayleigh number and from this table it is observed that a very good
agreement has been obtained with the previously published results.
Tables 3 and 4 show a least square curve tting of average Nusselt number and average
Sherwood number with Rayleigh number at bottom and left vertical walls for uniform and nonuniform boundary conditions. The tted model is of the form,
The values of coecient and power with Standard Error of Least Square Curve tting
formula of average Nusselt number or Sherwood number with Rayleigh number at bottom and
left vertical walls for uniform and non-uniform boundary conditions when Pr =0.7, Le =2.0, Da =
3
10 and N = 1 is found from Tables 3 and 4. The following relation are obtained for cases a and
b (for uniform boundary conditions) and c and d (for non-uniform boundary conditions) as
follows:
Case a:
273 | P a g e
It is observed from the Tables 3 and 4 that the standard error of estimation is very low, so the
relation obtained for average Nusselt number and average Sherwood number as function of
Rayleigh number would result into almost same values as obtained from numerical computation
of the set of dierential equations with appropriate boundary conditions. Thus it is interesting to
found that without wasting much time on computation, relations from Eqs. (83) to (86) can well
be used for estimating average Nusselt and average Sherwood number for various values of
Rayleigh number.
Conclusion
The main objective of the current investigation is to study the Least Square Curve Fitting of
average Nusselt number and average Sherwood number with Rayleigh number of a nonuniformly heated and concentrated cavity lled with porous media. Least Square Curves are
tted of average Nusselt number and average Sherwood number with Rayleigh number when Pr
3
=0.7, Le =2.0, Da = 10
and N = 1 at the bottom and left vertical walls for uniform and non-
uniform boundary conditions and the standard errors are calculated.
274 | P a g e

References :
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
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M.A. Teamah, Numerical simulation of double diusive natural convection in rectangular enclosure
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Transfer, Wiley, New York, 1988.
S. Roy and T. Basak, Finite element analysis of natural convection ows in a square cavity with
non-uniformly heated wall(s), Int. J. Engineering Science 43 (2005) 668-680.
M. Karimi-Fard, M.C. Charrier-Mojtabi and K. Vafai, Non-Darcian effects on double-diusive
convection within a porous medium, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications, 31 (1997) 837852.
T.R. Mahapatra, D. Pal and S. Mondal, Eects of buoyancy ratio on double-diusive natural
convection in a lid-driven cavity, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 57 (2013) 771-785.
T.R. Mahapatra, G.C. Layek and M.K. Maiti, Unsteady laminar separated ow through constricted
channel, Int. J. Non-linear Mechanics, 37 (2002) 171186.
P. Nithiarasu, K.N. Seetharamu, T. Sundarararjan, Natural convective heat transfer in a uid
saturated variable porosity medium, Int. J. Heat Mass Trans., 40 (1997) 39553967.
J.M. Medeiros, F. Marcondes, J.M. Gurgel, Natural convection in a porous cavity using the
generalized model with uniform porosity, XV Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering, in
CD-ROM, Aguas de Lindoia, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1999.
T.R. Mahapatra, D. Pal and S. Mondal, Non-Darcian natural convection and radiation in a cavity
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223237.
Table 1.
3
3
Grid independence test when Pr =0.7, Le =2.0, N = 1, Da = 10 and Ra = 10 .
Table 2.
Comparison of average Nusselt number NuH |x=0 in absence of concentration equation,
thermal radiation and heat generation of the generalized model in the non-Darcian regime
6
with same boundary conditions and N =0,Pr =1, Da = 10 , =0.4.
275 | P a g e
Table 3.
Computed values of coecient and power with Standard Error of least square curve
tting formula of average Nusselt number with Rayleigh number at bottom and left
vertical walls for uniform and non-uniform boundary conditions when Pr = 0.7, Le =2.0,
3
Da = 10 and N =1.
Table 4.
Computed values of coecient and power with Standard Error of least square curve
tting formula of average Sherwood number with Rayleigh number at bottom and left
vertical walls for uniform and non-uniform boundary conditions when Pr = 0.7, Le =2.0,
3
Da = 10 and N =1.
276 | P a g e
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the physical system.
Fig. 2. Control volume for u-momentum, v-momentum, temperature and concentration

equations.
277 | P a g e
Customer Relationship Management and Service Quality on

Tourism: Application of Structural Equation Modeling
E.mail- baksi.arup@gmail.com
and
Tapas Kumar Das
E.mail- tapas_bhm@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Service quality and Customer relationship management has been postulated to be pivotal factors
to satisfy customers in service industry. This paper focuses on modeling these two variables in
the perspective of tourism industry.
Key words: service quality, customer relationship management, tourism
Introduction
Customer relationship management (CRM), an offshoot and spin-off to relationship marketing,
has been observed as a continuous paradigmatic shift in managing relationship with customers
by identifying the changing notions of customer attitudes, perceptions and behavioural
manifestations in the context of their apprehension and expectation to be served as (Peppers and
Rogers, 2004). Conceptually, CRM evolved from three basic foundations of marketing
management: (a) customer orientation, (b) relationship marketing and (c) database marketing
(Yim et al, 2004). Adoption, practice and implementation of CRM gained momentum among
academicians and corporate houses (Gruen et al, 2000; Rigby and Ledingham, 2004; Srivastava
et al, 1999; Thomas et al, 2004). CRM has been widely used by the sales personnel in
augmenting their relationship with the customers (Widmier et al, 2002) to improve sales
forecasting, lead management and customization (Rigby and Ledingham, 2004). Inspite of its
wide application, CRM, lacked a cohesive definition and identification of its dimensions. Yim
278 | P a g e

(2002) provided some conceptual clarity of CRM by synthesizing the literatures (Crosby and
Johnson, 2001; Fox and Stead, 2001; Ryals and Knox, 2001) pertaining to marketing, technology
and management and came out with four key focal areas: (a) strategy, (b) people, (c) processes
and (d) technology. Day (2003) confirmed that the key focal factors identified by Yim (2002)
can create a synergistic relationship value when they work in unison (rather than in isolate),
thereby conforming to the objective and realm of CRM. Study of extant literatures revealed that
implementation of CRM necessarily involved four specific activities: (a) focusing on key
customers (Schmid and Weber, 1998; Srivastava et al, 1999; Sheth et al, 2000; Ryals and Knox,
2001; Armstrong and Kotler, 2003; Vandermerwe, 2004; Srinivasan et al, 2002, Jain and Singh,
2002) which encompassed the view of a customer-centric organizational structure with dyadic
interactive points targeted towards identification of key or valued customers through lifetime
value computations, (b) organizing around CRM (Brown, 2000; Homburg et al, 2000; Ahmed
and Rafique, 2003) which emphasized on customer-centric organizational functions with an
objective to ensure value proposition to customers, (c) managing knowledge (Peppard, 2000; ,
Freeland, 2003; Stefanou et al, 2003; Stringfellow et al, 2004, Yim et al, 2004; Plessis and Boon,
2004; Brohman et al, 2003) whereby customer-information are effectively transformed into
customer-knowledge and disseminated across the organizational hierarchy which will equip
salespeople with better understanding of customers requirements and (d) adopting CRM-based
technology (Butler, 2000; Pepperd, 2000; Vrechopoulos, 2004; Widmier et al, 2002) to optimize
communication with customers, accurate service delivery with back-up and supportive
information, managing customer-knowledge by data warehousing and data mining and providing
customized services.
However, CRM dimensions, in the context of tourism industry, have been modified (Baksi,
2014, Baksi, 2013) to incorporate destination and purpose to travel denominations.
There have been numerous studies relevant to service quality, focused on service equality
measurement and instrument development but a few studies on service quality on tourism.
Marketing researchers have made attempts to measure service quality since the 1980s.
Further, these qualities influenced the image the customers had and this image had an effect
on the process from expected quality to perceived quality. Parsuraman et al. (1985) conducted
qualitative research with twelve focus sections and several executives. They found that the
279 | P a g e

subjects showed a similar pattern of perceived service quality with discrepancy between
their expectation and actual service performance. Based on these findings, they proposed
a conceptual model containing five gaps. Consequentially, Parasuraman et al. (1988) later
introduced the SERVQUAL instrument including 22 items in five dimensions: reliability,
tangibles, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Even though this instrument has been
used in various studies, the SERVQUAL has received many criticisms from other scholars
(e.g., Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Peter, Churchill, & Brown, 1993). The major concern about the
SERVQUAL was its use of measurement with different scores which resulted in different
numbers of factor dimensions, improper managerial approaches, and conceptual problems
(Brady, 1997). Carman (1990) and Cronin and Taylor (1992) have argued that the
performance- only measure increases variance when they removed the expectation measure.
Based on this result, Cronin and Taylor (1994) suggested the use of SERVPERF by arguing
that only the performance part of the SERVQUAL should be included. Another weakness
was that SERVQUAL did not include an outcome dimension. Even though service process
has been emphasized, no attention has been paid to what customers achieved after
receiving a service.
Despite many efforts and debates, there has been no consensus on the measure of service
quality across industries. In order to overcome this problem, Dabholkar et al.(1996) presented
the hierarchical model of service quality consisting of three levels. The first level was
consumers overall perception of service
quality. The second level included five dimensions: physical aspects, reliability,
personal interaction,
problem solving, and policy. The third level was a sub-dimension of the second dimension.
Brady (1997) conceptualized a hierarchical model of perceived service quality again based on
Dabholkar et al.s (1996) model. This study included interaction quality, outcome quality, and
physical environment. Each dimension also had a sub-dimension like in Dabholkar et al.s
(1996) model. By a hierarchical approach, service quality research attempted to include
various components in service quality by adjusting different situations with various types of
service quality.
280 | P a g e

Parasuraman et al. (2005) developed a multiple-item scale (E-S-QUAL) based on
theoretical foundations for evaluating the service quality delivered by Web sites in the process
of placing an order. They collected 549 questionnaires through an online survey. The findings
revealed that two scales were possible for online customers: E-SQUAL (the basic scale) and ERecS-QUAL. The former included 22 items of four components: efficiency, fulfillment, system
availability, and privacy. The latter was relevant only to customers who experienced nonroutine encounters and included 11 items with three components:
responsiveness,
compensation, and contact. Collier and Bienstock (2006) extended service quality research on
e-service quality to include both Web site interactivity and outcome quality. Unlike the
previous studies, this study used a formative model instead of a factor model including three
second-order dimensions to conceptualize e-service quality. Three hundred and thirty eight
college students participated in the survey. The results found that customers evaluated the
design, information accuracy, privacy, functionality, and ease of use of a Web site in the
process for placing orders. This process quality had positive impact on their perception of
the outcome quality of the transaction. In addition, the handling of service is recovery
positively influenced customer satisfaction. Lastly, they found that there was a mediating effect
of customer satisfaction on the relationship between recovery and outcomes to behavioral
intentions. McElwee and Redman (1993) used a model of service quality dimensions
(SERVQUAL) developed by Parasuraman et al. (1985, 1988) as a basis for an adapted
model for higher education. In view of the framework structure of SERVQUAL, their main
emphasis was placed on functional (interactive) aspects of quality. Hill (1995) also investigated
the implications of service quality theory for higher education. Briefly addressing some quality
dimensions, he focused mainly on the application of a perception-expectation model in this
context. In another study, Anderson (1995) used SERVQUAL to evaluate the quality of an
administrative section in a university (office of student services). This appeared to be successful
due to the compatibility between the environments in this case and that around which
SERVQUAL was developed. The list by Parasuraman et al. (1985) was used as a basis 1994;
Zimmerman and Enell, 1988) can facilitate generalizing service quality dimensions for this
sector. However, the specific characteristics of any service industry necessitates find its unique
dimensions in addition to the common features with other services. More careful
281 | P a g e

generalization is required for the case of Tourism regarding its complex characteristics.
Backman & Veldkamp (1995) stated that quality of service is an essential factor involved in
a service providers ability to attract more customers. Unlike the quality of goods, which
may be measured objectively by such indicators as durability and number of defects, service
quality is an elusive construct that is difficult to measure (Crosby 1979).
Mackay and Crompton (1990) defined service quality as the relationship between what
customers desires from a service and what they perceive that they receive. Additionally,
service quality is also a way of thinking about how to satisfy customers so that they hold
positive attitudes toward the service they have received (Ostrowski, OBrian, & Gordon 1993).
To help service providers identify their strengths and weaknesses, Parasuraman, Zeithaml &
Berry (1988) developed the SERVQUAL model, a diagnostic tool including 22 items to
appraise five key service factors: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy.
Parasuraman et al. (1988, 1991) found that the five-dimensional format of SERVQUAL allows
researchers to assess the level of service quality along each dimension, as well as overall. The
purpose of this model is to serve as a diagnostic method for uncovering broad areas of
weaknesses and strengths in the quality of service a company delivers. A lot of service-related
research was evaluated by SERVQUAL and they might have results consistent with
Parasuraman etal.s (1988,1991) suggestions. SERVQUAL has offered a model for measuring
service quality for over 10 years. However, some researchers have suggested that a revised
measurement scale is needed specifically for providers of tourism services. The new service
instrument might be needed for research in tourism fields.
The quality of service involved with tourism plays an important role in the process of
delivery (Wyllie 2000) and thus is the standard used to assess the effectiveness of a
particular leisure service agency, including the tourism service sector (Godbey1997). Service
quality is an intangible, but crucial, area of interest to travel service providers. As described
above, the major service evaluation tool is SERVQUAL model, and Parasuraman et al. stated
that this model could apply to various service contexts. Many tourism researchers use this
model to evaluate the quality of services provided in tourism and affiliated industries (Baker
& Fesenmaier 1997; Childress & Crompton 1997; Fick & Ritchie 1991;Leblanc 1992;
Ostrowski, OBrien, & Gordon 1993; Vogt & Fesenmaier 1995). For example, SERVQUAL
282 | P a g e

was tested by Mackay (1987) in the Canadian municipal parks, and he extracted the same
five dimensions as Parasuraman et al.s(1985) model (as cited in Crompton etal. 1991).
Literature did not reveal an integration of CRM and service quality dimensions for tourism
industry
The objective of the stud y is to develop a structural model, involving service
qualit y dimensions and CRM dimensions, for tou rism industry.
Hypotheses development and model construction:

Apropos to the literature reviewed the following hypotheses were developed:
H1: There is convergence in dimensions of service quality identified for tourism.
H2: There is convergence in dimensions of CRM identified for tourism.
H3: Service quality for tourism is dependent on CRM initiatives for tourism.
The identified service qualit y dimensions for tourism industry are: Tangibility,
Responsiveness, Reliability, Empathy, Service product, Assurance and Service Responsibility,
while the CRM dimensions have been identified as organizing around CRM, focus on key
customers/tourists, managing knowledge, CRM technology, destination denominations and
purpose to travel. The proposed structural models has been depicted below
Tangibility
H
Responsivenes
s
Reliability
H
1
H
Assurance
H
1
Empathy
Service
Quality for
Tourism
Industry
H
Service
product
Service
responsibility
283 | P a g e
H
1
Fig.1- Structural model-1

Organizing
around CRM
H
Focusing on
key customers
H
Knowledge
management
H
CRM
Technology
for CRM
H
Destination
denomination
H
2
Purpose to
travel

Tangibility
Organizing
around CRM
Focusing on
key customers
H
3
H
Knowledge
management
H
2
Technology
for CRM
Responsivenes
s
CRM
Service
Quality for
Tourism
Industry
Assurance
H
3
H
Destination
denomination
284 | P a g e
Empathy
H
Purpose to
travel
Reliability
Service
product
Service
responsibility

Conclusion
The structural models developed on the basis of literature reviewed and research gap identified
thereof may be tested for robustness through structural equation modeling (SEM) approach by
using a confirmatory factor analysis test to check for the fit indices of the factors. The path
analysis is expected to reveal the dimensional convergence of the model. The model may be
further extrapolated by taking into consideration a number of moderating variables relevant to
induce effects on the link addressed in the title.
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Corporate Sustainability through CSR-- the only Path Way

Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kumar Mukhopadhyay
Principal,
Durgapur Institute of Management & Science
and
In-Charge, Bengal College of Engineering & Technology
(Management Division)
E-mail: ashokm.9@gmail.com
Abstract:
Sustainability may be defined as the integration of economic, social and environmental
aspects to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs . As a key driver of value in any organization,
employees need to be engaged in the task of integrating CSR throughout the firm,
helping the firm achieve its CSR goals and adhere to its CSR principles consistent
with its strategic business direction. Research shows that the critical success
factors for implementing CSR include senior management commitment, engaged
staff and the provision of skills, tools and incentives. Corporations are benefited in
multiple ways
by operating with a perspective broader and
longer than
their own
immediate, short-term profit, Recent Emergence areas where CSR can find the path are as
follows:
Key words: CSR tools, Operational efficiencies, Employee Relations,
Productivity, Branding, Critical Success Factors, Triple Bottom Line Accounting:
(People, Planet, Profit)
Corporate social responsibility concerns with the integration of social,
environment Employee Relations, Productivity and economic considerations
into the decision-making structures and processes of business.
On the whole CSR is concerned with delivering improved value to
shareholder and debt holders, providing enhanced goods and services for
customers and
building trust and credibility in the society in which the
business operates and becoming more sustainable in the long run.

Businesses can use CSR and corporate sustainability to produce direct
288 | P a g e

benefits for the bottom line.
The main beneficial aspects of CSR lie with
following key areas:

Stronger Financial performance and profitability through operational
efficiency gains
Improved relations with the investment community and better access to
capital
Enhanced employee relations that yield better results respecting
recruitment, Group Dynamics motivation, retention, learning and
innovation, and productivity
Stronger relationships with communities and enhanced license to
operate
Improved reputation and branding
Financial performance and profitability:
Using corporate responsibility and sustainability approaches within

business decision-making can result not only in reduced costs but can also
lead
to
recognizing
new
market
opportunities
such
as
when
new
manufacturing processes are developed that can be expanded to other plants,

regions or markets.
Managing potential risks and liabilities more effectively through CSR
tools and perspectives can also reduce costs.
Operational efficiencies can be achieved in other facets of CSR such as
streamlining the way that information is provided to the investment
community as well as to other stakeholders that demand increased
transparency.
Waste management through minimization and recycling results
concurrent environmental and economic benefits for the company and
thereby contribute to stronger financial performance and more positive
profitability.
289 | P a g e

Operational efficiencies can be achieved through reducing energy and
materials as input factors for production.
CSR approach by a company can improve the stature of the company
in the perspective of the investment community, a companys stock market
valuation, and its capacity to access capital from that community
Employee Relations, Productivity, Innovation and Group Dynamics
CSR can effectively improve a companys relations with communities

and thereby produce some key features that will improve business prospects
for its future
A key potential benefit from CSR initiatives involves establishing the
conditions that can contribute to increasing the commitment and motivation
of employees to become more innovative and productive.
Companies that employ CSR related perspectives and tools tend to be
businesses that provide the pre-conditions for increased loyalty and
commitment from employees. These conditions can serve to help to recruit
employees, retain employees, motivate employees to develop skills.
CSR encourage employees to pursue learning to find innovative ways
to not only reduce costs but to also spot and take advantage of new
opportunities for maximizing benefits, reduce absenteeism, and may also
translate into marginally less demands for higher wages.
An increasing number of mutual funds are now integrating CSR
criteria into their selection processes to screen in sounder companies and/or
screen out businesses that do not meet certain environmental or social
standards.
Improved Reputation and Branding

A potential benefit of CSR is that it can improve a companys
reputation and branding and this in turn improves the prospects for the
290 | P a g e

company to be more effective in the way that it manages communications and
marketing in efforts to attract new customers and increase market share.
CSR as a concept with various tools can help a company to position
itself in the marketplace as a company that is more responsible and more
sustainable than its competitors.
A rigorous and systematic approach to CSR investment is likely to yield the
most positive results for both the business and society as it is likely to
demonstrate the most efficient allocation of resources from the perspective of
both the firm and society.
Building strong Group Dynamics:
There is emerging evidence that effectively implemented, CSR can have
significant impact in motivating, developing and retaining staff.
Novo
Nordisk, a high-value CSR pharmaceutical company in Denmark, for

example, after launching their Values in Action program, which aligns their
business objectives with sustainable development principles, saw a 5% drop
in staff turnover, while Sears found a 20% reduction in staff turnover since
implementing their CSR program. (Skinner, 2002, p.1).
A landmark
international CSR study of human resource practitioners conducted by the

Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM>) in 2006, reveals that
CSR practices are seen as important to employee morale (50%), loyalty
(41%), retention (29%), recruitment of top employees (25%) and productivity
(12%). [Note that percentages reflect Canadian responses] (SHRM, 2007, p.
27).
Critical Success Factors for implementing CSR:
Research shows that the critical success factors for implementing CSR
include senior management commitment, engaged staff and the provision of
skills, tools and incentives.
Clearly, staff participation and buy-in to
delivering on the companys CSR aspirations is central to success in this area.

Documented case studies show that HR practices such as competency
development, can help embed CSR in an organization, not to mention benefit
291 | P a g e

the bottom line. (Redington, 2005).
Companies with a good CSR reputation are benefiting from the stakeholder
view that a companys behaviour and presumably that of its people is aligned
with CSR values, in a consistent way.
Companies seeking to build marketplace trust and reputation must embed
their CSR values throughout their business.
Leading companies are realizing that CSR can be nested in the companys
employee brand and can be part of the value proposition for working at a
given firm. Sustainable HR management is central to this objective.
As a key driver of value in any organization, employees need to be engaged
in the task of integrating CSR throughout the firm, helping the firm achieve
its CSR goals and adhere to its CSR principles consistent with its strategic
business direction.
CSR is still regarded as charity in most organizations, or at best as an image
building exercise. Consequently CSR is delinked from the mainstream activities
of the
organization. When
the time is good
CSR activities abound, and
in
bad times these are pushed aside.

Corporations are benefited in multiple ways by operating with a perspective broader
and longer than their own immediate, short-term profit.
Critics argue that CSR distracts business from the fundamental economic role
Others argue that it is nothing more than superficial window-dressing.
Still others argue that it is an attempt to pre-empt the role of governments as a
watchdog over powerful multinational corporation.
The main reasons for Corporate Social Responsibility may be cited as follows
Moral Obligations
Sustainability
:
:
Reputation
Moral Obligations :
It extends beyond the statutory obligation to comply with legislation.It imposes
Voluntary
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steps to improve the quality of life for employees and their families as

well as for the local community and society at large as follows
- customers
- suppliers
- employees
- shareholders
- communities
- other stakeholders
- the environment
"One and only one social responsibility of business is to increase profits so long as it stays
within the rules of the game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition without
deception or fraud. - Milton Friedman, Nobel Prize in Economics, 1976
Sustainability may be defined as the integration of economic, social and environmental
aspects to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. Credible business practices such as exploitation
of labour or the prevention of fraudulent activitiessuch as accounting. The challenge
is how to put the principles into practice and
to implement CSR effectively and
efficiently. There are two types of sustainability codes of implementation as follows;
Performance Oriented
- minimum standard of what constitutes social responsibility SA8000
Process Oriented
-procedures a company should follow
ISO has undertaken the development of the future ISO 26000 standard for providing
voluntary guidance on Social Responsibility (SR). ISO 26000 will contain guidelines,
not requirements, and therefore will not be for use as a certification standard like ISO
9001:2000 and
ISO 14001:2000 is similar to ISO 9000 quality management in that
both pertain to the process (the comprehensive outcome of
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how
a product
is

produced) rather than
to the product itself. The overall idea
is to establish an
organized approach to systematically reduce the impact of the environmental aspects.

Triple Bottom Line Accounting: (People, Planet, Profit) expands the traditional reporting
framework to include
ecological and
performance. It is an
social performance in addition
to financial
expanded spectrum of values and criteria for measuring
organizational success
economic, environmental and social.
People pertains to fair and beneficial business practices toward

- the labour
- the community
- the region in which a corporation conducts its business.
Lifecycle
Planet refers to sustainable environmental practices.

(Cradle to Grave) assessment of products to determine what the true
environmental cost is from the growth and harvesting of raw material to

manufacture to distribution
Profit is the bottom
line shared by all commerce, CSR
as Strategy
Of the 4 broad perspectives of CSR the company can choose the activities that fit
the company strategy such as
- Toyota Prius stressing environmental sustainability
- CISCO linking with human resources through CISCO Networking Academy.
Two ways of looking at the CSR are
- Inside-Out View ( Value Chain) - Outside-in Views (Macro Environment)
and then decide on the activities as relevant
Judicious application of Corporate Social Responsibility for effective solution can be
considered on the Recent Emergence areas such as
Poverty and insecurity worldwide
Anti- globalization calls
Mistrust of large corporations
Greater media/IT reach
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Increased stakeholder activism including increasing investor pressure
Increasing government interest/action
References:
[1].Bhattacharya, CB, Sankar Sen and Daniel Korschun (2011) Leveraging Corporate Social
Responsibility: The Stakeholder Route to Business and Social Value, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge:UK
[2].Bulkeley, H. (2001). "Governing Climate Change: The Politics and Risk Society".
Transactions of the Geographers, New Series, Vol.26, No.4, pp. 430447.
[3].Feltus, C.; Petit, M.; Dubois, E.(2009). Strengthening employee's responsibility to enhance
governance of IT: COBIT RACI chart case study, Proceedings of the first ACM workshop on
Information security governance (WISG'09), Chicago, Il, USA. Strengthening employee's
responsibility to enhance governance of IT: COBIT RACI chart case study ISBN 978-1-60558787-5
[4].International Centre for Corporate Social Responsibility (ICCSR), Nottingham University
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/business/ICCSR/ Details of ICCSRs research, and all their
working papers in full text.
[5].Sumner, J. How to structure the corporate responsibility function. Melcrum, 2005. DS
shelfmark: On order DSC
[6].Tully, S. (ed) Research handbook on corporate social responsibility. Edward Elgar, 2005.
London
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A brief Notes: 3D IC Technology& Thermal-Awareness in 3D IC

Design
Sourav Dinda
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Bengal Institute of Technology & Management
E-mail: sourav238250@gmail.com
Madhusudan Maiti
Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering,

Bengal Institute of Technology & Management
E-mail: madhusudan.maiti@gmail.com
and
Soumen Bhowmik
Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Bengal Institute of Technology & Management
E-mail: soumen_cse@bitm.org.in
Abstract
In this paper we will review the concepts which are based upon for 3D IC
Technology with SiP technology. The paper illustrates what is 3D IC technology
with the involved technologies. Also we will explain the concept of 3D IC Design
paradigm & challenges for designing the 3D IC with Thermal Awareness.
Keywords: 3D IC, SiP (System-in-Package), TSV (through silicon vias), heterogeneous
components.
I. INTRODUCTION
Integrated Circuits(IC), electronics chip of semiconductor materials, is an integration of
independent components i.e., it may be different gates, transistors etc. The integration technique
gradually moves from SSI(Small Scale Integration), MSI (Medium Scale Integration), LSI(Large
Scale Integration),VLSI(Very Large Scale Integration), ULSI(Ultra Large Scale Integration),
WSI( Wafer Scale Integration) then SoC(System-On-Chip) and finally 3D IC.
A 3D IC is anintegration of multiple die /wafers in a stacked vertically manner or in a side -byside & configuration on a through- silicon via(TSV) which is a physical objects in 3D IC &
fabricated using a special technologies, Pitch 5m x 5 m.
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After coming 3D IC Technology, the speed of 3D integrated components has enormously
increased & reduced the wire length and power consumption and as a result we may integrate
heterogeneous components( such as memory, RF, mixed signal components etc.).
3D IC can be deployed in many application specific domains like FPGA (Field Programmable
Gate Array), which may configure using HDLanguage.
Below figure1.1 shows how length is reduced from 2D to 3D integration for an area.
Fig.: 1.1 Wire length reduction from 2D to 3D
The most challenging task is to handle the heat for the 3D IC design. The heat may be dissipated
in various 3D design steps like floorplanning, placement and routing.
II. TECHNOLOGY INVOLVED IN SiP& 3D IC

A. SiP (System-in-Package): SiP is an integration technique by which different dies
(either bare or package) are assembled along with the third dimension where
interconnect are done by means of wire bonding through z axis. Below Fig.(1.2) shows
four types of wire bonding in SiP
Fig. 1.2Example of SiP (a) Wire bonding (b) Solder bonding (c) area array vertical interconnect (d) interconnects
on the faces of the SiP
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B. 3D IC: There is fine grain interconnection which is achieved by narrow & short TSV
among the multiple devices on different wafers. In below fig 1.3 (a) show the
integration two plan using TSV.
In an electrical network environment the energy is transfer among the metal plates located on
vertically adjacent die by placing a capacitor in the series with the signal to be coupled, called
capacitive coupling.In below fig. 1.3( c) show how two plates communicate using capacitive
coupling.
Fig. 1.3 Various communication schemes in 3D IC
In the above fig 1.3 (b) shows an Inductive coupling. In an electromagnetic induction
environment, by changing current flow inductors located on vertically adjacent die, induces a
voltage and exchange the data. SoP (System-on-Package): SoP is System level hybrid design
concept where various sub-systems are vertically integrated.
In the fig. 1.3 shows, some passive components which are help to communicate with the subsystem like RF IC, memory stacks and optoelectronics.
Fig.: 1.4 SoP includes both 2D & 3D
III. 3D IC PHYSICAL DESIGN
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There are Manufacturing & Design challenges in 3D IC Technology. In 3D IC Physical Design
basically we follow the three steps sequentially as 3D Floorplanner, 3D Placement and 3D
Routing. The main purposes for designing the 3D IC are:
a) To improve the potential performance for total wire length, system performance.
b) Reduction of Power consumption&
c) To Flexibly carry out the system-on-chip (SoC) design by integrating heterogeneous

components (such as memory & logic circuits, radio frequency (RF) and mixed signal
components, optoelectronic device).
Fig. 1.5 shows the proposed flow diagram for 3D IC Physical Design.
3-D IC Physical Design Steps:

A. Floor planning: In electronic design automation, a floor planning of an integrated circuit
is a schematic representation of tentative placement of its major functional
blocks.Therealization of floorplanning/placement relies on a representation which
describe geometric relations among modules. Fig. 1.5 (a) shows a schematic view of a
proposed system.
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Fig. 1.5 (a) Floor Planning (b) Placement
B. Placement: Placement is an essential step in electronic design automation (EDA) - the

portion of the physical design flow that assigns exact locations for various circuit
components within the chips core area. Fig. 1.5 (b) shows how circuits are placed so that
it should fulfil following objectives:
i. Total wire length: total length of wire for communication should be less & easy
to find out fault of a wire.
ii. Timing: The clock cycle of a chip is determined by the delay of its longest
path, a placer must ensure that no path exists with delay exceeding the maximum
specified delay.
iii. Congestion: the congestion for various circuits components should be
controlled for effective placement.
iv. Power: overall power consumption should be achieved.
C.
Routing: Routing is process by which that can be find out the paths among
several interconnected layers while considering vias. There are several works goes on
like 3D channel routing algorithm[proposed by Enbody& Tan], 3D Multi level routing by
TSV panning algorithm[ proposed by J Cong & Y Zhang]. Fig. 1.6 shows a how intralayer are connected through inter layer in multilevel routing
Fig.: 1.6 Example for 3D multi level routing
IV. THERMAL-AWARENESS IN 3D IC DESIGN

Section-I
The most challenging task is to handle the heat for the 3D IC design. During the physicaldesign
process, the on-chip temperature isprimarily affected by three factors (assuming eachheat source
300 | P a g e

is of fixed power density): (1) the placement of the heat sources, i.e., the macroblocks/cells, and
(2) number and locations of theTS vias.(c) The routing paths of all nets. The thermal TS via
planning are considered during both the placement and routing processes.
(a)Thermal Resistive Network Model: This model is used for temperature verification.
Proposed by CFDRC.fig 2.1 shows 5 layer circuit and can illustrated as follows:
The whole circuit stack is divided into an array of tile stacks.
Each tile is connected to its neighbor at the same layer by lateral

thermal resisters, (Adjacent) Lateral Resistances (Rlateral): fixed
Fig. 2.1 Thermal Resistive Network Model

A thermal resister is modeled for each device layer for each tile stack.
Temperature at each node is equivalent to the voltage at that node (by considering the power
density value at each node is the current source)
Heat Sinks modeled as ground nodes.
That temperature verification model is Accurate but Slow
(b) Analytical Resistive Chain Thermal Model: This model is used during the temperature
optimization in floor planning and placement. For each tile stack,(fig. 2.1) we calculate the
temperature of top layer node, which will be the hottest node in that tile stack.
Now the highest temperature will be put into the cost function for temperature
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optimizationquation (1) shows a way of deriving the rough thermal cost of assigning a cell/macro
block with power density P to layer I
CT
Section-II
1.
Thermal-Aware
3-D
Floor
planning::Thermal
Aware
in
Floorplanning can be done by TCG(Transitive Closure Graph) which is based on BSG,

and B*-tree in data structural view. .J cong& Yan Zhang extends this conceptsby
proposing a Combined Bucket and 2-D Array( CBA)representation which is based on the
CBA representation &used in simulated annealing engine to optimize the following cost.
C=.wl+.area+.v+.T--------(2)
[where, wl=wire length, area=chip area, v=number of TS vias and T=max. Temperature]
Once a floorplanning is generated the power dissipation at each tile is
calculated and the temperature at each tile can then be profiled by the thermal model to
evaluate the cost function equation (2).in this way the temperature can control the
maximum on-chip temperature to a reasonable level by using cost function in equation
(2) to guide the Simulated Annealing engine.
2.
Thermal-Aware 3-D Cell Placement: 3D Placement generated from

existing 2-D results through two step as shown in the following diagram:
3-D Transformation
Layer Refinement
Relaxed
(RCN)
Local Stacking Transformation

(LST)
Stacking
conflict-net
Folder based
transformation
Legalization
Fig.: 2.2 schematic diagram for various transformations for 3D Placement
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Stacking: In this process neighbouring cells are formed into k layer cell stacks (k is the
no. of device layer and the 2-D wirelength is minimized.
Legalization: This process minimizes maximum on-chip temperature and TSV no.s
through simultaneous row and layer assignment. The result of LST is a legalized 3-D
placement.
Folder based transformation: Here fold the original 2-D placement. Fig. 2.3 shows an
example of folding.
Fig.: 2.3 Transformation through folding
Advantage: By this approach the distance between any two cells will not be increased and the
total wire length is guaranteed to decrease.
V. CONCLUSION
We summarizes in this paper by reviewing in brief notes on 3D IC Design and Thermal
Awareness in 3D IC Design. Previously what works are going on in this topic, we explain
briefly. We explain 3D IC Design steps i.e., floorplanning, placement & routing. In our paper,
some resistive models are shown for temperature optimization & discuss different methods,
which are derived for dissipation of heat in designing 3D IC.
References
[1.] VASILIS F. PAVLIDIS AND EBY G. FRIEDMAN THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTERGRATED
CIRCUIT DESIGN BY Morgan Kaufmann publications, 2009, ISBN: 978-0-12-374343-5.
[2.] Jai-Ming Lin and Yao-Wen Chang, Member, IEEE TCG: A Transitive Closure Graph-Based
Representation for General IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VERY LARGE SCALE
[3.] C. Ababei, Y. Feng, B. Goplen, H. Mogal, T. Zhang, K. Bazargan, and S. S. Sapatnekar, Placement
and Routing in 3D Integrated Circuits, IEEE Design &Test of Computers, Vol. 22, No. 6, pp. 520531,November-December, 2005.
[4.] K. Banerjee, Thermal Effects in Deep Submicron VLSI Interconnects, (invited tutorial)
IEEEInternational Symposium of Quality Electronic Design, 2000.
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[5.] K. Banerjee, S. Souri, P. Kapur, and K. Saraswat, 3-D ICs: A Novel Chip Design for
ImprovingDeep-Submicrometer Interconnect Performanceand Systems-on-Chip Integration, Proceedings
ofthe IEEE, 89(5):602-633, May 2001.
[6.] B. Black, D. W. Nelson, C. Webb, and N. Samra,3D Processing Technology and its Impact on
IA32Microprocessors, Proceedings of IEEEInternational Conference on Computer Design, pp.316-318,
2004.
[7.] T. Chan, J. Cong, and K. Sze, Multilevel Generalized Force-directed Method for Circuit Placement,
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Physical Design, pp. 185-192, San
Francisco, CA, April, 2005.
[8.] J. Cong, J. Wei, and Y. Zhang, A Thermal-Driven Floorplanning Algorithm for 3D ICs,
Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer-Aided Design, pp. 306-313, November, 2004
[9.] J. Cong, and Y. Zhang, Thermal-Driven Multilevel Routing for 3-D ICs, Proceedings of the Asia
South Pacific Design Automation Conference, pp. 121-126, January, 2005.
[10.] J. Cong, and Y. Zhang, Thermal Via Planning for 3-D IC's, Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE/ACM
International Conference on Computer Aided Design, pp. 745-752, San Jose, CA, November, 2005.
[11.] J.-M. Lin and Y.-W. Chang, TCG: A Transitive Closure Graph Based Representation for NonSlicing Floorplans, Proceedings ofACM/IEEE Design Automation Conference (DAC-2001), pp. 764769, Las Vegas, NV, June 2001.
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Design and Implementation of Quantum Cellular Automata

Based Novel XOR gate with minimum Complexity and Cell
Count
Santanu Santra
Assistant Professor, Department of CSE,
Bengal Institute of Technology and Management, Santiniketan
Uddalak Chatterjee
Gurucharan Banerjee
Pinaki Pratim Acharjya
Email: santrasantanu@gmail.com, uddalak.udi@gmail.com, gurucharan_cse@bitm.org.in,
ppacharjya@gmail.com
Abstract:
Quantum dot Cellular Automata (QCA) is a recent and potentially attractive technology to
implement computing architectures at the nano scale. The basic primitive in QCA is the majority
gate. The QCA cells have features on the very low nanometer scale, much smaller than the
present state of art size of the smallest transistor. In this paper we present a novel
implementations for XOR gate using QCA cells with minimum complexity, minimization of
clock require for getting output and cell count in comparison with the already proposed designs.
We present here QCA implementation of combinational circuits like half adder based on the
proposed XOR gate designs. The proposed circuit was varied using simulation from QCAdesigner tool. The proposed QCA implementation is useful for building more complex circuits.
Key words: QCA, XOR gate, QCA-designer.
1. Introduction:
Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) is a nanotechnology that has recently been identified as one
of the most emerging technology with potential application in future generation processing units
[1, 2] as the CMOS technologies approach [3, 4] its fundamental physical limits in the recent
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years to development of nanotechnology for future generation ICs[5, 6].In the recent years QCA
gets popularity to create computing devices and implementing any logic function. The basic
design block of QCA circuit is majority gate; hence, constructing QCA circuits using majority
gates has attracted a lot of attentions [7, 8]. Lot of studies has reported that QCA can be used to
implement general purpose computational and memory circuits. QCA achieved high device
density, fast switching speed, room temperature operation and very low power consumption,
compare to any recent emerging technology [2].
Figure 1: Quantum cellular automata.

The objective of this paper is to design a novel XOR gate by which we design a half adder
circuit; here we also implement detailed design, layout and simulation of combinational circuits
[9]. We proposed an optimal design for XOR based half adder circuit. The aim is to maximize
the circuit density and focus on the layouts that are simple and minimal in their use of cells. The
proposed QCA circuits have been designed and simulated using the QCA designer tool [10]. The
rest of the paper is organized as follows. In section 2, provide a brief background toQCA
technology, in section 3 we design a novel XOR gate , in section 4 we simulate and compare the
proposed design with previous existing methods. Finally we conclude this paper in section 5.
2. Quantum-Dot Cellular Automata (QCA):

Quantum technology has gradually applied in various field, Quantum dot cellular automata is
projected as a promising nanotechnology for future ICs. QCA technology is based on the
interaction of bi-stable [7, 8] QCA cells constructed from four quantum dots. The cell is charged
with the help of two free electrons which are able to tunnel between adjacent dots. These
electrons tend to occupy antipodal sites as a result of their mutual electrostatic repulsion. Thus
there exist two equivalent energetically minimal arrangements of the two electrons in the QCA
cell, but no current flows into or out of the cell[11, 12] as shown in fig.1.
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These arrangements are denoted as cell polarization P=+1 and P=-1. Using these two cell
polarization P= +1 which represents "1" and P= -1 represents "0", binary information is en-coded
in the charge configuration of the QCA cell [13, 14]. Unlike conventional logic circuits in which
information is transferred by electrical current, QCA operates by the Columbic interaction that
connects the state of one cell to the state of its neighbors, which results in a technology of which
information transfer is the same as information transformation. One of the primary logic gates in
QCA is the majority voter (MV). The basic logic function in majority voter is
MV(A,B,C)=AB+BC+CA, which can be realized by only five QCA cells, as shown in
fig.2(a)and fig.2(b) shown the logical block diagram of a majority gate. Logical AND (fig. 3.(a))
and OR (fig. 3 (b)) function can be implemented from the majority voter by fixing one
input(control input) permanently to a 0 or 1. The inverter is another one basic gate in QCA and is
shown in fig.3(c). The interconnected fabric bus is shown in fig.3(d).
Figure 2: (a) A QCA majority voter gate,(b) Basic block diagram of a QCA MV gate.
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Figure 3: (a) QCA AND gate,(b) QCA OR gate,(c) QCA inverter gate and (d) QCA bus.
Figure 4: Four phase QCA Clocking.

Several advantages any one can get using QCA technology like it is edge driven" means an
input is brought to an edge of a QCA block; it is evaluated and output at another edge. This also
means that no power lines need be routed internally. QCA systems should be very low power,
because there is no current owing. Only enough energy needs to add to lift the electrons from
their ground states. Finally we can say that the required space for a circuit is very small as
because the size of QCA cells are very small.In VLSI design, clocking is control by a reference
signal, but in QCA the timing is accomplished by clocking in four different and periodic states as
shown in fig4. A QCA circuit is divided into one dimensional zones and every zone is
maintained in a phase. The use of quasi- adiabatic switching technique for QCA circuits requires
a 4-phased clocking signal, which is commonly supplied by CMOS wires buried under the QCA
circuitry for modulating the electric field. These four phases are treated as Relax, Switch, Hold
and Release [15, 16]. During the first phase the actual computation takes place therefore the
308 | P a g e

inter-dot barrier is slowly raised and a cell attains a definitive polarity under the influence of its
neighbors. During the second phase, barriers are high and a cell remains its polarity. During the
third phase, barriers are lowered and a cell loses its polarity and finally in the last phase, there is
no inter-dot barrier and a cell remains un-polarized. Timing zones of a QCA circuit are arranged
by the following periodic execution of these four clock phase. There must be a latch between two
clocking zones. A signal is latched when one clocking zone goes into Hold phase and acts as
input to the subsequent zone. Clocking system provides inherent pipelining [17, 18] and allows
multi-bit information transfer for QCA by signal latching. As because a zone in the Hold phase is
followed by a zone in the switch phase designs are partitioned along one dimension, thus
effectively creating columns of clocking zones. The clocking signal is applied through an
underlying CMOS circuitry which produces required electric field to modulate the tunneling
barrier of all cells in the zones.
3. Earlier Work:
In article [19], three approaches to design a XOR gate have been proposed, where first one
require44 no. of cells and four nos. of clock are applied, second approach requires 55 nos. of
cells and four nos. of clock and third approach requires 62 nos. of cells and four nos. of clock to
design a XOR gate. In article [20] authors proposed seven different implementation of XOR
gate. first one require 34 number of cells, four number of clocks are required to execute the
circuit and here4 number of majority gates are required to complete the design of the circuit.
Figure 5: (a) QCA NAND gate, (b) QCA NOR gate.
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4. QCA Implementation:
Basic logic gates AND and OR realized by fixing the polarization to any one of the input of the
majority gate to either P=-1 treated as logic "0" or P=+1 treated as logic "1". The NAND can be
implemented by inverting the output of AND gate fig. 5(a) shows the logic design of a NAND
gate using QCA cells. Similarly the NOR gate is implemented by connecting OR gate followed
by an inverting gate, fig. 5(b) shows the implementation of NOR gate just arranging the last two
cells such that it acts like an inverting gate followed by the majority voter gate.
This two cell inverting circuits can minimize the area and complexity of any circuits.
4.1. QCA Implementation of Proposed XOR gate:
The basic gates like AND, OR and NOT and the universal gates NAND and NOR are require to
design a digital logic circuits. In addition of these gates Exclusive-OR (XOR) and ExclusiveNOR (XNOR) gates are also used to design a digital circuit. The XOR and XNOR gates are
particularly useful in arithmetic operations as well as error-detection and correction circuits.
These gates are usually found as two-input gates. There is no multiple-input XOR/XNOR gates
are available since they are complex to fabricate with hardware.
The XOR gate can give the following logic operation:
The representing symbol and the truth table of XOR gate is shown in fig. 6(a)and (b). In digital
logic XOR is a logical value depending on the two inputs and the logical value of XOR is true
only if odd number of input is true otherwise the logical value is false. This forms a fundamental
logic gate in many operations to follow. In digital logic if the specific type of gate is not
available then it may be constructed by other available gates. An XOR gate can be trivially
constructed from the basic gate AND, OR and NOT gates. However, this approach requires five
gates of three different kinds. The expression of XOR gate D =
can be represented by
basic gates shown in fig. 7. We propose the QCA design and layout of XOR gate based on basic
logic gates arrangements, the proposed design layout is shown in fig. 8(a), this layout require
only two clock cycle and consist of only 32 number of QCA cells(including inputs and output
cells) and an area of approximately also there is no cross over in the circuit.
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Figure 6: (a) XOR gate Graphical Symbol, (b) XOR gate truth table.
Figure 7: Implementation of XOR gate.

4.2. Simulation Results and Comparisons:
To design the proposed circuit layout and functionality checking, we use a simulation tool for
QCA circuits
QCA Designer version 2.0.3.The following default parameters are used for bitable
approximation: cell size=18nm, clock high=9.800000e-022J, clock low=3.800000e-023J and Dot
diameter=5nm. Fig.8(b) shows the simulation results of proposed XOR gate. As we have
identified that it is also possible to reduce the complexity (cells number),area and can increase
the density up to some extent, in immediate manner we started to look for a new implementation
methodology for XOR gate which is so simple and efficient. For the same we have applied a
conventional approach, we used three majority gates where two are used for performing AND
operations and one is used for OR operation. In our proposed circuit design method we have
used 32 numbers of QCA cells and accordingly circuit area is reduced and it is comparatively
dense enough and also there is 180o of delay: Table 1 gives the comparison of proposed design
with several previous designs [19, 20]. It is evident from table 1 that the proposed designs are
efficient in terms of cell count, majority gate, delay, crossover and area to simulate circuits. The
proposed design layout can be easily used to design complex circuits based on XOR operation.
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Figure 8: (a) proposed QCA XOR design layout (b) Simulation results of proposed XOR
design layout.
Table 1: Comparative Study of our proposed designs with some most recent design.
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5. Conclusion:
In this article we proposed efficient structures of Quantum-dot Cellular based XOR gate with
reduced number of QCA cells, area and delay in signal propagation from input to output. The
proposed design has been implemented and simulated using bi-stable Approximation simulation
of QCA Designer version2.0.3. By this approach we can go for designing complex sequential
and combinational circuits. This methodology is very simple to implement. This QCA circuit is
the future nanotechnology and different classical models can be replaced by this QCA logic
circuit and this will become much more efficient and less complex than its other counterpart.
References:
[1] Yi Liu, " Modi_ed Quantum Genetic Algorithm Apply for Flow Shop Scheduling Problem",. Journal
of Computational Information Systems.Vol. 4, pp. 183-188, (2008).
[2] Hao Li, Shiyong Li, " A Quantum Immune Evolutionary Algorithm and Its Application", Journal of
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[3] A.O. Orlov, I. Amlani, G.H. Bernstein, C.S.Lent, G.L. Snider, "Realization of a functional cell for
quantum-dot cellular automata," Science, 277- 928, (1997).
[4] Hon-Sum Philip Wong, David J. Frank, Paul M.Solomon, Clement H. J. Wann, and Je_reyJ. Welser,"
Nanoscale CMOS", Proceedings of the IEEE, 87, 5-37( 1999).
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with quantum dot molecules", Physics and Computation, pp. 5 -13, (1994)
[6] C. Lent, and P. Tougaw," A device architecture for computing with quantum dots"' Proceedings of the
IEEE. vol. 85 , pp. 541- 557,(1997)
[7] J. Huang, M. Momenzadeh, M. Ottavi, L. Schiano, F. Lombardi, A Predeposition Methodology for
Tile-Based Design of QCA Combinational Circuits, Internal report, (2004).
[8] .M. Momenzadeh, J. Huang, M. Ottavi, N. Park, F. Lombardi, Computing with Grids of QCA Cells,
Internal report, (2004).
[9] P. D.Tougaw and C. S. Lent, Logical Devices Implemented Using Quantum Cellular Automata,
Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 75, pp. 1818-1825, (1994).
[10] Ditti, S. Mahata, K. Mitra, P. Sikdar,4th International Conference on Nanotechnology IEEE Explore,
pp. 293-298 (2009).
[11] J. Timler and C.S. Lent, Power Gain and dissipation in Quantum-dot Cellular Automata, Journal of
Applied Physics, vol. 91, pp. 823-831, (2002).
[12] C. S. Lent, P. D. Tougaw and W. Porod, Quantum Cellular Automata: The Physics of Computing
with Arrays of Quantum Dot Molecules, Proc. of the Workshop on Physics and Computing, pp. 5-13,
(1994).
[13] C. G. Smith, Computation without Current, Science, vol. 284, 274,(1999).
[14] K. Hennessy and C. S. Lent, Clocking of Molecular Quantum-Dot Cellular Automata, Journal of
Vacuum Science and Technology, vol.19, pp. 1752-1755, (2001).
[15] C. S. Lent and P. D. Tougaw,A device architecture for computing with quantum dots, Proc. IEEE,
vol. 85, no. 4, pp. 541557, Apr. (1997).
[16] K. Hennessy and C. S. Lent, Clocking of molecular quantum-dot cellular automata, J. Vac. Sci.
Technol. B, Microelectron. Process. Phenom., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1752-1755, Sep. (2001).
313 | P a g e

[17] D. A. Antonelli, D. Z. Chen, T. J. Dysart, X. S. Hu, A. B. Kahng, P. M. Kogge, R. C. Murphy and
M. T. Niemier, Quantum-Dot Cellular Automata (QCA) Circuit Partition-ing: Problem Modeling and
Solutions, Design Automation Conference (DAC), pp. 363-368, (2004).
[18] K. Walus, G. A. Jullien and V. S. Dimitrov,Computer arithmetic Structures for Quantum Cellular
Automata, Proceedings of Asimolar Conference, (2003).
[19] M. Mustafa, M R Beigh,"Design and implementation of quantum cellular automata based novel
parity generator and checker circuits with minimum complexity and cell count", Indian Journal of Pure
Applied Physics, vol. 51 pp.60-66,(2013)
[20] M.R.Beigh,M. Mustafa,F. Ahmad,"Performance Evaluation of E_cient XOR Structures
in QuantumdotCellularAutomata(QCA)";CircuitsandSystemsvol:4pp:147-156(2013)
314 | P a g e
Forbidden Pattern Free Crosstalk Avoidance CODEC for

On-chip Busses
Souvik Singha
Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering,
Bengal Institute of Technology and Management
Debprasad Sinha
Dept. of Electronics & Communication
Tanay Mondal
Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering,
Email: debprasad.sinha82@gmail.com
Abstract
The main sources of crosstalk interaction between two adjacent wires are capacitive coupling.
The increases of inter wire coupling capacitance makes crosstalk interference a serious problem
for VLSI circuits. As VLSI technology has marched into the deep sub-micrometer regime, new
challenges are presented to circuit designers and interconnect delay has become a limiting factor
for circuit performance. As the crosstalk in an on-chip bus is highly dependent on the data
patterns transmitted on the bus. Crosstalk is a noise caused by inter-wire coupling capacitance
between adjacent wires, and causes logic malfunctions and delay faults. In this paper, a CODEC
design for the forbidden pattern free crosstalk avoidance CODEC is proposed. The result of
simulation shows the total bus delay can be reduced.
Keywords: - crosstalk, On-chip bus, Forbidden Pattern, CODEC, CACs.
1. Introduction:
One of the greatest challenges in Deep Sub-Micron (DMS) design is inter-wire crosstalk, which
becomes significant with shrinking feature sizes of VLSI fabrication processes and greatly limits
the speed and increases the power consumption of an IC. This monograph presents approaches to
avoid crosstalk in both on-chip as well as off-chip busses. Bus encoding schemes can achieve the
same amount of bus delay improvement as passive shielding, with a much lower area overhead
[1,2 ]. These codes are commonly referred to as Crosstalk Avoidance Codes (CACs). CACs can
be memory-less [3,4 ] or memory based [5.6 ]. Memory based coding approaches generate a
codeword based on the previously transmitted code and the current data word to be transmitted [
315 | P a g e

7]. Although these types of codes need fewer additional bus wires, the CODEC complexity is
generally considered too high for these coding schemes to be used in practice. The memory-less
coding approaches, on the other hand, use a fixed code book to generate a codeword, solely
based on the current input data. The CODECs for memory-less codes are projected to be simpler.
2. Crosstalk avoidance CODEs (CACs):
CACs can be divided into two categories, one is the memory-less and another is memory based.
Memory based coding approaches generate a codeword based on the previously transmitted code
and the current data word to be transmitted. On the receiver side, the data is recovered based on
the received codeword from the current and the previous cycles. The memory-less coding
approaches use a fixed code book to generate a codeword to transmit, solely based on the input
data. The corresponding receiver decoder uses the current received codeword as the only input to
recover the data.
3. Forbidden Pattern:
None of the codeword has the bit pattern 1 0 1 appearing in it. Note that the forbidden pattern
condition always opposing transitions to occur on adjacent wires as long as they do not cause
delays greater than 1 + 2x; the forbidden transition condition allows forbidden patterns in its
code words as long as they do not cause opposing transitions.
4. Coding Algorithm:
Let Sm is the set of all forbidden pattern free (FPF) code words where Vim is the vector of
codeword
i.e,
Vim = bim, bim-1, bim-2,------------------, bi1
where m is the length of each code
word vector.
FPF codeword generation algorithm
S2 = {00, 01, 10, 11}
For m > 2 do
Sm =
for Vim-1 Sm-1 do
if (bim-1 bim-2 = 00 or bim-1 bim-2 = 11) then
Sm
Vim-1 and Sm
Vim-1
else
i
i
if (b m-1 b m-2 = 01 or bim-1 bim-2 = 10) then
Sm bim-1 Vim-1
end if
end for
end for
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5. Experimental Result:
4-bit data word
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
5-bit codeword
00000
00001
00110
00011
01100
00111
01110
01111
10000
10001
11000
10011
11100
11001
11110
11111
Conclusion:
In this paper we have presented a crosstalk avoidance code, the complexity and speed of the
CODEC are both for overall bus performance. Also the power consumption of the CODECs
should be factored in when the overall power consumption is evaluated. In this work we have
proposed efficient CODEC design technique for the memory-less CACs. The advantages of
these CODECs are their low complexity, high speed as well as minimum area overhead.
References:
[1] Duane.C, Cordero. V and Khatri. S. P. Efficient On-Chip Crosstalk Avoidance CODEC design,
IEEE Transactions on VLSI Systems, April 2009, pp 551 560.
[2] Bret Victor and Keutzer. K, Bus Encoding to prevent Crosstalk Delay, ICCAD, 2001, pp 57 63.
[3] Duane.C and Khatri. S. P. Exploiting Crosstalk to speed up On-chip busses, Design, Automation
and Test in Europe Conference and Exibition, 2004, pp 778 783.
[4] Sotiriadis. P and Chandrakasan. A, Low power bus coding techniques considering interwirecapacitance. Proc. of IEEE-CICC, 2000, pp 507-510.
[5] Chem. J, Huang. J, Aldredge. L, Li. P, and Huang .P, Multilevel metal capacitance models for CAD
symbol design synthesis systems. In IEEE Electron Device Letter, 1992, pp 32 34.
[6] Arora .N, Raol .K, Shcumann .R, and Richardson .L, Modeling and extraction of interconnect
capacitance for multilayer VLSI circuits. In IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of integrated
Circuits and Systems, 1996, 15(1) pp 133 138.
[7] Sridhar .S.R, Ahmed .A and Shanbhag .N.R, Area and Energy- Efficient Crosstalk Avoidance Codes
for On-Chip busses, Proc. of ICCD, 2004, pp 12 17.
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Performance Evaluation of Error Back Propagation

Algorithm for Non-Linear Classification and Function
Approximation using VHDL Platform
R.Ghosh
Dept of Electronics and Communication
Techno Global-Balurghat.
J.Mondal
K.Ahmed
A.Sarkar
Email: ghoshrajan@yahoo.com
Abstract
In this paper we present the implementation of Error Back Propagation Training Algorithm
(EBPT) in VHSIC Hardware Descriptive Language (VHDL) platform for two standard
benchmark problems of Nonlinear Classification of XOR function and Sine wave Generation.
The effect of variation of learning parameters on accuracy of the output and speed of
convergence of the algorithm are presented. Improved speed of convergence without much
change in accuracy was obtained by incorporating Momentum method.
Keywords: Error Back Propagation Training, VHDL, Momentum Method, EBPT.
1. Introduction
The concept of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) has emerged from simulating the versatility of
human brain to deal with the ambiguity of digital computers. The ANN consists of layers of basic
computing units called neurons. The Computing units include a summing and threshold units and
when these computing elements are arranged in layers and trained properly they perform many
non-linear functions. One of the popular ways of training of Multi layered perceptron networks is
through the use of Error Back Propagation Training Algorithm [1]. Through the principle of
318 | P a g e

gradient descent it minimizes the error of the networks outputs and desired output for a given
training cycle and feeds this error to the network for adaptive weight changes. ANNs are
implemented in software, trained and simulated on general-purpose sequential computers for
emulating a wide range of neural networks models. Software implementations offer flexibility.
Whereas Hardware implementation of Neural Networks exploits the inherent parallel processing
capabilities in these Neural Networks to achieve faster learning and convergence speed of the
desired outputs [2]. FPGA implementation offers a solution for Hardware Neural Network
Implementation [3]-[5]. Multilayer Feed Forward Networks implemented have been implemented
on FPGA by reducing resource requirements without compromising on speed [4]. Our work aims
as evaluating the performance of ANN algorithm like Error Back Propagation using behavioral
simulation in VHDL by varying Learning Parameters of EBPT for the successful implementation
on Hardware. [6]
2. Error Back Propagation Training Algorithm

The Error Back Propagation topology consists of a layered structure of a hidden layer and output
layer. Each layer consist processing units called neurons. The functionality of the neuron is to do
a weighted summation of the inputs and depending on the nonlinear function called activation
function to generate an output. The input layer feeds the hidden layer neurons and the output of
the hidden layer in turn feeds the output layer neurons. Each layers input set is augmented with a
bias of -1, in accordance with the perception learning rule. The EBPT algorithm incorporates
two phases for learning, the multilayered feed forward phase and the back propagation phase.
The Processing units in the feed forward performs parallel computations of multiplication and
addition to produce an output called net and the final output of the neuron is determined by the
activation function. The back propagation phase involves computing the error by subtracting the
desired output from generated output of the feed forward phase and feeding back the error to the
network to adapt the weights until the error lowers itself below a predefined threshold.
3. Non-linear XOR classification

Figure 1, depicts the feed forward structure for XOR classification. This structure is implemented
using behavioral simulation in VHDL. Each iteration is in accordance with the rising edge of
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clococock. The input layer consist of two input nodes (X1 and X2) is augmented with a bias of
-1.
Fig.1. Feed forward structure for XOR classification
These inputs feed the hidden layer neurons. The output of the hidden layer (y) is augmented with
bias -1 and in turn is fed to a single neuron at the output layer. The weights of both hidden layer
(v11, v12, v13, v21, v22, v23) and output layer (w11, w12, w13) are initialized to random values.
The neurons at both hidden layer and output use continuous unipolar neurons. Experimental
results are tabulated by varying the learning parameters such as Learning Constant (), Steepness
Coefficient (), initial weights, number of hidden layer neurons and positive momentum
coefficient (), Shown in Fig. 2, is the simulation window where the counting variable denotes the
4 inputs of the XOR taken in order. And 0 denotes the approximate outputs in order.
Fig. 2. Simulation window for XOR function Outputs at iteration 19,997
320 | P a g e

A. Learning Constant () variation:
Variation of learning constant has a significant effect on the convergence and effectiveness of the
EBPT algorithm. Since optimum learning constant is problem specific, on the basis of trial and
error we showed that higher the value of learning constant better was the accuracy of the outputs
at a given iteration as given in Table I. Also observed that higher the value of learning constant
lower the number of iterations for a given satisfactory output given in Table II.
TABLE I. LEARNING CONSTANT VARIATION AT 10,000 ITERATIONS

Learning Constant
= 0.01
= 0.5
= 1.0
No. of iteration
99,000
20,000
10,000
B. Steepness Coefficient () variation:

The neurons activation function is characterized by steepness coefficient (), given by Equation 1
(1)
f(net)- continuous unipolar activation function net- weighted summation of input
TABLE II. NUMBER OF ITERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF LEARNING
CONSTANT
Inputs
00
01
10
11
Theoretical
outputs
0
1
1
0
Practical
Outputs
= 0.01
0.47
0.4506
0.56451
0.5024
Learning Constant
=0.5
0.0388
0.9542
0.9646
0.035
= 1.0
0.0247
0.9711
0.9769
0.0224
Variation in steepness coefficient showed that higher values of steepness coefficient produced
approximately similar results as that of learning constant. This implied that varying anyone of the
parameters learning constant or steepness coefficient was sufficient to obtain correct classification
of XOR outputs as given in Table III. By increasing steepness Coefficient reduced iterations were
observed as given in Table IV.
TABLE -III. STEEPNESS COEFFICIENT VARIATION AT 10,000 ITERATIONS
Input
00
01
10
11
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Theoretical
outputs
0
1
1
0
Practical
Outputs
Steepness Coefficient
= 0.01
= 0.5
0.49655
0.0742
0.496535
0.9117
0.49656
0.9353
0.49652
0.0649
= 1.0
0.0247
0.9711
0.9769
0.0224

TABLE IV. NUMBER OF ITERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF
STEEPNESS COEFFICIENT
Steepness
Coefficient
No. of
iterations
= 0.01
=0.5
= 1.0
109000
10,000
2,500
C. Initial weights:
Randomness in the initial weights led to better convergence of the output whereas while
initialization of same weights (1.0) did not give satisfactory results at 4,90,000 iterations depicted
in Table V.
TABLE V. OUTPUTS FOR DIFFERENT WEIGHT INITIALIZATIONAT 4,90,000
ITERATIONS
Inputs
00
01
10
11
Theoretical
outputs
0
1
1
0
Practical
Outputs
Initial Weights
Same weights=1.0 Random weights
0.0042
0.003
0.6488
0.9964
0.7016
0.997
0.7395
0.0028
D. .Number of hidden layers:

By increasing the number of neurons at the hidden layer improvement in speed of learning
without affecting the accuracy much was obtained, thereby making the network faster in
calculations of the outputs in Table VI and VII.
TABLE VI. VARIATION IN THE NUMBER OF HIDDEN LAYERS AT 2000
ITERATIONS
Inputs
Theoretical
outputs
00
01
10
11
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Number of Hidden Neurons

Hidden
Hidden
neurons=2
neurons=3
0.0899
0.0474
Practical
Outputs
0.8905
0.9172
0.9263
0.9321
0.0759
0.0944

TABLE VII. NUMBER OF ITERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT
HIDDEN LAYERS
NUMBER OF
Variation in Hidden Neurons
Hidden neurons=2
Hidden neurons=3
No. of iterations
4000
2500
E. Momentum Method:
Momentum method is based on feeding fraction of the previous training cycle weights to
the current weight updation cycle as given by Equation 2.
(2)
W(t)- current weight updation
E-Change in error
W(t-1)-fraction of previous weights
The positive momentum coefficient is given by and varying this parameter, led to better
accuracy of the outputs in Table VIII and drastic improvement in speed in Table IX
TABLE-VIII. VARIATION IN MOMENTUM COEFFICIENT AT 1000 ITERATIONS
Inputs
Momentum Coefficient
=
=0.5
= 1.0
0.01
0.1588
0.0739
0.0507
Theoretical
outputs
00
01
10
11
Practical
Outputs
0.784
0.8834
0.9148
0.8619
0.9124
0.9335
0.2027
0.1249
0.09422
TABLE IX. NUMBER OF ITERATION FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF

MOMENTUM COEFFICIENT
Variation in Momentum Coefficient
= 0.01
=0.5
= 1.0
No. of iterations
1800
1,300
1,000
Sine Wave Generation

Figure 3, shows the schematic for the feed forward phase for the generation of 50 Hz Sine Wave.
The input layer consists of a single input node augmented with bias -1. The output of hidden
layer is also augmented with a -1 bias. The weights shown are initialized randomly. The hidden
layer consisted of two bipolar continuous neurons as given in Equation 3.
323 | P a g e
(3)
The output layer consisted of single linear neuron. The choice of using linear neuron was to
ensure the output follows the continuous stream of inputs. Experimental results are tabulated by
varying the learning parameters such as Learning Constant (), Steepness Coefficient () and
positive momentum coefficient ().
Fig. 3. Feed forward phase for Generation of 50 Hz Sine Wave.

The simulation results for 50 Hz Sine wave generation for optimum values of learning factor
()=1.0, steepness coefficient () =1.0 and positive momentum coefficient ()=0.5 is shown in
Fig.4. The initial weight adaptation is shown encircled.
Fig. 4. Simulation window for Generation of Sine Wave at 1000ns

As observed from the Fig. 5, by changing the momentum coefficient to a higher value (0.8, i.e. by
giving higher fraction of weight change of the previous iteration to the current iteration) and
keeping other parameters fixed such as learning factor(1.0) and steepness coefficient (1.0),the
system was unable to learn and learning stopped at 9017 nanoseconds. The weights go out of the
324 | P a g e

required range and thus it will require a very large number of iterations to track back the correct
output.

In Figure 6, shows, by keeping momentum coefficient at the optimum value of 0.5, learning
constant at optimum value 1.0 and varying steepness coefficient to 0.5, a perfect sinusoid output
was not tracked

By keeping a very low learning factor equal to 0.01 and keep the other parameters at optimum
values a perfect sinusoid was not tracked as shown in Fig.7.
325 | P a g e

CONCLUSION
Implementation of Error Back Propagation Algorithm is carried out in VHDL platform for the
purpose of in depth analysis of the effects of learning parameters on the accuracy and speed of
convergence. Training is performed for a typical Nonlinear XOR classification and Sine Wave
Generation problem. Experimental results verify that optimum parameters for satisfactory output
are problem specific and are obtained through trial and error.
For a given problem varying either Learning Constant or Steepness Coefficient is sufficient for
satisfactory results. Increase in number of hidden neurons leads to further reduction in the number
of iterations. Fastest convergence of the output is obtained by introducing momentum method.
Fig. 8. Graph of effects of Learning Parameters on the Number of iterations for XOR classification
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.K.K.Ray, Director, Techno Global-Balurghat,
whose constant efforts at perfecting even the slightest detail helped render a lot of professional
insight into the work. And we would like to thank our parents for their support and belief.
REFERENCES
[1] Jacek M. Zurada, Introduction to Aritificial Neural Networks, Jaicob Publishing House, India
2002, ISBN 0-3 14-93391-3.
[2] Ji Peirong, Wang Peng , Zhao Qin, Zhao Li, A New Parrallel Back Propagation Algorithm for
Neural Networks, IEEE International Conference on Grey Systems and Intelligent Services (GSIS),
September 2011, pp. 807 -810.
326 | P a g e

[3] YJ Chen, WP du Plessis, Neural Network Implementation on FPGA, IEEE Africon Conference 6 th,
Africa October 2002, vol 1.,pp 337- 342.
[4] Nazeih M. Botros and M. Abdul Aziz, Hardware Implementation of Artificial Neural Network using
Field Programmable Arrays, IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics, December 1994, Vol 41.
No.6, pp. 665-667.
[5] S. Hariprasath and T.N. Prabakar, FPGA Implementation of Multilayer Feed forward Neural
Network Architecture using VHDL, IEEE International Conference on Computing, Communication
and Applications, Feb 2012, pp. 1-6.
[6] John K. Kruschke and Javier R. Movellan, Benefits of Gain: Speeded Learning and Minimal Hidden
layers in Back Propagation Networks, IEEE Transaction on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics,
January/ February 1991, vol.21, No.1, pp.273- 279.
327 | P a g e
New Approach for Analyzing BGP Vulnerabilities and

Implementation of Security in BGP
1
Asad Abdin
Final Year B.Tech Student,
Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering
asadabdin@gmail.com
2
Deepak Kumar Pradhan

deepakpradhan1220@gmail.com
3
Arindam Mullick
mullick.arindam.136@gmail.com
4
Riaz Kajal
Technical Asst,
riaz_cse@bitm.org.in
5
Kishore Ghosh
com.kishore@gmail.com.
AbstractBGP is the de facto protocol used for inter-autonomous system routing in the Internet. Though
BGP has been proven to be secure, efficient, scalable, and robust, the rapid evolution of
communication system and the internet has added to the concerns about BGSs ability to meet
the Internet routing. There are two major limitations of BGP which are its failure to address
several key security issues due to its and some operational related problems. The design and
omnipresence of BGP have complicated past efforts at securing inter-domain routing. This paper
328 | P a g e

surveys the past work related to BGP security and operational issues. We explore the limitations
and ways to overcome these situations.
Keywords: - BGP, autonomous system, EGP, inter- domain routing, IGP
I. INTRODUCTION
The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the protocol backing the core routing decisions on the
Internet. It maintains a table of IP networks or prefixes which designate network reach ability
among autonomous system (AS). It is described as a path vector protocol. BGP does not use
traditional Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) metrics, but makes routing decisions based on path,
network policies and / or rule sets. For this reason, it is more appropriately termed a reach ability
protocol rather than routing protocol.
BGP was created to replace the Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) routing protocol to allow fully
decentralized routing in order to allow the removal of the NSF Net Internet backbone network.
This allowed the Internet to become a truly decentralized system. Since 1994, version four of the
BGP has been in use on the Internet. All previous versions are now obsolete. The major
enhancement in version 4 was support of Classless Inter-Domain Routing and use of route
aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables. Since January 2006, version 4 is codified in
RFC 4271, which went through more than 20 drafts based on the earlier RFC 1771 version 4.
RFC 4271 version corrected a number of errors, clarified ambiguities and brought the RFC much
closer industry practices.
Most Internet users do not use BGP directly. Since most Internet service providers must use BGP
to establish routing between one another (especially if they are multihomed), it is one of the most
important protocols of the Internet. Compare this with Signaling System 7 (SS&), which is the
inter provider core call setup protocol on the PSTN. Very large private IP networks use BGP
internally. An example would be the joining of a number of large Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) networks where OSPF by itself would not scale to size. Another reason to use BGP is
multihoming network for better redundancy either to multiple access points of a single ISP (RFC
1998) or to multiple ISPs.
II. PROPOSED WORK
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1. BGP SECURITY SOLUTIONS:
BGP security in an active area of research. Because this activity is relatively new, no solution has
been universally deployed in the Internet. Network administrator currently mitigates some
attacks by implementing local countermeasures. The following section reviews the tools used in
the Internet to protect BGP. The subsequent sections describe proposal architectures and
countermeasures for BGP security.
IPsec :
Many recent proposals have suggested the use of IPsec as a mechanism for securing the BGP
session. IPsec is not specific to BGP, but is a suite to protocols that provide security at the
network layer. These protocols define methods for encrypting and authenticating IP headers and
payload, and provide key management services for the maintenance of long term sessions. The
IPsec Internet Security Association and Key Management.
Generalized TTL Security Mechanism:
Originally called the BGP TTL Security Hack, the Generalized TTL Security Mechanism
(GTSM) provides a method for protecting peers from remote attacks [Gill et all 2004]. This
approach builds on the premises that in the vast majority of BGP peering sessions, the two peers
are adjacent to each other. (Multiple BGP sessions, where peers are more than one hop away
from each other, are possible but uncommon in practice) The time-to-live or TTL, attributes in
an IP packet is set to a value that is decremente3d at every hop. For example, if a packet
traverses four hops from source to destinat6ion, the TTL decrement by four Routers using
GTSM set the TTL of an IP packet to its maximum value of 255. When a BGP peer receives a
packet, it checks the TTL and if this value is lower than 254 (decremented by one), the packet is
flagged or discarded outright. This prevents remote attacks which come from more than one hop
away, as those packets will have TTLs lower than the threshold value of 254.
Routing Registries :
A route registry is a centralized repository of routing policy information. ASes using a registry
service insert details of their policy and topological information into the repository for other
ASes to query. External application query this data to validate received routes and policy.
2. BGP Security Architectures:
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Recent efforts within the standards bodies and in research community have attempted to provide
comprehensive architectures for BGP security. Each architecture provides an explicit threat
model and suite of security services. The following sections consider several of these
architectures.
S-BGP:
Secure BGP (S-BGP) was the first comprehensive routing security solution targeted specifying
to BGP. A primary element of S-BGP is its use of public key certificates to communicate
authentication data. Public key certificates bind cryptographic information to an identity such as
an organization. Anyone in possession of the public key certificate can validate information
digitally signed with the private key associated with the public key. As the name would imply,
the public key is widely distributed, and the private key is kept private. A public key
infrastructure (PKI) is a system for issuing, authenticating and distributing certificates. S-BGP
implements security by validating the date passed between ASes using public key certificate.
Secure Origin BGP:
Secure origin BGP (so BGP) seeks flexibility by allowing administrators to trade off security and
protocol overhead using protocol parameters. Similar to S-BGP, soBGP defines a PKI for
authenticating and authorizing entities and organization. The PKI manages three types of
certificates. The first certificate type binds a public key to each so BGP speaking router. A
second certificate type provides details on policy, including the selected protocol parameters and
local network topology. A third certificate is similar to S-BGPs address attestations in that
embodies address ownership or delegation. All information pertaining to security is transmitted
in so BGP between peers via a new Security BGP message.
Inter-domain Route Validation:
The Inter-domain Route Validation (IRV) service is a receiver driven protocol and associated
architecture. Unlike S-BGP, IRVs operation is independent of the routing protocol. Every AS in
IRV contains an IRV server. Upon reception of an UPDATE message, a receiving BGP speaker
will appeal to its local IRV sever for an indication of whether the received information is correct.
The local IRV server determines correctness by directly querying the IRV server in the relevant
331 | P a g e

AS for validation of the route information. Validate a path involving multiple ASes, collections
of IRV servers are queried. The key idea of IRV is that each data item can be validated by
directly querying to AS from whence it came. A BGP speaker decides which data to trust, which
to ignore, and which to validate via IRV query based on local policy. Hence, the amount of effort
expended in validating data is exactly as is required IRV servers.
.
3. MD5 Checksum:
Since BGP uses TCP as its transport protocol, it is vulnerable to all weaknesses of the TCP
protocol itself. For a determined attacker, it is possible to forcibly close a BGP session or even
hijack it and insert malicious routing information into the BGP data stream.
Running BGP over IPsec would protect it against attacks on the TCP stream, but in practice that
configuration is not deployed widely. Instead, the TCP MD5 option described in RFC 2385 is
used commonly, as support for this protocol option is available on most BGP implementations.
The idea behind this feature is that to every packet in a TCP session a field is addes with the
MD5 checksum of the packet contents and a secret key. This establishes a cryptographically
secure signature of the packet. Without knowing the key, it is near impossible to construct a
packet with a valid signature. Since BGP speakers will immediately discard packets without a
signature or with an invalid signature, the types of attacks described above cannot be executed
without knowing the key. The TCP MD5 option is available in most BGP implementations. For
Cisco routers, all that is needed is a neighbor x.x.x.x password mysecret statement applied to
the neighbor or peer group definition. Juniper JunOS provides the authentication-key mysecret
statement which can be applied globally at the BGP level, at the group level, or at the individual
neighbor level.
The MD5 checksum mechanism is a cryptographic function that replaces the usual TCP
checksum in packets for BGP. It provides only link protection, analogous to use of IPSecs
packet integrity function, and so does not protect against attacks that subvert routers,
management stations, operator errors etc. It lacks automated key management, which means keys
are often passwords and / or are never changed. It also has crypto weaknesses that make it
inferior to the IPsec integrity mechanism.
III. CONCLUSION
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BGP has been quite successful in providing stable inter-domain routing, and is surprisingly
robust. It was originally thought in many circles that the ISOs Inter-domain Routing Protocol
(IDRP) [ISO 1992] would be the successor to BGP, but because of diminishing interest in
network protocols other than IP, BGP is the only inter-domain routing protocol in wide use
[Perlman 1999]. Moreover, because of its huge installed base, BGP will continue to play a
crucial role in Internet routing. As such, BGP will adapt to changing needs of its constituency.
The evident even now: multi-protocol extensions are increasingly used to route IPv6 packets.
Inter-domain routing security has progressed since being first investigated by Perlman, but few
production environments are demonstrably more secure than they were when she began that
work. Some operators are using incremental solutions that over some protection, but
comprehensive solutions have not been deployed. Solving the issue of BGP security is very
difficult because of the scale and complexity of the Internet. Every network in the world
communicating with other organizations through the Internet uses BGP, and errors in
configuration and operation can have a global impact. This survey has examined the threats to
BGP and proposed solutions to ensure its security. While they have not been implemented yet in
practice, and while their adoption may be difficult, good progress has been made. In the end, a
methodology to security BGP may be one of the best ways to ensure that the Internet remains a
reliable and useful vehicle for private and public communication.
Reference
[1] A Survey of BGP Security by Kevin Butler, Toni Fareley, Patrick Mc Daniel and Jennifer Rexford.
[2] A Survey on BGP issues and solutions by Amit Narayanan.
[3] BGP routing policies in ISP networks by Matthew Caesar and Jennifer Rexford
[4] BGP by Ravi Chandra CISCO Systems.
[5] Optimizing BGP Security by Exploiting Path Stability Kevin Butler Patrick McDaniel William Aiello.
[6] Border Gateway Protocol Security Special Publications 800-54 July 2007, Rick Kuhn Kotikalapudi
Sriram Doug Monggomery National Institute of Standards and Technology.
[7] Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) Internetworking Technology Overview, June 1999
[8] BGP Security Vulnerabilities Analysis RFC 4272
[9] Autonomous System (AS) Number Reservation for Documentation Use RFC 5389
[10] Experience with the BGP-4 Protocol RFC 4277
[11] BGP-4 Implementation Report RFC 4276
[12] BGP-4 Protocol Analysis RFC 4274
[13] A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4) RFC 4271
[14] Introduction to Java RMI by David Reilly
[15] Redbook IBM TCP / IP Ch.4.
333 | P a g e
Building a 4-bit ALU using Fredkin Gates

1
Md Ansarul Haque,
ansarul.haque2@gmail.com
2
Arindam Mullick
3
Deepak Kumar Pradhan,

deepakpradhan1220@gmail.com
4
Kishore Ghosh
Abstract
Quantum Computation and Quantum Information is the study of information processing task that
can be accomplished using Quantum mechanical systems. It is relatively new and emerging area
in the field of computing that taught us to think physically about computation. This approach
yields many new and exciting capabilities for information processing and communication.
Quantum Computing will be a total change in how the computer will operate and function. The
explorations in this field may one day result in information processing devices with capabilities
far beyond todays computing and communication systems.
Reversible Computation is a fundamental aspect necessary for Quantum Computation. The
overall advantage of making the computation reversible on a Classical Computer is that heat
dissipation is reduced and new techniques like Quantum Computing can be approached with this
foundational change in the way processing is done. Such combination of Classical and Quantum
Computers would be indispensable, since our perception is classical.
334 | P a g e

The objective of this paper is to build a 4 bit ALU with the help of Reversible gates. We have
tried to implement the Arithmetic operations (Add, Subtract, Multiply, Division) and Logical
Operations (AND, Complement, Transfer) with this ALU.
I. Introduction
Quantum mechanics is a mathematical framework or set of rules for the construction of physical
theories. Quantum computation taught us to think physically about computation, and this
approach yields many new and exciting capabilities for information processing and
communication. In the broadest terms, any physical theory, not just Quantum mechanics, may be
used as the basis for a theory of information processing and communication. One of the messages
of Quantum computation and information is that new tools are available for those problems that
are relatively more difficult or impossible to solve on Classical computers. Quantum computing
believes that what is computable and what is not computable is limited by the Laws of physics.
Traditional computer science is based on Boolean logic and algorithms. Its basic variable is a
bit with two possible values, 0 or 1. These values are represented in the computer as stable
saturated states off or on. Quantum mechanics offer a new set of rules that go beyond this
classical paradigm. The basic variable is now a qubit, represented as a vector in a two
dimensional complex Hilbert space. |0>and |1> form a basis in this space. The logic that can be
implemented with such qubits is quite distinct from Boolean logic, and this is what has made
Quantum computing exciting by opening new possibilities.
A related historical strand contributing to the development of quantum computation and quantum
information is the interest, dating to the 1970s, of obtaining complete control over single
Quantum systems. Applications of Quantum mechanics prior to the 1970s typically involved a
gross level of control over a bulk sample containing an enormous number of Quantum mechanical
systems, none of them directly accessible. Since the 1970s many techniques for controlling single
Quantum systems have been developed. For example, methods have been developed for trapping
a single atom in an atom trap, isolating it from the rest of the world and allow us to probe many
different aspects of its behavior with incredible precision. Quantum computation and Quantum
information provide a useful series of challenges at varied levels of difficulty for people devising
methods to better manipulate single quantum systems, and simulate the development of new
335 | P a g e

experimental techniques. The ability to control single quantum systems is essential if we are to
harness the power of quantum mechanics for applications to Quantum computation and Quantum
information. Despite this intense interest, efforts to build Quantum information processing
systems have resulted in modest success to date. Small Quantum computers, capable of doing
dozens of operations on a few qubits represent the state of the art in Quantum computation.
However, it remains a great challenge to physicists and engineers to develop techniques for
making large-scale Quantum information processing a reality.
II. REVIEW
Reversible Gates
A gate (circuit) is reversible if it maps each input assignment to a unique output assignment, that
is, if the mapping of inputs to outputs is bijective. Thus, the number of inputs and outputs in a
reversible gate or circuit are equal.
Some of the common reversible gates and their truth tables are listed below.
Controlled NOT Gate
Toffoli Gate
Fredkin Gate
1. Controlled NOT Gate :

Like a NOT gate (on b) but with a control line, a. b can also be expressed as (a XOR b).
Figure 1. CNOT Gate

a
TABLE 1. Truth table of CNOT gate

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CNOT(x, 0) : b = a = a = FANOUT.
Here, x is dont care bit. That means the input of a should be 0 or 1, but the input of b must
be 0.
2. Fredkin Gate:
If the control line is set it flips the second and third bits.
Figure 2. Fredkin Gate
TABLE 2. Truth table of Fredkin gate

Fredkin Gate Properties:
FR(x, 0, y): b = x AND y

By this property, the Fredkin gate acts as a AND gate of Boolean logic gate.
FR(1, x, y): b = c and c = b, which is CROSSOVER.

FR(x, 1, 0): c = a = c = FANOUT , with b = NOT x.
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Figure 3. Fredkin OR and Fredkin AND
Half Adder
Figure 4. Half Adder
Number of garbage bits generated = 12

Number of ancilla bits used = 8
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It can be easily noticed from our definitions of Fredkin gates, that we can replace the elements of
this circuit ie. the irreversible logic gates by reversible Fredkin gates. Therefore the number of
fundamental gates of any circuit will be the same. No new construction have to be done apart
from the use of ancilla bits and the generation of the garbage bits which have to be suitably taken
care of.
Figure 5. Half Adder Representation
Full Adder
Figure 6. Full Adder

Number of garbage bits generated = 25
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Number of ancilla bits used = 17
Figure 7. Full Adder Representation

III. PROGRESS
CPU
A processor unit is a part of the digital system that implements the operations of a system. It is
comprised of a number of registers and the digital functions that implements arithmetic and logic
micro operations.
The processor Unit, combined with the control unit that supervises the
sequence of micro operations, is called as central processor unit or CPU. We can imagine
control unit as a gatekeeper for entry in the ALU which tells the incoming data to which part of
the ALU the data must go so that the desired operations gets executed. An operation may be
implemented in a processor unit either as a single micro operation or a sequence of micro
operations. For example, the multiplication of two binary numbers stored in two registers may
be implemented with a full adder. Similarly, the subtraction and multiplication operations also
can be implemented using parallel adder. Thus here we have designed a 4-bit ALU using only 4
bit parallel adder and other logic gates.
The Arithmetic Unit:
The basic component of the arithmetic section of the ALU is a parallel adder. A parallel adder is
constructed with a number of full adders and as here we have to design a 4bit ALU, we are using
four full adders. By controlling the data inputs to the parallel adder, it is possible to get different
type of micro operations. The input carry Cin goes to the full adder circuit in the least significant
bit position and comes out as Cout from the last adder. And the sums are obtained from the sum
outputs of the full adders.
The arithmetic addition is achieved when one set of input goes through the A inputs and the other
set goes through the B inputs and the input carry is maintained as 0. By making Cin=1 it is
possible to add 1 to the sum in F. Now if we complement all the bits of b then we can get
340 | P a g e

F=A+B. And by giving ! in the Cin we can get F=A-B as we know that A-B=A+B+1.
Similarly if we put all 0s in the input B, then we can have the transfer A operation.
Figure 8. Arithmetic Unit Using Fredkin Half Adders

No of Ancilla Bits Used : 140
No of Garbage Bits Produced : 132
The Logic Unit
In case of designing the logical unit, we use an extra selection variable s2 to select whether
arithmetic operation will be done or logic operation will be done. When designing the AND
operation for the ALU, we have to get at Fi=Ai*Bi. With s2s1s0= 110, the unit as it stands
generates A NOR B. But we want to generate the AND operation. Let us investigate the
possibility of ORing each input to some Boolean function Ki. The function so obtained is then
used for Xi when s2s1s0=110.
Fi = Xi XOR Yi = (Ai+Ki) XOR Bi = AiBi + KiBi +AiKiBi
Careful inspection of the result reveals that if the variable Ki = Bi the value of Fi is coming to
be AiBi which is nothing but A And B. And with s2s1s0 = 111 we can get the inverse of A that
is A.
In the circuit of the ALU, the inputs to each full adder circuit are specified by the Boolean
functions:
Xi = Ai + s2s1s0Bi + s2s1s0Bi
341 | P a g e

Yi = s0Bi + s1bi
Zi = s2Ci
When s2 = 0, the three functions reduce to:
Xi = A
Yi = s0Bi + s1Bi
Zi = Ci
The logic operations are generated when s2 = 1. For s2s1s0 = 101 or 111, the function is
reduced to
Xi = Ai
Yi = s0Bi + s1bi
Ci = 0
And thus we get XOR and Complement operations respectively.
Figure 8. Arithmetic Unit Using Fredkin Half Adders

The truth table of the above circuit is given by:
342 | P a g e

Selection
S2
S1
0
0
0
0
0
1
S0
0
1
0
Cin
0
0
0
Output
F=A
F=A+B
F=A-B-1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
X
X
X
F=A-B
F = A XOR B
F = A AND B
F = A
1
0
1
1
Function
Transfer A
Addition
Subtraction with
borrow
Subtraction
XOR
AND
Complement
TABLE 3. Truth table of Designed ALU

IV. CONCLUSION
Quantum Computing is a subject that is still at research level. Physical implementation of this is
still not in our hand. In the paper we have used the Reversible gates and have used their Boolean
characteristics to design a 4 bit ALU. But practical implementation of has not been possible till
date.
V. FUTURE WORK
In future, we will try to build the control unit using micro programs. Then we can find the
complexity of an algorithm in the CPU we built.
References
[1]
[2]
Rajeev Tanwar,Amardeep Singh, Comparative Findings on Reversible Against Classical Circuits,

in Eighteenth Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems ,NIPS05 to be held in
Vancouver, Canada on December 13 - 18th ,2005.
Quantum theory, the Church-Turing principle and the universal quantum computer DAVID
DEUTSCH Appeared in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 400, pp. 97-117 (1985)y
(Communicated by R. Penrose, F.R.S. Received 13 July 1984)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. The Temple of Quantum Computing By Riley T. Perry
2. Digital logic and computer design M. Morris Mano
3. An Introduction to Quantum Computing By Phillip Kaye, Raymond Laflamme, Michele Mosca
4. Quantum computing By Mika Hirvensalo
5. Quantum computation and quantum information By Michael A. Nielsen, Isaac L. Chuang
6. Quantum computing By Jozef Gruska
7. Quantum Computing By Sahni
8. Quantum computing explained By David M. McMahon
343 | P a g e
Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering and Management RAMEM-2014
Finding appropriate Training/Teaching Methods by analyzing the

Gray Matter through Case Studies
1
Arti Kumari,
E-mail: artikm99@gmail.com
2
Deepak Kumar Pradhan,

E-mail: deepakpradhan1220@gmail.com
2
Arindam Mullick,
3
Abhimanyu Kumar,
4
Soumen Bhowmik,
E-mail: soumen_cse@bitm.org.in
5
Kishore Ghosh
Abstract
India being a developing country has been facing lots of challenges in the field of education and
employability. None of our best Universities could find a place in worlds ranking of top
colleges. Uncountable bugs had been invested by the government for finding efficient teaching
methods. Finding an appropriate training or teaching methodology for different age group people
344 | P a g e

is always a major problem for the schools, colleges and industries. Through the case studies of
the Research that had been done previously, we have found that human brain has shown to
exhibit changes in the volume and density of gray matter as a result of training over periods of
several weeks or longer, and through the study of MRI scan of the human brain we can find out
the efficiency of a particular training/teaching methods.
Keywords: MRI, visual cortex, anatomical structure
1. Introduction:
Research on the human brain has demonstrated the changes in the volume and density of gray
matter through training over periods of several weeks or longer. These changes can be induced
much faster by using a training method that is claimed to simulate the rapid learning of word
meanings by children.
Young children learn words very rapidly. It is estimated that between 1 and 2 years of age,
childrens productive vocabulary increases by 300%. Learning even a single new word, however,
is an impressive accomplishment that requires that the child perform several nontrivial tasks.
To learn, the child mainly performs the following tasks.(a) segment the target word from the
speech stream, (b) mapping of the words with different objects in their surroundings , (c) encode
the word form (e.g., the individual phonemes and their sequence), (d) encode something about
the mapping (e.g., where it was, its color, its shape, what it was doing), and (e) store the encoded
information in such a way that the different pieces are linked and can be retrieved at a later point
in time when the child needs to find that word.
To support the above statements here is an example: Once a little girl told her father that Dad if
you continue your smoking then one day the fish inside your body would die.On asking her
how did she come to know that there is a fish inside the body? The little girl then brought the
cigarette packet and shown it to her father. So this way she mapped the fishs head with the
picture shown in that packet.
There are many different types of teaching methodologies are there. Few of them are mentioned
below.
a) Lecture
b) Group discussion
c) Individual presentation
d) Assignments
345 | P a g e

e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Seminars
Workshop
Conferences
Brainstorming
Role play
Case study
Among these Role play method is the most efficient teaching methods
2. Proposed Work
With the help of whole-brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) we show that learning newly
defined and named subcategories of the universal categories green and blue in a period of 2
hours increases the volume of gray matter in V2/3 of the left visual cortex, a region known to
mediate color vision. This pattern of findings demonstrates that the anatomical structure of the
adult human brain can change very quickly, specifically during the acquisition of new, named
categories.
Procedures we are going to implement for this project are as follows:
1. We take the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of an individual before and after the
training.
2. Using MATLAB software we analyze the MRI anatomical images and determine
possible brain structure differences indexed by gray matter volume see in the fig 1.1 and
1.2.
3. After getting the gray matter volume of individuals we cluster the individuals into
different groups and make a database of the result.
4. After analyzing the database and we find the appropriate teaching technique.
Fig. 1.1
346 | P a g e
Fig 1.2 MRI scans of a human brain

Sample report on the basis of case studies for a particular group of engineering Students:
METHODOLOGY
Lecture
Group discussion
Individual presentation
% OF INCREMENT OF GRAY MATTER

0.10
0.11
0.18
Assignments
Seminars
Workshop
Role play
Case study
Conferences
Brainstorming
0.07
0.10
0.15
0.19
0.12
0.125
0.13
Conclusion
The MRI scan is very costly. To over come this problem we will map this case study to some
questionnaires and opinions as it is totally nondeterministic in nature and depend upon so many
other parameters, increase the complexity to make it deterministic. Our objective is minimizing
the cost by designing some software based on questionnaires and opinions.
References
[1] Costa RM, Cohen D, Nicolelis MA (2004) Differential corticostriatal plasticity during fast and slow
motor skill learning in mice. Curr Biol 14:11241134
[2] Draganski B, et al. (2004) Changes in gray matter induced by training. Nature 427:311 312.
[3] Mechelli A,et-l.(2004)Neurolinguistics:tructural plasticity in the bilingual brain.Nature 431:757.
[4] Maguire EA, et al. (2000) Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proc
Natl Acad Sci USA 97:43984403.
347 | P a g e

[5] Zhou K, et al. (2010) Newly trained lexical categories produce lateralized categorical perception of
color. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:99749978.
[6] Hoeft F, et al. (2007) Functional and morphometric brain dissociation between dyslexia and reading
ability. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:42344239.
[7] Tan LH, et al. (2008) Language affects patterns of brain activation associated with perceptual
decision. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:40044009.
[8] Zeki S, et al. (1991) A direct demonstration of functional specialization in human visual
cortex. J Neurosci 11:641649.
[9] Bartels A, Zeki S (2004) Functional brain mapping during free viewing of natural scenes. Hum Brain
Mapp 21:7585.
[10] Quallo MM, et al. (2009) Gray and white matter changes associated with tool-use learning in
macaque monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:1837918384.
[11] Roberson D, Hanley JR (2007) Color vision: color categories vary with language after all. Curr Biol
17:R605R607.
[12] Franklin A, et al. (2008) Categorical perception of color is lateralized to the right hemisphere in
infants, but to the left hemisphere in adults. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:32213225.
348 | P a g e
Satellite image segmentation approach based on marker controlled

watershed algorithm
Pinaki Pratim Acharjya
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Jayashri Deb Sinha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
E-mail: ppacharjya@gmail.com, jdebsinha@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Image segmentation is a very important strategy in image processing where it is a procedure to

separate an image into multiple pixels known as super pixels. Segmentation is the mechanism of
segregating images according to its characteristics. Segmentation of images with low contrast is
a vast challenge for us where contrast of images differs with the color and brightness of the
images. This paper proposes an easy and effective method for image segmentation using
watershed algorithm for low contrast satellite images.
Keywords: Image contrast, Segmentation, Watershed transform, Image processing.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Every image has some characteristics like color and objects. But for image segmentation [1-2]
along with the basic characteristics like color and object, image contrast [3-4] is also very
important for segmentation where contrast of an image is determine by difference in color and
brightness of the object within the same field of view. Good quality contrasted image is
important for segmentation.
Satellite images of various planets, stars, galaxies, comets, nebula and other various extra
terrestrial moving objects have occupied a significant place in radio astronomy, space research
and preparation of distance space vehicle movements (manual or robotized) [5]. The images of
stellar objects have been acquired either through satellite imagery or Hubble space telescope.
These images are very much prone to be affected by a verity of noise like Gaussian noise,
Rayleigh noise, Impulse noise and Speckle noise. At the same time, the contrasts of these images
have been generally found to be low [7] to very long distance and atmosphere turbulence and
349 | P a g e

disturbance and variation of temperature during the transmission of them through space.
Segmentation of these images is a vast challenge for the researchers.
In this paper an effective segmentation technique for the satellite images is proposed with
watershed algorithm using markers [6, 8-12]. For better understanding the following sections
will give a better explanation where in section 2 watershed algorithms with markers has been
discussed. In section 3 proposed approach has been given. The experimental results are shown in
section 4 and finally conclusions are discussed in section 5.
2. MARKER CONTROLLED WATERSHED ALGORITHM:
Figure 1: Watershed segmentation-local minima of gray level yield catchment basins, local maxima define the watershed
lines.
Watershed algorithm is based on morphological process although it can be mixed up with edge
based segmentation to yield a hybrid technique. In mathematical morphology, an image may be
considered as a topographical surface. This is accomplished (the image intensity) as an altitude.
The image pixels having same intensity value constitute one segment within the region of the
image. The set of pixels along which the gray levels changes sharply gives rise to an edge.
Though watershed algorithm a very good method for image segmentation, but this technique
suffers from over segmentation problem. An approach used to control over segmentation is
based on the concept of controlled marker. The concept of markers is a good approach to
control over segmentation. The markers are connected component of an image. There are
internal markers and external markers where i n t e r n a l markers a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
o b j e c t of interest and external markers are associated with the background. This is a very
useful technique for improvisation of watershed transform to overcome the over segmentation
problem. In this technique, the set of the catchment basins of the grayscale image function f
with values in [
, where
] is equal to the set
obtained after the following recursion:
is the threshold set at level l

(1)
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Where, MIN1 is the union of all regional minima at altitude l
And
Where,
(2)
|
(3)
(4)
represents the geodesic distance between a and b within A. Let us note in the set of markers we can
define a function r as:
r(p)
Where p represents pixel coordinates and
(5)
denotes a new value dedicated for initial markers. Now the
recursion definition will be:
(6)
3. PROPOSED APPROACH:
This approach deals with catchment basins and watershed ridge lines in an image by assuming it
as a surface where light pixels are low. But most important contrast of an image is very
important for image segmentation. It is the difference in visual properties that makes difference
between one object of an image from the background or we can say it is the difference in the
color and brightness of the object. So for satisfactory image segmentation image with
satisfactory resolution is essential. In the initial step where we have to crop an image from the
original one where contrast of that image is low. We need to adjust the contrast. Contrast
adjustment isn't usually necessary for segmentation, but it can help the algorithm developer see
and understand the image data better. By applying threshold, cleaning up and overlay the
perimeter on the original image, applying markers for object and background again cleaning up
and overlying and finally we will sum up the watershed transform along with consequence
examination. In this paper we study this approach with a low contrast image of a galaxy and
detecting it. The detailed algorithm is the following:
Step 1: Original image.
Step 2: Contrast enhancement of original image.
Step 3: Apply threshold value.
Step 4: Image overlaying.
Step 5: Apply watershed algorithm with markers.
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4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT:
The experimental results are shown in below from figure 2 to figure 5. A satellite image of a
galaxy with low contrast of 256x256 dimensions is chosen for the study. The original image is
shown in figure 2. The comparative study is also done in this paper. The proposed approach is
compared with the conventional watershed approach. It is found from the study that applying of
conventional watershed approach on the satellite image produces great over segmentation
problem as the watershed algorithm is directly applied on the original image. The over
segmented is shown in figure 3. As a solution of the over segmentation problem the proposed
approach produces much better segmentation results. With proposed approach fist we increase
the contrast of the original image which is shown in figure 4. After overlaying the image the
marker controlled watershed algorithm is applied for generating the final segmented image. The
final segmented image in shown in figure 5. The statistical analysis is also shown in table 1.
Figure 2: Original image.
Figure 3. Segmented image using conventional watershed approach.

352 | P a g e
Figure 4: Image with contrast adjustment.
Figure 4: Final segmented image.

Table I- statistical measurement.
IMAGE
ENTROPY
Original Image (Fig 2)
5.4235
Segmented image with conventional watershed

approach (Fig 3)
Segmented Image with proposed approach (Fig
4)
6.5834
3.3610
5. CONCLUSION:
The goal of image segmentation procedure should be the identification of segment of images
according to the characteristics of image where segmentation of low contrast satellite image is
vast challenge. This paper proposed a robust procedure of image segmentation for low-contrast
satellite images. The present method has been found to yield better output (segmented image) in
term of image quality, clarity and contrast with the avoidance of over segmentation. The
experimental results and statistical measurements confirm the efficiency of the proposed
methodology.
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REFERENCES:
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Surveys, Vol. 24, pp. 05-61, 1992.
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Processing, 7(12), 1684-1699, pp. 1998.
[7] Matthew J. Madden, Segmentation of Images with Low-Contrast Edges, Morgantown, WV 2007
[8] Chi Zhang Ning Zhang Chengjun Li Guoping Wang Marker-controlled Perception-based Mesh Segmentation
[9] Chen Pan, Congxun Zheng, Hao-Jun Wang Robust Color Image Segmentation Based On Mean Shift And
Marker-controlled Watershed Algorithm, Second International Conference on Machine Learning and Cybernetics,
Wan, ,pp 2752-2756, 2-5 November 2003.
[10] Hua LI et al., An improved image segmentation approach based on level set and mathematical
morphology, GREYC-ISMRA, CNRS 6072, 6 Bd Marchal Juin, 14050 Caen, France.
[11] Mahua Bhattacharya, Arpita Das, A Study on Seeded Region Based Improved Watershed
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Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Recent Advances on Mathematics,

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Recent Advances on Mathematics,

Bengal Institute of Technology & Management,

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

2. Professor Bivraj Bhusan Parida,

3. Professor Tapas Ray Mahapatra,

4. Professor Ashok Kumar Mukhopadhyay,

5. Professor Dulal Pal,

6. Professor Arup Kumar Bhaumik,

7. Professor T.K. Chatterjee,

6. Professor Kisalaya Chakroborty,

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Dr. Arup Kumar Baksi

Dr. Hiranmoy Mondal

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

29. Corporate Sustainability through CSR-- the only Path Way

30. A brief Notes: 3D IC Technology& Thermal-Awareness in 3D IC Design

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Sufficiency and duality for interval-valued optimization problems

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

such that the relations

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

changed to the opposite one).

min F ( x) = [ F L ( x), F U ( x)]

where F : R n I and g j : X I , j = 1, 2,..., m are interval-valued functions.

satisfies the suitable Kuhn-Tucker constraint

qualification at x* . Then there exist multipliers 0 < L , U R and 0 j R, j = 1, 2,..., m ,

3. Sufficient optimality conditions

satisfies (1) and (2). Moreover, assume that

and = ( 1 , 2 , , m ), 0 j R, j = 1, 2,..., m , such that

j g Uj are ( p, r ) 3 ( , ) -invex, ( p, r ) 4 ( , ) -invex, respectively with respect

to , at x* with ( L 1 + U 2 + 3 + 4 ) 0 . Then x* is a LU optimal solution to (IVP).

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

The above inequalities together with the

Since L > 0 and U > 0 , from the above inequalities, we get

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

The above inequalities together with the ( p, r ) 3 ( , ) -invexity and ( p, r ) 4 ( , ) -

On adding (3), (4) and (5), we obtain

which in view of ( L 1 + U 2 + 3 + 4 ) 0 , yields

This contradicts (1). Therefore x* is a LU optimal solution to (IVP).

4. Mond-Weir type duality

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

L > 0, U > 0, j 0, j = 1, 2,..., m.

Definition 4.1 A feasible solution ( y* , *L , *U , * ) is said to be a LU optimal solution to

that L F L + U F U + j g Lj + j g Uj is ( p , r ) ( , ) -invex with respect to , at y

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

*j 0, j = 1, 2,..., m , such that

which contradicts the weak duality Theorem 4.1. Hence ( x* , *L , *U , * ) is a LU optimal

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Recurrence relations for radial matrix elements

but also the normalization constants of

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

is the N-dimensional generalization of the square of the angular momentum

operator. It only depends on the angular co-ordinates

. The eigen functions of

hyperspherical harmonics Y such that (Ray, Mahata and Ray (1988))

Recent Advances in Mathematics, Engineering & Management RAMEM-2014

Definition 4.1 A feasible solution ( y* , L , U , * ) is said to be a LU optimal solution to

which contradicts the weak duality Theorem 4.1. Hence ( x* , L , U , * ) is a LU optimal