Photovoltaics

Photovoltaics
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by
converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using
semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power
generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells
containing a photovoltaic material. Mainstream materials presently
used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline
silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium
gallium selenide/sulfide. Due to the increased demand for renewable
energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic
arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.
Solar photovoltaics is a sustainable energy source. By the end of 2011,
a total of 71.1 GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85
TWh/year. And by end of 2012, the 100 GW installed capacity
milestone was achieved.[1] Solar photovoltaics is now, after hydro and
wind power, the third most important renewable energy source in terms
of globally installed capacity. More than 100 countries use solar PV.
Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with
farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building (either
building-integrated photovoltaics or simply rooftop).
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale
and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics has declined steadily since
the first solar cells were manufactured, and the levelised cost of
electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional
electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions. Net
metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs
for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in
many countries.[2] With current technology, photovoltaics recoup the
energy needed to manufacture them in 1.5 (in Southern Europe) to 2.5
years (in Northern Europe).[3]

The Copper Mountain Solar Facility is a 150 MW

solar photovoltaic power plant in Boulder City,
Nevada.

Photovoltaic SUDI shade is an autonomous and

mobile station in France that provides energy for
electric vehicles using solar energy.

Solar panels on the International Space Station

Photovoltaics

Solar cells
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power
by using solar cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of
electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting
electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge
carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic effect was first
observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839.[4][5] The term
photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in
which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light
energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.
Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light which can
be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical
application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other
spacecraft, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for
grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to
convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid power for
remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside
emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of
pipelines.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a
number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials
presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon,
polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and
copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Copper solar cables connect
modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields. Because
of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the
manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced
considerably in recent years.[6][7][8]

Solar cells produce electricity directly from

sunlight

Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre.

Note that this is for a horizontal surface, whereas
solar panels are normally mounted at an angle
and receive more energy per unit area. The small
black dots show the area of solar panels needed to
generate all of the world's energy using 8%
efficient photovoltaics.

Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When more
power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic
modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power
plant the modules must be arranged in multiples as arrays.
Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions (STC) in
"Wp" (Watts peak). The actual power output at a particular point in time may be less than or greater than this
standardized, or "rated," value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other
factors.[9] Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically under 25%, which is lower than many other
industrial sources of electricity.[10]
A significant market has emerged in off-grid locations for solar-power-charged storage-battery based solutions.
These often provide the only electricity available.[11] The first commercial installation of this kind was in 1966 on
Ogami Island in Japan to transition Ogami Lighthouse from gas torch to fully self-sufficient electrical power.

Photovoltaics

Current developments

[12]

Map of solar electricity potential in Europe.

Solar cell productions by region

Photovoltaic
power
worldwide GWp
2005

5.4

2006

6.9

2007

9.5

2008

16.2

2009

23.6

2010

40.7

2011

71.1

2012

102.2

Year end capacities

For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the time they face the sun. Solar trackers achieve this
by moving PV panels to follow the sun. The increase can be by as much as 20% in winter and by as much as 50% in
summer. Static mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of the sun path. Panels are often set to latitude tilt, an
angle equal to the latitude, but performance can be improved by adjusting the angle for summer or winter. Generally,
as with other semiconductor devices, temperatures above room temperature reduce the performance of
photovoltaics.[13]
A number of solar panels may also be mounted vertically above each other in a tower, if the zenith distance of the
Sun is greater than zero, and the tower can be turned horizontally as a whole and each panels additionally around a
horizontal axis. In such a tower the panels can follow the Sun exactly. Such a device may be described as a ladder
mounted on a turnable disk. Each step of that ladder is the middle axis of a rectangular solar panel. In case the zenith
distance of the Sun reaches zero, the "ladder" may be rotated to the north or the south to avoid a solar panel
producing a shadow on a lower solar panel. Instead of an exactly vertical tower one can choose a tower with an axis
directed to the polar star, meaning that it is parallel to the rotation axis of the Earth. In this case the angle between
the axis and the Sun is always larger than 66 degrees. During a day it is only necessary to turn the panels around this
axis to follow the Sun.
Solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly, albeit from a small base, to a total global capacity of 102,156 megawatts
(MW) at the end of 2012. The total power output of the worlds PV capacity in a calendar year is equal to some 110
billion kWh of electricity. This is sufficient to cover the annual power supply needs of over 20 million households in

Photovoltaics
the world, and represents 0.5% of worldwide electricity demand. More than 100 countries use solar PV. World solar
PV capacity (grid-connected) was 7.6 GW in 2007, 16 GW in 2008, 23 GW in 2009, and 40 GW in 2010.[14][15]
Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing)[16] or built into the roof
or walls of a building (building-integrated photovoltaics). Photovoltaics is now, after hydro and wind power, the
third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity.
The 2011 European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) report predicted that, "[In 2011] Europe once again
was the global leader in PV market growth, with 75% of all newly connected capacity and about 75% of global
installed capacity. But non-European markets are showing signs that they may soon shift this balance in their
favour". 2013 could see the installation of 28 GW of PVor as much as 47 GW, as the PV systems price declines.
With proper policy support, balanced market development, and continued industry innovation, photovoltaic (PV) can
continue its remarkable growth rate over the short-, medium- and long-term, and even beyond.
The EPIA/Greenpeace Solar Generation Paradigm Shift Scenario (formerly called Advanced Scenario) from 2010
shows that by the year 2030, 1,845 GW of PV systems could be generating approximately 2,646TWh/year of
electricity around the world. Combined with energy use efficiency improvements, this would represent the electricity
needs of more than 9% of the world's population. By 2050, over 20% of all electricity could be provided by
photovoltaics.[]
However, the EPIA prediction may be pessimistic since official agencies keep underestimating the growth rate of
renewables. A report based on the 2012 BP Statistical Review shows an exponential growth in global solar
generation from 2001 to end 2011, with an approximate doubling of generation every two years. This raises the
possibility that solar power could reach 10% of total global power generation by the end of this decade. To
accomplish this gain in primary energy share, solar will need to advance from the 55.7 TWh generated in 2011 to
approximately 2200 TWh. At current exponential growth rates, those levels could be achieved as early as 2018 rather
than around 2030 as suggested by the EPIA. Solar would provide 100 percent of the current world energy needs by
2027 if the biannual doubling of generation continues.
The San Jose-based company Sunpower produces cells that have an energy conversion ratio of 19.5%, well above
the market average of 1218%. The most efficient solar cell so far is a multi-junction concentrator solar cell with an
efficiency of 43.5% produced by Solar Junction in April 2011. The highest efficiencies achieved without
concentration include Sharp Corporation at 35.8% using a proprietary triple-junction manufacturing technology in
2009,[17] and Boeing Spectrolab (40.7% also using a triple-layer design). A March 2010 experimental demonstration
of a design by a Caltech group led by Harry Atwater which has an absorption efficiency of 85% in sunlight and 95%
at certain wavelengths is claimed to have near perfect quantum efficiency. However, absorption efficiency should
not be confused with the sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency.
Several companies have begun embedding power optimizers into PV modules called "smart modules". These
modules perform maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, measure performance data
for monitoring, and provide additional safety. Such modules can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a
shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module
to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to zero.[18]
At the end of September 2013, IKEA announced that solar panel packages for houses will be sold at 17 United
Kingdom IKEA stores by the end of July 2014. The decision followed a successful pilot project at the Lakeside
IKEA store, whereby one photovoltaic (PV) system was sold almost every day. The panels are manufactured by a
Chinese company named Hanergy Holding Group Ltd.

Photovoltaics

Economics

Source: Apricus
Financial incentives for photovoltaics, such as feed-in tariffs, have often been offered to electricity consumers to
install and operate solar-electric generating systems. Government has sometimes also offered incentives in order to
encourage the PV industry to achieve the economies of scale needed to compete where the cost of PV-generated
electricity is above the cost from the existing grid. Such policies are implemented to promote national or territorial
energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of carbon dioxide emissions which cause global warming.
Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use and buy moreas manufacturers increase
production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop in the years to come.
Solar cell efficiencies vary from 6% for amorphous silicon-based solar cells to 44.0% with multiple-junction
concentrated photovoltaics. Solar cell energy conversion efficiencies for commercially available photovoltaics are
around 1422%.[19] Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) may reduce cost by concentrating up to 1,000 suns (through
magnifying lens) onto a smaller sized photovoltaic cell. However, such concentrated solar power requires
sophisticated heat sink designs, otherwise the photovoltaic cell overheats, which reduces its efficiency and life. To
further exacerbate the concentrated cooling design, the heat sink must be passive, otherwise the power required for
active cooling would reduce the overall efficiency and economy.

Timeline of solar cell energy conversion efficiencies (from National Renewable Energy Laboratory (USA)

Photovoltaics
Crystalline silicon solar cell prices have fallen from $76.67/Watt in 1977 to an estimated $0.74/Watt in 2013. This is
seen as evidence supporting Swanson's law, an observation similar to the famous Moore's Law that states that solar
cell prices fall 20% for every doubling of industry capacity.
As of 2011, the price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60% since the summer of 2008, according to Bloomberg
New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of
electricity in a number of sunny countries; an alternative and consistent price decline figure of 75% from 2007 to
2012 has also been published, though it is unclear whether these figures are specific to the United States or generally
global. The levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an
expanding list of geographic regions, particularly when the time of generation is included, as electricity is worth
more during the day than at night.[20] There has been fierce competition in the supply chain, and further
improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar lie ahead, posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil
fuel generation sources in the next few years. As time progresses, renewable energy technologies generally get
cheaper,[21][22] while fossil fuels generally get more expensive:
The less solar power costs, the more favorably it compares to conventional power, and the more
attractive it becomes to utilities and energy users around the globe. Utility-scale solar power can now be
delivered in California at prices well below $100/MWh ($0.10/kWh) less than most other peak
generators, even those running on low-cost natural gas. Lower solar module costs also stimulate demand
from consumer markets where the cost of solar compares very favorably to retail electric rates.
As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average retail
price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course of 2011.
For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00/watt were achieved. A module price of 0.60 Euro/watt
($0.78/watt) was published for a large scale 5-year deal in April 2012.[23]
By the end of 2012, the "best in class" module price had dropped to $0.50/watt, and was expected to drop to
$0.36/watt by 2017.[24]
In many locations, PV has reached grid parity, which is usually defined as PV production costs at or below retail
electricity prices (though often still above the power station prices for coal or gas-fired generation without their
distribution and other costs). However, in many countries there is still a need for more access to capital to develop
PV projects. To solve this problem securitization has been proposed and used to accelerate development of solar
photovoltaic projects.[25][26] For example, SolarCity offered, the first U.S. asset backed security in the solar industry
in 2013.[27]
Photovoltaic power is also generated during a time of day that is close to peak demand (precedes it) in electricity
systems with high use of air conditioning. More generally, it is now evident that, given a carbon price of $50/ton,
which would raise the price of coal-fired power by 5c/kWh, solar PV will be cost-competitive in most locations. The
declining price of PV has been reflected in rapidly growing installations, totaling about 23 GW in 2011. Although
some consolidation is likely in 2012, due to support cuts in the large markets of Germany and Italy, strong growth
seems likely to continue for the rest of the decade. Already, by one estimate, total investment in renewables for 2011
exceeded investment in carbon-based electricity generation.
In the case of self consumption payback time is calculated based on how much electricity is not brought from the
grid. Additionally, using PV solar power to charge DC batteries, as used in Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and
Electric Vehicles, leads to greater efficiencies. Traditionally, DC generated electricity from solar PV must be
converted to AC for buildings, at an average 10% loss during the conversion. An additional efficiency loss occurs in
the transition back to DC for battery driven devices and vehicles, and using various interest rates and energy price
changes were calculated to find present values that range from $2,057.13 to $8,213.64 (analysis from 2009).[28]
For example in Germany with electricity prices of 0.25 euro/KWh and Insolation of 900 KWh/KW one KWp will
save 225 euro per year and with installation cost of 1700 euro/KWp means that the system will pay back in less than

Photovoltaics

7 years.[29]

Applications
Power stations
Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in
Europe.[30] As of July 2012, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants
in the world are the Agua Caliente Solar Project (USA, 247 MW),
Charanka Solar Park (India, 214 MW), Golmud Solar Park (China, 200
MW), Perovo Solar Park (Ukraine 100 MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic
Power Plant (Canada, 97 MW), Brandenburg-Briest Solarpark
(Germany 91 MW), Solarpark Finow Tower (Germany 84.7 MW),
Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2 MW),
Eggebek Solar Park (Germany 83.6 MW), Senftenberg Solarpark
(Germany 82 MW), Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7 MW),
Okhotnykovo Solar Park (Ukraine, 80MW), Lopburi Solar Farm
(Thailand 73.16 MW), Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant (Italy, 72
MW), and the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 71.8MW).

Part of the Senftenberg Solarpark, a solar

photovoltaic power plant located on former
open-pit mining areas close to the city of
Senftenberg, in Eastern Germany. The 78 MW
Phase 1 of the plant was completed within three
months.

There are also many large plants under construction. The Desert
Sunlight Solar Farm under construction in Riverside County,
California and Topaz Solar Farm being built in San Luis Obispo
County, California are both 550 MW solar parks that will use thin-film
solar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar. The Blythe Solar
Power Project is a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in
Riverside County, California. The California Valley Solar Ranch
President Barack Obama speaks at the DeSoto
(CVSR) is a 250megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic power plant,
Next Generation Solar Energy Center.
which is being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast of
California Valley. The 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is a First
Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area of the Western Mojave Desert,
and due to be completed in 2013. The Mesquite Solar project is a photovoltaic solar power plant being built in
Arlington, Maricopa County, Arizona, owned by Sempra Generation. Phase1 will have a nameplate capacity of
150megawatts.
Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun's
daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. There are no fuel
costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.

Photovoltaics

In buildings
Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either
integrated into them, mounted on them or mounted nearby on the
ground.
Arrays are most often retrofitted into existing buildings, usually
mounted on top of the existing roof structure or on the existing walls.
Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but
connected by cable to supply power for the building. In 2010, more
than four-fifths of the 9,000 MW of solar PV operating in Germany
were installed on rooftops.[31] Building-integrated photovoltaics
Photovoltaic wall at MNACTEC Terrassa in
(BIPV) are increasingly incorporated into new domestic and industrial
Spain
buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power.[32]
Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are also
common. A 2011 study using thermal imaging has shown that solar panels, provided there is an open gap in which
air can circulate between them and the roof, provide a passive cooling effect on buildings during the day and also
keep accumulated heat in at night.
The power output of photovoltaic systems for installation in buildings is usually described in kilowatt-peak units
(kWp).

In transport

Winner of the South African Solar Challenge

PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is rarely

used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is being
used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. Some
automobiles are fitted with solar powered air conditioning to limit
interior temperatures on hot days.[33] A self-contained solar vehicle
would have limited power and utility, but a solar-charged electric
vehicle allows use of solar power for transportation. Solar-powered
cars, boats[34] and airplanes[35] have been demonstrated, with the most
practical and likely of these being solar cars.[36]

Photovoltaics

Standalone devices
Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators and
novelty devices. Improvements in integrated circuits and low power liquid
crystal displays make it possible to power such devices for several years
between battery changes, making PV use less common. In contrast, solar
powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently in locations
where significant connection cost makes grid power prohibitively
expensive. Such applications include solar lamps, water pumps, parking
meters,[37] emergency telephones, trash compactors,[38] temporary traffic
signs, charging stations,[39][40] and remote guard posts and signals.

Rural electrification
Unlike the past decade, which saw solar solutions purchased mainly by
international donors, it is now the locals who are increasingly opening their
wallets to make the switch from their traditional energy means. That is
because solar products prices in recent years have declined to become
cheaper than kerosene and batteries.
In Cambodia, for example, villagers can buy a solar lantern at US$25 and
use it for years without any extra costs, where their previous spending on
kerosene for lighting was about $2.5 per month, or $30 per year. In Kenya a
solar kit that provides bright light or powers a radio or cell phone costs
under $30 at retail stores. By switching to this kit Kenyans can save $120
per year on kerosene lighting, radio batteries and cell phone recharging
fees.[41]

Solar parking paystation.

Developing countries where many villages are often more than five kilometers away from grid power are
increasingly using photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a rural lighting program has been providing solar
powered LED lighting to replace kerosene lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a few
months' supply of kerosene.[42][43] Cuba is working to provide solar power for areas that are off grid.[44] These are
areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for going solar, though the lack of profitability has
relegated such endeavors to humanitarian efforts. However, solar rural electrification projects have been difficult to
sustain due to unfavorable economics, lack of technical support, and a legacy of ulterior motives of north-to-south
technology transfer.

Photovoltaics

10

Solar roadways
In December 2008, the Oregon Department of Transportation placed in
service the nations first solar photovoltaic system in a U.S. highway
right-of-way. The 104-kilowatt (kW) array produces enough electricity
to offset approximately one-third of the electricity needed to light the
Interstate highway interchange where it is located.
A 45mi (72km) section of roadway in Idaho is being used to test the
possibility of installing solar panels into the road surface, as roads are
generally unobstructed to the sun and represent about the percentage of
land area needed to replace other energy sources with solar power.[45]

The 104kW photovoltaic system along the

highways Interstate 5 and Interstate 205 near
Tualatin, Oregon in December 2008.

Floatovoltaics
In May 2008, the Far Niente Winery in Oakville, CA pioneered the world's first "floatovoltaic" system by installing
994 photovoltaic solar panels onto 130 pontoons and floating them on the winery's irrigation pond. The floating
system generates about 477 kW of peak output and when combined with an array of cells located adjacent to the
pond is able to fully offset the winery's electricity consumption.[46]
The primary benefit of a floatovoltaic system is that it avoids the need to sacrifice valuable land area that could be
used for another purpose. In the case of the Far Niente Winery, the floating system saved three-quarters of an acre
that would have been required for a land-based system. That land area can instead be used to grow an amount of
grapes able to produce $150,000 of bottled wine.[47] Another benefit of a floatovoltaic system is that the panels are
kept at a cooler temperature than they would be on land, leading to a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion.
The floating panels also reduce the amount of water lost through evaporation and inhibit the growth of algae.[48]

Plug in solar
In 2012, a UL approved solar panel was introduced which is simply plugged into an electrical outlet. It senses mains
voltage and waits 5 minutes before activating the inverter, and shuts down immediately if lines voltage is removed,
eliminating any shock hazard from touching the plug prongs. Up to five 240 watt panels can be connected to one
outlet.[49]

Dye solar cells

The dye solar cell module is very young photovoltiac technology, The ultimate aim is the successful integration of
solar modules into the building facade. Researchers at the Fraunhofer ISE have succeeded in producing the
worldwide first dye solar cell module.

Telecommunication and signalling

Solar PV power is ideally suited for telecommunication applications such as local telephone exchange, radio and TV
broadcasting, microwave and other forms of electronic communication links. This is because, in most
telecommunication application, storage batteries are already in use and the electrical system is basically DC. In hilly
and mountainous terrain, radio and TV signals may not reach as they get blocked or reflected back due to undulating
terrain. At these locations, low power transmitters (LPT) are installed to receive and retransmit the signal for local
population.[50]

Photovoltaics

Spacecraft applications
Spacecraft operating in the inner solar system usually
rely on the use of photovoltaic solar panels to derive
electricity from sunlight.
Photovoltaic solar cells on spacecraft was one of the
earliest applications of photovoltaic cells. The first
spacecraft to use solar panels was the Vanguard 1
satellite, launched by the US in 1958.
Solar panels on spacecraft supply power for two
principle uses:
power to run the sensors, active heating and cooling,
A solar panel array of the International Space Station (Expedition 17
and telemetry.
crew, August 2008)
power for spacecraft propulsionelectric
propulsion, sometimes called solar-electric propulsion.[51] See also energy needed for propulsion methods.
For both uses, the figure of merit of the solar panels is the power generated per unit mass,[citation needed] as an upper
limit of the power the spacecraft has at its disposal per kg. spacecraft (including solar panels).Wikipedia:Please
clarify To increase the power generated per kg., typical spacecraft solar panels use close-packed solar cell rectangles
that cover nearly 100% of the sun-visible area of the solar panels, rather than the solar wafer circles, which, even
though close-packed, cover about 90% of the sun-visible area of typical on earth-based solar panels. However, some
spacecraft solar panels have solar cells that cover as little as 30% of the sun-visible area.

Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector

Main article: Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector.
Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors, sometimes known as hybrid PV/T systems or PVT, are systems
that convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy. These systems combine a photovoltaic cell, which
converts electromagnetic radiation (photons) into electricity, with a solar thermal collector, which captures the
remaining energy and removes waste heat from the PV module. The capture of both electricity and heat allow these
devices to have higher exergy[52] and thus be more overall energy efficient than solar photovoltaic (PV) or solar
thermal alone.[53]

Advantages
The 122PW of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentifulalmost 10,000 times more than the 13TW
equivalent of average power consumed in 2005 by humans.[54] This abundance leads to the suggestion that it will not
be long before solar energy will become the world's primary energy source.[55] Additionally, solar electric generation
has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m2) among renewable energies.
Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable using existing
pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development[56] and policies are being produced that
encourage recycling from producers.
PV installations can operate for 100 years or even more [57] with little maintenance or intervention after their initial
set-up, so after the initial capital cost of building any solar power plant, operating costs are extremely low compared
to existing power technologies.
Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission
losses in the US were approximately 7.2% in 1995).[58]

11

Photovoltaics
Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in the development of
solar cells, so there is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high efficiency solar cells
already have efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells[59] and efficiencies are rapidly
rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling.[60]

Disadvantages
In some states of the United States, much of the investment in a home-mounted system may be lost if the
home-owner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city of Berkeley developed an
innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is transferred with the home
to pay for the solar panels. Now known as PACE, Property Assessed Clean Energy, 28 U.S. states have duplicated
this solution.[61]
There is evidence, at least in California, that the presence of a home-mounted solar system can actually increase the
value of a home. According to a paper published in April 2011 by the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory titled An Analysis of the Effects of Residential Photovoltaic Energy Systems on Home Sales Prices in
California:
The research finds strong evidence that homes with PV systems in California have sold for a premium
over comparable homes without PV systems. More specifically, estimates for average PV premiums
range from approximately $3.9 to $6.4 per installed watt (DC) among a large number of different model
specifications, with most models coalescing near $5.5/watt. That value corresponds to a premium of
approximately $17,000 for a relatively new 3,100 watt PV system (the average size of PV systems in the
study).

References
[1] Global Solar PV installed Capacity crosses 100GW Mark (http:/ / www. renewindians. com/ 2013/ 02/
global-solar-pv-installed-capacity-crosses-100GW-Mark. html). renewindians.com (11 February 2013).
[2] Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century (REN21), Renewables 2010 Global Status Report (http:/ / www. ren21. net/
REN21Activities/ GlobalStatusReport. aspx), Paris, 2010, pp. 180.
[3] Photovoltaics Report (http:/ / www. ise. fraunhofer. de/ de/ downloads/ pdf-files/ aktuelles/ photovoltaics-report-in-englischer-sprache. pdf).
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