Ergonomics

Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the science of designing the workplace
environment to fit the user. Proper ergonomic design is
necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which can
develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.[1]
The International Ergonomics
ergonomics as follows:[2]

Association

defines

Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific

discipline concerned with the understanding of
interactions among humans and other elements of a
system, and the profession that applies theory,
principles, data and methods to design in order to
optimize human well-being and overall system
performance.
Ergonomics is employed to fulfill the two goals of health
and productivity. It is relevant in the design of such
things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to
machines.

Overview
Ergonomics is concerned with the fit between people
and their technological tools and environments. It takes
account of the user's capabilities and limitations in
seeking to ensure that tasks, equipment, information and
the environment suit each user.

Ergonomics: the science of designing user interaction with

equipment and workplaces to fit the user.

To assess the fit between a person and the used technology, ergonomists consider the job (activity) being done and
the demands on the user; the equipment used (its size, shape, and how appropriate it is for the task), and the
information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed). Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of
humans and their environments, including anthropometry, biomechanics, mechanical engineering, industrial
engineering, industrial design, kinesiology, physiology and psychology.
Typically, an ergonomist will have a BA or BS in Psychology, Industrial/Mechanical Engineering or Industrial
Design or Health Sciences, and usually an MA, MS or PhD in a related discipline. Many universities offer Master of
Science degrees in Ergonomics, while some offer Master of Ergonomics or Master of Human Factors degrees. In the
2000s, occupational therapists have been moving into the field of ergonomics and the field has been heralded as one
of the top ten emerging practice areas.[3]
Physical ergonomics: is concerned with human anatomical, and some of the anthropometric, physiological and
bio mechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.
Cognitive ergonomics: is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor
response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. (Relevant topics include
mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability, work
stress and training as these may relate to human-system and Human-Computer Interaction design.)
Organizational ergonomics: is concerned with the optimization of socio technical systems, including their
organizational structures, policies, and processes.(Relevant topics include communication, crew resource

Ergonomics
management, work design, design of working times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics,
cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management.

History and etymology

The foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture of Ancient
Greece. A good deal of evidence indicates that Hellenic civilization in the 5th century BC used ergonomic principles
in the design of their tools, jobs, and workplaces. One outstanding example of this can be found in the description
Hippocrates gave of how a surgeon's workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged
(see Marmaras, Poulakakis and Papakostopoulos, 1999).[4] It is also true that archaeological records of the early
Egyptians Dynasties made tools, household equipment, among others that illustrated ergonomic principles. It is
therefore questionable whether the claim by Marmaras, et al., regarding the origin of ergonomics, can be justified (I
G Okorji, 2009).
The term ergonomics is derived from the Greek words ergon [work] and nomos [natural laws] and first entered the
modern lexicon when Wojciech Jastrzbowski used the word in his 1857 article Rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy,
opartej na prawdach poczerpnitych z Nauki Przyrody (The Outline of Ergonomics, i.e. Science of Work, Based on
the Truths Taken from the Natural Science).
Later, in the 19th century, Frederick Winslow Taylor pioneered the "Scientific Management" method, which
proposed a way to find the optimum method for carrying out a given task. Taylor found that he could, for example,
triple the amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels
until the fastest shoveling rate was reached. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth expanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s
to develop "Time and Motion Studies". They aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and
actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in bricklaying from 18 to 4.5,
allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.
World War II marked the development of new and complex machines and weaponry, and these made new demands
on operators' cognition. The decision-making, attention, situational awareness and hand-eye coordination of the
machine's operator became key in the success or failure of a task. It was observed that fully functional aircraft, flown
by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In 1943, Alphonse Chapanis, a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that this
so-called "pilot error" could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls replaced confusing
designs in airplane cockpits.
In the decades since the war, ergonomics has continued to flourish and diversify. The Space Age created new human
factors issues such as weightlessness and extreme g-forces. How far could environments in space be tolerated, and
what effects would they have on the mind and body? The dawn of the Information Age has resulted in the new
ergonomics field of human-computer interaction (HCI). Likewise, the growing demand for and competition among
consumer goods and electronics has resulted in more companies including human factors in product design.
The coining of the term Ergonomics, however, is now widely attributed to British psychologist Hywel Murrell, at the
1949 meeting at the UK's Admiralty, which led to the foundation of The Ergonomics Society. He used it to
encompass the studies in which he had been engaged during and after the Second World War.

Applications
More than twenty technical subgroups within the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society [5] (HFES) indicate the
range of applications for ergonomics. Human factors engineering continues to be successfully applied in the fields of
aerospace, aging, health care, IT, product design, transportation, training, nuclear and virtual environments, among
others. Kim Vicente, a University of Toronto Professor of Ergonomics, argues that the nuclear disaster in Chernobyl
is attributable to plant designers not paying enough attention to human factors. "The operators were trained but the
complexity of the reactor and the control panels nevertheless outstripped their ability to grasp what they were seeing

Ergonomics
[during the prelude to the disaster]."
Physical ergonomics is important in the medical field, particularly to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or
disorders such as arthritis (both chronic and temporary) or carpal tunnel syndrome. Pressure that is insignificant or
imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be very painful, or render a device unusable, for those who
are. Many ergonomically designed products are also used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders, and to
treat pressure-related chronic pain.
Human factors issues arise in simple systems and consumer products as well. Some examples include cellular
telephones and other hand held devices that continue to shrink yet grow more complex (a phenomenon referred to as
"creeping featurism"), millions of VCRs blinking "12:00" across the world because very few people can figure out
how to program them, or alarm clocks that allow sleepy users to inadvertently turn off the alarm when they mean to
hit 'snooze'. A user-centered design (UCD), also known as a systems approach or the usability engineering life cycle
aims to improve the user-system.

Design of ergonomics experiments

There is a specific series of steps that should be used in order to properly design an ergonomics experiment. First,
one should select a problem that has practical impact. The problem should support or test a current theory. The user
should select one or a few dependent variable(s) which usually measures safety, health, and/or physiological
performance. Independent variable(s) should also be chosen at different levels. Normally, this involves paid
participants, the existing environment, equipment, and/or software. When testing the users, one should give careful
instructions describing the method or task and then get voluntary consent. The user should recognize all the possible
combination's and interactions to notice the many differences that could occur. Multiple observations and trials
should be conducted and compared to maximize the best results. Once completed, redesigning within and between
subjects should be done to vary the data. It is often that permission is needed from the Institutional Review Board
before an experiment can be done. A mathematical model should be used so that the data will be clear once the
experiment is completed.
The experiment starts with a pilot test. Make sure in advance that the subjects understand the test, the equipment
works, and that the test is able to be finished within the given time. When the experiment actually begins, the
subjects should be paid for their work. All times and other measurements should be carefully measured and recorded.
Once all the data is compiled, it should be analyzed, reduced, and formatted in the right way. A report explaining the
experiment should be written. It should often display statistics including an ANOVA table, plots, and means of
central tendency. A final paper should be written and edited after numerous drafts to ensure an adequate report is the
final product.

Ergonomics

Ergonomics in the workplace

Outside of the discipline itself, the term 'ergonomics' is
generally used to refer to physical ergonomics as it relates
to the workplace (as in for example ergonomic chairs and
keyboards). Ergonomics in the workplace has to do
largely with the safety of employees, both long and
short-term. Ergonomics can help reduce costs by
improving safety. This would decrease the money paid
out in workers compensation. For example, over five
million workers sustain overextension injuries per year.
Through ergonomics, workplaces can be designed so that
workers do not have to overextend themselves and the
manufacturing industry could save billions in workers
compensation.

Fundamentals for the Flexible Workplace Variability and

compatibility with desk components, that flex from individual
work activities to team settings. Workstations provide supportive
[6]
ergonomics for task-intensive environments.

Workplaces may either take the reactive or proactive approach when applying ergonomics practices. Reactive
ergonomics is when something needs to be fixed, and corrective action is taken. Proactive ergonomics is the process
of seeking areas that could be improved and fixing the issues before they become a large problem. Problems may be
fixed through equipment design, task design, or environmental design. Equipment design changes the actual,
physical devices used by people. Task design changes what people do with the equipment. Environmental design
changes the environment in which people work, but not the physical equipment they use.

Fields of ergonomics
Engineering psychology
Engineering psychology is an interdisciplinary part of ergonomics and studies the relationships of people to
machines, with the intent of improving such relationships. This may involve redesigning equipment, changing the
way people use machines, or changing the location in which the work takes place. Often, the work of an engineering
psychologist is described as making the relationship more "user-friendly."
Engineering psychology is an applied field of psychology concerned with psychological factors in the design and use
of equipment. Human factors is broader than engineering psychology, which is focused specifically on designing
systems that accommodate the information-processing capabilities of the brain.[7]

Macroergonomics
Macroergonomics is an approach to ergonomics that emphasizes a broad system view of design, examining
organizational environments, culture, history, and work goals. It deals with the physical design of tools and the
environment. It is the study of the society/technology interface and their consequences for relationships, processes,
and institutions. It also deals with the optimization of the designs of organizational and work systems through the
consideration of personnel, technological, and environmental variables and their interactions. The goal of
macroergonomics is a completely efficient work system at both the macro- and micro-ergonomic level which results
in improved productivity, and employee satisfaction, health, safety, and commitment. It analyzes the whole system,
finds how each element should be placed in the system, and considers all aspects for a fully efficient system. A
misplaced element in the system can lead to total failure.
History
Macroergonomics, also known as organizational design and management factors, deals with the overall design of
work systems. This domain did not begin to receive recognition as a sub-discipline of ergonomics until the beginning

Ergonomics
of the 1980s. The idea and current perspective of the discipline was the work of the U.S. Human Factors Society
Select Committee on the Future of Human Factors, 1980-2000. This committee was formed to analyze trends in all
aspects of life and to look at how they would impact ergonomics over the following 20 years. The developments they
found include:
1. Breakthroughs in technology that would change the nature of work, such as the desktop computer,
2. The need for organizations to adapt to the expectations and needs of this more mature workforce,
3. Differences between the post-World War II generation and the older generation regarding their expectations the
nature of the new workplace,
4. The inability of solely microergonomics to achieve reductions in lost-time accidents and injuries and increases in
productivity,
5. Increasing workplace liability litigation based on safety design deficiencies.
These predictions have become and continue to become reality. The macroergonomic intervention in the workplace
has been particularly effective in establishing a work culture that promotes and sustains performance and safety
improvements.
Methods[8]
Cognitive Walkthrough Method: This method is a usability inspection method in which the evaluators can apply
user perspective to task scenarios to identify design problems. As applied to macroergonomics, evaluators are
able to analyze the usability of work system designs to identify how well a work system is organized and how
well the workflow is integrated.
Kansei Method: This is a method that transforms consumers responses to new products into design specifications.
As applied to macroergonomics, this method can translate employees responses to changes to a work system into
design specifications.
High Integration of Technology, Organization, and People (HITOP): This is a manual procedure done
step-by-step to apply technological change to the workplace. It allows managers to be more aware of the human
and organizational aspects of their technology plans, allowing them to efficiently integrate technology in these
contexts.
Top Modeler: This model helps manufacturing companies identify the organizational changes needed when new
technologies are being considered for their process.
Computer-integrated Manufacturing, Organization, and People System Design (CIMOP): This model allows for
evaluating computer-integrated manufacturing, organization, and people system design based on knowledge of
the system.
Anthropotechnology: This method considers analysis and design modification of systems for the efficient transfer
of technology from one culture to another.
Systems Analysis Tool (SAT): This is a method to conduct systematic trade-off evaluations of work-system
intervention alternatives.
Macroergonomic Analysis of Structure (MAS): This method analyzes the structure of work systems according to
their compatibility with unique sociotechnical aspects.
Macroergonomic Analysis and Design (MEAD): This method assesses work-system processes by using a ten-step
process.

Ergonomics

Seating ergonomics
The best way to reduce pressure in the back is to be in a standing position. However, there are times when you need
to sit. When sitting, the main part of the body weight is transferred to the seat. Some weight is also transferred to the
floor, back rest, and armrests. Where the weight is transferred is the key to a good seat design. When the proper areas
are not supported, sitting in a seat all day can put unwanted pressure on the back causing pain.
The lumbar (bottom five vertebrate in the spine) needs to be supported to decrease disc pressure. Providing both a
seat back that inclines backwards and has a lumbar support is critical to prevent excessive low back pressures. The
combination which minimizes pressure on the lower back is having a backrest inclination of 120 degrees and a
lumbar support of 5cm. The 120 degrees inclination means the angle between the seat and the backrest should be
120 degrees. The lumbar support of 5cm means the chair backrest supports the lumbar by sticking out 5cm in the
lower back area. One drawback to creating an open body angle by moving the backrest backwards is that it takes
ones body away from the tasking position, which typically involves leaning inward towards a desk or table. One
solution to this problem can be found in the kneeling chair. A proper kneeling chair creates the open body angle by
lowering the angle of the lower body, keeping the spine in alignment and the sitter properly positioned to task. The
benefit of this position is that if one leans inward, the body angle remains 90 degrees or wider. One mis-perception
regarding kneeling chairs is that the body's weight bears on the knees, and thus users with poor knees cannot use the
chair. This misperception has led to a generation of kneeling chairs that attempt to correct this by providing a
horizontal seating surface with an ancillary knee pad. This design wholly defeats the purpose of the chair. In a proper
kneeling chair, some of the weight bears on the shins, not the knees, but the primary function of the shin rests (knee
rests) are to keep one from falling forward out of the chair. Most of the weight remains on the buttocks. Another way
to keep the body from falling forward is with a saddle seat. This type of seat is generally seen in some sit stand
stools, which seek to emulate the riding or saddle position of a horseback rider, the first "job" involving extended
periods of sitting.
Another key to reducing lumbar disc pressure is the use of armrests. They help by putting the force of your body not
entirely on the seat and back rest, but putting some of this pressure on the armrests. Armrest needs to be adjustable in
height to assure shoulders are not overstressed.

Organizations
The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from
around the world. The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and to
improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of application and contribution to society. As of September 2008,
the International Ergonomics Association has 46 federated societies and 2 affiliated societies.
The International Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) is a professional organization for mobility engineering
professionals in the aerospace, automotive, and commercial vehicle industries. The Society is a standards
development organization for the engineering of powered vehicles of all kinds, including cars, trucks, boats, aircraft,
and others. The Society of Automotive Engineers has established a number of standards used in the automotive
industry and elsewhere. It encourages the design of vehicles in accordance with established Human Factors
principles. It is one the most influential organizations with respect to Ergonomics work in Automotive design. This
society regularly holds conferences which address topics spanning all aspects of Human Factors/Ergonomics.
In the UK the professional body for ergonomists is The Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors and in the USA
it is the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. In Europe professional certification is managed by the Centre for
Registration of European Ergonomists (CREE). In the USA the Board of Certification in Professional Ergonomics
performs this function. In Canada the professional body for ergonomists is the Association of Canadian Ergonomists.

Ergonomics

See also
Related subjects

Related fields

Related scientists

Back injury
Carpal tunnel syndrome
Cognitive ergonomics
Cognitive load
Human-computer interaction
Industrial noise
Manual handling
Repetitive strain injury
Rohmert's law

Anthropometrics
Design for All
Environmental design
Industrial Design
Industrial hygiene
Activity-centered ergonomics
Human factors
Light ergonomics
Occupational health psychology
Occupational therapy
Participatory Ergonomics
Systems engineering
Systems psychology

Shihab S. Asfour
M. M. Ayoub
Alphonse Chapanis
Henry Dreyfuss
W. E. Hick
John Chris Jones
Neville A. Stanton

References
[1] Berkeley Lab. Integrated Safety Management: Ergonomics (http:/ / www. lbl. gov/ ehs/ pub811/ hazards/ ergonomics. html). Website.
Retrieved 9 July 2008.
[2] International Ergonomics Association. What is Ergonomics (http:/ / iea. cc/ browse. php?contID=what_is_ergonomics). Website. Retrieved
21 August 2008.
[3] Top 10 Emerging Practice Areas To Watch in the New Millennium (http:/ / www. aota. org/ nonmembers/ area1/ links/ link61. asp), article on
American Occupational Therapy Association web site [sic]
[4] Marmaras, N., Poulakakis, G. and Papakostopoulos, V. (1999). Ergonomic design in ancient Greece. Applied Ergonomics, 30 (4), pp.
361-368. (http:/ / simor. ntua. gr/ ergou/ people/ CV-MarmarasNicolas. htm)
[5] Technical Groups page at HFES Web site (http:/ / www. hfes. org/ web/ TechnicalGroups/ technical. html)
[6] Unicor.gov. XXI Notes System Furniture (http:/ / www. unicor. gov/ office_furniture/ overview/ system_furniture/ ssXXInotes/ ). Retrieved 9
July 2008.
[7] Wickens, C. and Hollands, J. (1999), Engineering Psychology and Human Performance, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0321047117
[8] Brookhuis, K., Hedge, A., Hendrick, H., Salas, E., and Stanton, N. (2005). Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Models. Florida:
CRC Press.

Further reading
Books
Jan Dul and Bernard Weerdmeester, Ergonomics for Beginners - - A classic introduction on ergonomics Original title: Vademecum Ergonomie (Dutch) -published and updated since 1960's
Stephen Pheasant, Bodyspace - - A classic exploration of ergonomics
Kim Vicente, The Human Factor Full of examples and statistics illustrating the gap between existing technology
and the human mind, with suggestions to narrow it
Donald Norman, The Design of Everyday Things - - An entertaining user-centered critique of nearly every gadget
out there (at the time it was published)
Liu, Y (2007). IOE 333. Course pack. Industrial and Operations Engineering 333 (Introduction to Ergonomics),
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Winter 2007
Wilson & Corlett, Evaluation of Human Work A practical ergonomics methodology. Warning: very technical and
not a suitable 'intro' to ergonomics
Wickens and Hollands (200). Engineering Psychology and Human Performance. Discusses memory, attention,
decision making, stress and human error, among other topics
Alvin R. Tilley & Henry Dreyfuss Associates (1993, 2002), The Measure of Man & Woman: Human Factors in
Design A human factors design manual.

Ergonomics
Valerie J Gawron (2000), Human Performance Measures Handbook Lawrence Erlbaum Associates - A useful
summary of human performance measures.
Peter Opsvik (2009), "Re-Thinking Sitting" Interesting insights on the history of the chair and how we sit from an
ergonomic pioneer
Thomas J. Armstrong (2008), Chapter 10: Allowances, Localized Fatigue, Musculoskeletal Disorders, and
Biomechanics (not yet published)
Computer Ergonomics & Work Related Upper Limb Disorder Prevention- Making The Business Case For
Pro-active Ergonomics (Rooney et al, 2008)
Peer-reviewed Publications
(numbers between brackets are the ISI impact factor 2001-2003)

Behaviour & Information Technology (0.915 (2008))

Ergonomics (0.747)
Applied Ergonomics (0.738)
Human Factors (0.723)
International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics (0.395)
Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing (0.311)
Travail Humain (0.260)

Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science (-)

International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics (-)

External links
Human Factors and Ergonomics resources (http://www.humanics-es.com/recc-ergonomics.
htm#humanfactorsergonomics)
NIOSH Topic Page on Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/
ergonomics/)
Office Ergonomics Information (http://osha.europa.eu/publications/e-facts/efact13/13_office_ergonomics.
pdf) from European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
Ergonomic Research Resources (http://www.mcergo.com/ergo-resources/)

Article Sources and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Computer Workstation Variables.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Computer_Workstation_Variables.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Berkeley
Lab
Image:Flexible Workplace Variability.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flexible_Workplace_Variability.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unicor.gov

License
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