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Chris Hart
Richard Trussel
RC220A
3 August 2007
The Concept of the Superior Man in Confucianism and Taoism
The concept of the Superior Man is presented in both Confucianism and
Taoism. While both religions share roots in early Chinese beliefs and have some general,
broad themes in common they are also divergent in some beliefs, customs and practices.
It is through this lens that I will examine the idea of the Superior Man in both belief
systems.
In order to compare and contrast this concept, we must first understand how each
religion defines a Superior Man. In Confucianism, this idea is presented in the Analects
of Confucius, the first of four books laying out Confucian teachings. In Analects, several
virtues are described through dialogue. The importance of learning is described in
Analects 1, Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance? Later, the
philosopher Tsang continues this theme by saying that he examines himself on three
points, the third of which is whether I have mastered and practiced the instructions of
my teacher.
In the next passage, the philosopher Yu is quoted: Few are fond of offending
their superiors. Filiality and fraternal submission are they not the root of all
benevolent actions? The Master continues this discussion in Analects 6: A youth, when
at home, should be filial, and away from home should be respectful to his elders.
When he has time and opportunity he should employ [his skills] in the arts. Thus,

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this dense passage conveys the importance of respecting ones family, elders and teachers
as well as the need to practice the arts.
Tsang responds to the Master later in the same passage that there should be
careful attention to perform the funeral rites for parents, and let them be followed when
parents are long gone with ceremonies of sacrifice. In other words, the parent-child
relationship is so important it is not enough to respect ones parents in life they must
also be honored in and after death.
The foundation of the importance placed on relationships and respect was that
personal excellence was not a naturally emergent quality of society. Instead, each
individual needed to take care of others and themselves by living virtuously. A hierarchy
of relationships is defined in Confucianism and within these hierarchies both the superior
and the subordinate have a duty. Through fulfillment of those duties, every individual
ensures that everyone is cared for and that the society is pleasant.
In order to understand the Taoist concept of Superior Man one must first
understand the Tao. The book Tao Te Ching is seen as the central scripture of Taoism.
Paradoxically, the book states that the Tao is beyond any description. Nonetheless, some
description is attempted in the book, saying that that Tao is formless. It can be
experienced but is not directly observable. All things that exist are manifestations of
the Tao. Despite this fact, the Tao is not a supreme being; in fact, it has no personality.
The Tao is essentially nature, but exists at a deeper, eternal and completely unified level.
It is within this context that the Superior Man exists in Taoism. The Taoist
definition of the Superior Man is explained in the book Chuang-tzu, named so after its
author. In book 12, Chang-tzu explains that Acting without actions is what is called

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Heaven-like. Conduct free from the ambition of being distinguished above others is
what is called being generous. In other words, the actions of a Superior Man should be
effortless.
Chang-tzu continues his description, saying: He who preserves the body and
gives the fullest development to the life, he who establishes the attributes of the Tao and
clearly displays the Tao, is possessed of kingly qualities. Thus, one should exhibit the
attributes of the Tao, but should do so in an effortless way. The Tao is unified, therefore
one should not introduce relativity or separation into concepts or relationships; any
distinction or relativity is artificial it is not Tao.
In a broad sense, the goal of the Superior Man in both Confucianism and Taoism
is to live in harmony. The two religions diverge in how they define this harmony,
however. Where Taoism stresses harmony with nature through the exhibition of the Tao,
Confucianism elevates the importance of harmonious living within society. Considering
only this aspect of the religions, they do not really oppose each other. One could live in
harmony with both nature and with society without conflict.
The religions diverge more in the way in which one achieves harmony. In
Confucianism, one must always strive to better him- or her-self. This striving takes many
forms, but higher education and appreciation of the arts is paramount. In practice,
however, these goals cannot always be pursued equally by everyone in Confucian society.
In traditional Confucianism, women have a subordinate status to men and are not always
afforded the same opportunities. Similarly, higher education and training in the arts is
expensive, resulting in those with higher socio-economic status having more

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opportunities than others. The (perhaps inadvertent) result of these realities is the
emergence of elitism.
Taoism challenges this elitism through the value it places on effortlessness. The
constant striving promulgated in Confucianism is completely counter to this concept. In
fact, the Tao Te Ching addresses the matter directly in chapter 20: Give up learning, and
put an end to your troubles. This levels the playing field for everyone whereas the
Confucian believe (whether intentional or not) gives preference to those who have a
greater capability to pursue education.
Another distinction is with personal relationships. The hierarchy in Confucianism
is intended to provide structure to society. In doing so, it creates a form of relativity; this
distinction is counter to the singularity of the Tao. Such a distinction is artificial acting
in a way that encourages such a distinction is counter the Tao and thus not the action of a
Superior Man in the Taoist belief.
At root, the Taoists believe that humans are essentially what they should be. The
only obligation is to act in harmony with nature, and this naturally occurs through
effortless action. In Confucianism, humans are distinct from the rest of nature unlike
other natural manifestations humans must work towards perfection.
In some sense, the differences between these two religions are complementary.
Viewing them as yin and yang with each having a shared foundation in early Chinese
beliefs, in some way they can work together. Taoism reminds us of a common, natural
force that binds us together. The effortlessness of our harmony with nature encourages a
way of life that works in concert with our surroundings.

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In parallel to the Taoist practices, we can follow Confucian teachings of virtuous
living in society. The Superior Man in Confucius view lives in harmony with everyone
else, ensuring that we care for each other. Whereas we may be able to live in harmony
with nature without education, striving to better ourselves within society may be helpful.
In particular, as Confucian thinking evolves and more opportunities are afforded to
women and those with less economic means, a truly better society may emerge.
Combined with Taoisms harmonious living with nature, the whole of these beliefs may
be more than the sum of the parts.