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BlackBody Radiation
Claes Johnson
All Rights Reserved
Contents
I
Old Picture
1 Blackbody Radiation
1.1 Birth of Modern Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Planck, Einstein and Schrodinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Finite Precision Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7
2 Blackbody as Blackpiano
3 Interaction Light-Matter
13
4 Planck-Stefan-Boltzmann Laws
4.1 Plancks Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Stefan-Boltzmanns Law . . . . . . . .
4.3 The Enigma of the Photoelectric Effect
4.4 The Enigma of Blackbody Radiation .
4.5 Confusion in Media . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Confessions by Confused Scientists . .
4.7 Towards Enigma Resolution . . . . . .
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5 Planck/Einstein Tragedy
29
5.1 James Jeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Max Planck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3 Planck and Einstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6 Classical Derivation of Rayleigh-Jeans Law
35
6.1 Counting Cavity Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.2 Dependence of Space Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3
CONTENTS
7 Statistics vs Computation
37
7.1 Cut-Off by Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.2 Cut-Off by Finite Precision Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
II
New Analysis
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45
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49
49
50
10 Acoustic Near-Resonance
10.1 Radiation vs Acoustic Resonance . .
10.2 Resonance in String Instrument . . .
10.3 Fourier Analysis of Near-Resonance .
10.4 Application to Acoustical Resonance
10.5 Computational Resonance . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
12 Universal Blackbody
73
12.1 Kirchhoff and Universality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.2 Blackbody as Cavity with Graphite Walls . . . . . . . . . . . 75
13 Model of Universal Blackbody
77
83
16 2nd
16.1
16.2
16.3
85
85
86
86
Law of Radiation
Irreversible Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mystery of 2nd Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stefan-Boltzmann Law as 2nd Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
89
Photoelectric Effect
Nobel Prize to Einstein . . .
The photoelectric effect I . .
Remark on Viscosity Models
The Photolelectric Effect II
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97
97
97
101
101
CONTENTS
Preface
The mystery of blackbody radiation triggered the birth of modern physics
in 1900, when Planck in an act of despair invented the idea of a smallest
quantum of energy, which Nature assembles according to laws of statistics
with high frequency high energy waves being rare, because they require many
quanta. But Planck viewed quanta to be merely a mathematical trick to
resolve a scientific deadlock of classical wave mechanics, a trick without real
physical meaning.
Nevertheless, Einstein used a similar idea of quanta of light later called
photons, to come up with a (simple) formula for the photoelectric effect,
which gave him the Nobel Prize in 1921; for the formula but not its derivation based on quanta, because Swedish scientists did not believe in any reality
of light quanta or light particles. In late years Einstein confessed that neither he believed in light quanta, but the reservations of the inventors were
overwhelmed by the snowball of quantum mechanics starting to roll in the
1920s.
Hundred years later blackbody radiation is back at the center of discussion, now as the cornerstone of climate alarmism based on the idea of atmospheric backradiation from so-called greenhouse gases causing global
warming. The weakness of this cornerstone is exposed in the book Slaying
the Sky Dragon: Death of the Greenhouse Gas Theory [19] using arguments
from this book.
The basic idea is to use a classical deterministic continuum wave mechanics combined with a new feature of finite precision computation, which
Nature is supposed to use in analog form and which can be modeled by a
computer in digital form. This leads to a form of computational blackbody
radiation with close connections to the computational thermodynamics and
the 2nd Law of thermodynamics developed in the book Computational Thermodynamics [22].
1
CONTENTS
Part I
Old Picture
Chapter 1
Blackbody Radiation
All these fifty years of conscious brooding have brought me no nearer
to the answer to the question, What are light quanta?. Nowadays
every Tom, Dick and Harry thinks he knows it, but he is mistaken.
(Einstein 1954)
You are the only person with whom I am actually willing to come
to terms. Almost all other fellows do not look from the facts to the
theory but from the theory to the facts; they cannot extricate themselves from a once accepted conceptual net, but only flop about in
it in a grotesque way. (Einstein to Schrodinger about the statistical
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics)
Would it not be possible to replace the hypothesis of light quanta
by another assumption that would also fit the known phenomena?
If it is necessary to modify the elements of the theory, would it not
be possible to retain at least the equations for the propagation of
radiation and conceive only the elementary processes of emission and
absorption differently than they have been until now? (Einstein)
1.1
Modern physics in the form of quantum mechanics and relativity theory was
born in the beginning of the 20th century from an apparent collapse of classical deterministic physics expressing in mathematical terms the rationality
of the Enlightenment and scientific revolution as Euler-Lagrange differential
5
1.2
Einstein picked up Plancks quanta as a patent clerk in one of his five articles during his annus mirabilis in 1905, and suggested an explanation of a
law of photoelectricity which had been discovered experimentally. This gave
Plancks quanta a boost and in 1923 Einstein the Nobel Prize in Physics,
not for his explanation based on light as particles, which the Nobel Committee did not buy, but for the discovery of a law which had already been
discovered experimentally.
Both Planck and Einstein introduced discrete quanta of energy as a
mathematical trick without physical reality in order to avoid the ultraviolet catastrophelong before the quantum mechanics of atoms was formulated
in the 1920s in the form of Schrodingers wave equation, even before the
existence of atoms had been experimentally confirmed.
Planck, Einstein and Schrodinger refused to embrace the new quantum
mechanics with the wave function as the solution of the Schrodingers wave
equation being interpreted as a probability distribution of discrete particles.
They were therefore left behind as modern physics took off on a mantra of
wave-particle duality into a new era of atomic physics, with the atomic bomb
as evidence that the direction was correct.
The inventors of quantum mechanics were thus expelled from the new
world they had created, but the question remains today: Is light waves or
particles? What is really wave-particle duality?
There is massive evidence that light is waves, well described by Maxwells
equations. There are some aspects of light connected to the interaction of
light and matter in emission and absorption of light which are viewed to be
difficult to describe as wave mechanics, with blackbody radiation as the basic
problem.
If blackbody radiation captured in Plancks Law of Radiation can be
derived by wave mechanics, then a main motivation of particle statistics
disappears and a return to rational determinism may be possible. And after
all Schrodingers equation is a wave equation and Schrodinger firmly believed
that there are no particles, only waves as solutions of his wave equation.
1.3
Chapter 2
Blackbody as Blackpiano
Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof that the wave character of the phenomena of motion as
assumed by the theory does, really, correspond to the facts. The de
Broglie-Schrodinger method, which has in a certain sense the character of a field theory, does indeed deduce the existence of only discrete
states, in surprising agreement with empirical facts. It does so on the
basis of differential equations applying a kind of resonance argument.
(Einstein, 1927)
A blackbody is a theoretical idealized object described as something absorbing all incident radiation commonly pictured as a cavity or empty bottle/box in which waves/photons are bouncing back and forth between walls
at a certain temperature defining the temperature of the cavity. The bottle
has a little peephole through which radiation is escaping to be observed, as
indicated in the above common illustration of a blackbody.
A blackbody is supposed to capture an essential aspect of the radiation
from a real body like the visible glow from a lump of iron at 1000 C, the Sun
at 6000 C or the invisible infrared faint glow of a human body at 37 C.
But why is a lump of iron, the Sun or a human body thought of as an
empty bottle with a peephole?
Yes, you are right: It is because Planck used this image in his proof of
Plancks Law of blackbody radiation based on statistics of energy quanta/photons
in a box. Plancks mathematical proof required a certain set up and that set
up came to define the idealized concept of a blackbody as an empty bottle
with peephole. But to actually construct anything near such a blackbody is
impossible.
9
10
Figure 2.1: Blackbody as a cavity filled with photons bouncing back and
forth.
11
12
Chapter 3
Interaction Light-Matter
Light and matter are both single entities, and the apparent duality
arises in the limitations of our language. (Heisenberg)
What we observe as material bodies and forces are nothing but shapes
and variations in the structure of space. Particles are just schaumkommen (appearances).The world is given to me only once, not one existing and one perceived. Subject and object are only one. The barrier
between them cannot be said to have broken down as a result of recent experience in the physical sciences, for this barrier does not exist.
(Schrodinger)
14
that everything is (statistics of) particles: If light is not an immaterial electromagnetic wave phenomenon, but simply some sort of material particles
(albeit without mass, but never mind) then there is no wave-matter problem
to resolve!
Clever, but maybe too clever since after all light is an electromagnetic
wave phenomenon. This brings us back to 1. and the real question of how
an immaterial wave can interact with a material body?
In Mathematical Physics of Blackbody Radiation I suggest a resolution
with immaterial waves interacting with matter by wave resonance and statistics replaced by finite precision computation. This is a resolution in terms
of waves with electromagnetic wave motion interacting with wave motion in
matter ultimately also consisting of electromagnetic waves.
The wave-matter interaction problem is thus in this case resolved by
understanding that everything is (finite precision) wave and wave resonance,
both light and matter. In the wider context: everything is soul and soul
resonance.
We have thus two possible solutions of the light-matter interaction problem:
Everything is (finite precision) deterministic wave and wave resonance.
Everything is statistics of particles and collision of particles.
Maxwell and Schrdinger said 2. This book says 2.
15
Figure 3.1: Interaction of soul and body through the pineal gland according
to Descartes.
16
Chapter 4
Planck-Stefan-Boltzmann Laws
The spectral density of black body radiation ... represents something
absolute, and since the search for the absolutes has always appeared
to me to be the highest form of research, I applied myself vigorously
to its solution. (Planck)
4.1
Plancks Law
2k
,
c2
(4.1)
h
kT
h
e kT 1
(4.2)
18
this effectively means that only frequencies T 1011 will be emitted, which
fits with the common experience that a black surface heated by the highfrequency light from the Sun, will not itself shine like the Sun, but radiate
only lower frequencies. We refer to kT
as the cut-off frequency, in the sense
h
kT
that frequencies > h will be radiated subject to strong damping. We see
that the cut-off frequency scales with T , which is Wiens Displacement Law.
In other words, the cut-off distance in terms of wave-length scales with T1 as
shown in Fig. 4.1.
Below we shall for simplicity leave out the constant of proportionality in
(4.1) and write R (T ) T 2 (, T ) expressing the dependence on T and
, with denoting proportionality. But it is important to note that the
constant = 2k
is very small: With k 1023 J/K and c 3 108 m/s, we
c2
have 1040 . In particular, 2 << 1 if 1018 including the ultraviolet
spectrum, a condition we will meet below.
4.2
Stefan-Boltzmanns Law
(4.3)
2 k
8
W 1 m2 K 4 is Stefan-Boltzmanns constant.
where = 15c
2 h3 = 5.67 10
On the other hand, the classical Rayleigh-Jeans Radiation Law R (T )
2
T without the cut-off factor, results
in an ultra-violet catastrophy with
infinite total radiated energy, since n=1 2 n3 as n .
Stefan-Boltzmanns Law fits (reasonably well) to observation, while the
Rayleigh-Jeans Law leads to an absurdity and so must somehow be incorrect.
The Rayleigh-Jeans Law was derived viewing light as electromagnetic waves
governed by Maxwells equations, which forced Planck in his act of despair
to give up the wave model and replace it by statistics of quanta viewing
light as a stream of particles or photons. But the scientific cost of abandoning
the wave model is very high, and we now present an alternative way of
avoiding the catastropheby modifying the wave model by finite precision
computation, instead of resorting to particle statistics.
We shall see that the finite precision computation introduces a highfrequency cut-off in the spirit of the finite precision computational model
5 4
19
20
Figure 4.2: Planck 1900: ...the whole procedure was an act of despair
because a theoretical interpretation had to be found at any price, no matter
how high that might be...
21
Figure 4.3: Planck to Einstein: I hereby award you the Planck Medal because you expanded my desperate idea of quantum of energy to the even more
desperate idea of quantum of light.
22
23
4.3
24
4.4
4.5
Confusion in Media
The mystery of blackbody radiation opened to the mystery of quantum mechanics permeating modern physics:
Einstein vs Niels Bohr
25
4.6
26
4.7
27
We shall find that finite precision computation, in G2 appearing from residual stabilization, as a small-coefficient viscosity acting on higher derivatives
of the state function, makes it possible to avoid the seemingly unsurmountable difficulties hampering classical continuum mechanics in the late 19th
century, including dAlemberts paradox of turbulent fluid mechanics, the
reversibility paradox of the 2nd Law of thermodynamics and the ultraviolet catastrophe of blackbody radiation. The difficulties arise from unresolved microscopics in macroscopic continuum models and the only way out
was believed to be by modeling the microscopics by statistics of pointlike
particles, and this became the mantra of 20th century physics.
However, a medication with microscopic particle statistics comes along
with several side effects, so severe that e.g. Einstein and Schrodinger refused
to accept it, and thus a return to deterministic continuum models would
seem desirable, if only the paradoxes and catatsrophies can be dealt with in
a resonable way. We have shown in [21] that finite precision computation
allows a resolution of dAlemberts paradox and several of the mysteries of
turbulent fluid mechanics, as well as a formulation of the 2nd Law without
entropy statistics in [22] , and in this book we use the same general approach
for the wave mechanics of radiation.
One can view deterministic finite precision computation as a primitive
form of statistics, so primitive that the side effects do not show up, while the
positive effect remains.
28
Chapter 5
Planck/Einstein Tragedy
5.1
James Jeans
Sir James Jeans states in The Growth of Physical Science shortly before his
death in 1947:
The radiation from a red-hot body presented the same difficulty in a
slightly different form. The theorem of equipartition showed that the
radiation from such a body ought to consist almost entirely of waves of
the shortest possible wave-length. Experiment showed the exact opposite
to be the case.
The first move to end the deadlock was made by Max Planck, Professor
in Berlin University, and subsequently in the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute.
In an epoch-making paper which he published in 1900, he imagined all
matter to consist of vibrators, each having its own particular frequency
of vibration, and emitting radiation of this frequency, just as a bell
emits sound of its own frequency of vibration.
This was completely in accordance with current ideas, but Planck now
introduced the startling assumption that the vibrators did notemit energy in a continuous stream, but by a series of instantaneous gushes.
Such an assumption was in flagrant oppositionto Maxwells electromagnetic laws and to the Newtonian mechanics; it dismissed continuity
from nature, and introduced a discontinuity for which there was so far
no evidence. Each vibrator was supposed to have a certain unit of ra29
30
5.2
Max Planck
31
Figure 5.1: Max Planck 1901 being struck with the idea of energy quanta:
We shall now derive strange properties of heat radiation described by electromagnetic wave theory.
32
Planck here describes that the seemingly absurd consequences of electromagnetic wave theory can be handled by introducing finite energy quanta,
but he is not willing to pay the prize of viewing light as a stream of particles.
Instead he klings to a faint hope that somehow wave theory can be saved by
some form of interaction between the resonators. What we will now do is
to give substance to this hope by replacing finite energy quanta by finite
precision wave mechanics.
We have seen that Planck was ambigous: He could not believe in light
as streams of discrete quanta but yet he made the basic assumption that
radiation in different directions, even opposite, is fully independent, which
can only be motivated from a particle nature of light. This double-play has
become a principle of modern physics: light is both waves and particles and
you are free to choose whatever description that serves you the best in every
specific case. Plancks scientific conscience protested against the doubleplay, but was overuled by its effectiveness: It took physics out of its late
19th century trauma. Over time the double-play has become a virtue, and
is today questioned by few physicists. But double-play is double-play and
fair-play is more honorable, even in science.
Plancks idea of independent radiation in opposite directions, is today
being used by some climate scientists to sell the idea of backradiation
as a basis of global warming with the radiation from the Earth surface
absorbed by the atmosphere being backradiated to and thus heating the
Earth surface. We will below show that the warming effect of backradiation
is fictitious and by Ockhams razor can be moved to the wardrobe of nonphysical physics.
5.3
Both Planck and Einstein struggled with the particle concept of energy and
quanta, by realizing its use as a mathematical trick to resolve an apparent
paradox of wave mechanics and at the same time being unable to give up
deterministic wave mechanics by particle statistics:
We therefore regard - and this is the most essential point of the entire
calculation - energy to be composed of a very definite number of equal
packages (Planck 1900).
The wave theory of light, which operates with continuous spatial func-
33
34
Figure 5.2: Einstein: The more success the quantum mechanics has, the
sillier it looks.
Chapter 6
Classical Derivation of
Rayleigh-Jeans Law
Sciences usually advances by a succession of small steps, through a
fog in which even the most keen-sighted explorer can seldom see more
than a few paces ahead. Occasionally the fog lifts, an eminence is
gained, and a wider stretch of territory can be surveyedsometimes
with startling results. A whole science may then seem to undergo a
kaleidoscopic rearrangement, fragments of knowledge sometimes being
found to fit together in a hitherto unsuspected manner. Sometimes
the shock of readjustment may spread to other sciences; sometimes it
may divert the whole current of human thought. (James Jeans)
6.1
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ),
(6.1)
(6.2)
(6.3)
(6.4)
Postulating equipartition in energy that is that all modes radiate the same
energy kT , gives Rayleigh-Jeans Law on the form R (T ) kT 2 , which is
the same form as that derived above with a different argument.
We thus arrive at the same Rayleigh-Jeans formula using two fundamentally different approaches, and one may ask which argument is the better in
the sense that it best explains the physical mechanism behind the formula?
The classical argument connects radiance to the number of modes without
specifying the coupling mechanism and a mechanism for equipartition and in
this sense is ad hoc. This connects to arguments used in statistical mechanics
based on computing numbers of permutations assigned equal probability.
The above argument based on the wave equation with a radiation term
includes more physics and and will be complemented with model for equilibration in frequency below. This argument thus may be less ad hoc than the
classical argument.
6.2
Chapter 7
Statistics vs Computation
This inhibits us from accepting in a naive way a blurred model
as an image of reality...There is a difference between a shaky or not
sharply focussed photograph and a photograph of clouds and fogbanks.
(Schrodinger about the Copenhagen interpretation)
7.1
Cut-Off by Statistics
The Rayleigh-Jeans Law leads to an ultraviolet catastrophy because without some form of high-frequency limitation, the total raditation will be unbounded. Classical wave mechanics thus appears to lead to an absurdity,
which has to be resolved in one way or the other. In an act of despair
Planck escaped the catastropheby an Alexander Cut simply replacing classical wave mechanics with a new statistical mechanics where high frequencies
were assumed to be rare; a theoretical interpretation had to be found at any
price, no matter how high that might be.... It is like kicking out a good old
horse which has served fine for many purposes, just because it has a tendency
to go to infinity at a certain stimulus, and replacing it with a completely
new wild horse which you dont understand and cannot control.
7.2
The price of throwing out classical wave mechanics is very high, and it is thus
natural to ask if this is really necessary? Is there a form of classical mechanics
37
38
Figure 7.1: A blackbody acts like a censor or high-pass filter which transforms
coherent high-frequency high-interest information into incoherent noise,
while it lets low-frequency low-interest information pass through.
Part II
New Analysis
39
Chapter 8
Wave Equation with Radiation
There are no quantum jumps, nor are there any particles. (H.D. Zeh
[44])
8.1
We consider the wave equation with radiation, for simplicity in one space
dimension assuming periodicity: Find u = u(x, t) such that
...
u u u = f,
< x, t <
(8.1)
v
, v = x
, f (x, t) models
where (x, t) are space-time coordinates, v = v
t
...
forcing in the form of incoming waves, and the term u models outgoing
radiation with > 0 a small constant.
This models, in the spirit of Planck [5] before collapsing to statistics of
quanta, a system of resonators in the form of a vibrating string absorbing
energy from the forcing f of intensity f 2 and dissipating energy of intensity
u2 as radiation, while storing or releasing vibrational (heat) energy in energy
balance.
The wave equation (8.1) expresses a force balance in a vibrating system
of charged particles with u representing the displacement from a reference
...
configuration with u velocity and u accelleration, and u represents the
Abraham-Lorentz recoil force from an accellerating charged particle [43]. Energy balance follows from the force balance by multiplication by u followed
by integration, which gives the dissipated radiated energy u2 by integration
...
referred to as Lamours formula [43].
by parts (from u multiplied by u),
41
42
...
In a mechanical analog the dissipative radiation term u is replaced by
the dissipative viscous term u with > 0 a viscosity, with now dissipated
energy u 2 .
In both cases the model includes a dissipative mechanism describing energy loss (by radiation or viscosity) in the system, but the model does not
describe where the lost energy ends up, since that would require a model for
the receptor. The mechanical model has a direct physical representation as a
forced vibrating string subject to a viscous damping force u.
The radiative
model is to be viewed as a conceptual model with radiative damping from
...
an Abraham-Lorentz recoil force u .
We shall see that the form of the damping term determines the energy
spectrum, which thus is fundamentally different in the viscous and the radiative case.
We shall see that the equation modeling a vibrating string with radiative damping can be used as a concrete mathematical model of universal
blackbody radiation with the coefficient chosen maximal as reference. We
can view this model as concrete realization open to analysis of the standard
conceptual model as an empty cavity with the property of absorbing (and
re-emitting) all incident radiation. By studying the model we can explore
aspects of radiation including universality of blackbody radiation.
8.1.1
...
(
uu + u u ) dx u u dx = f u dx,
which we can write
E = a r
1
(u(x,
t)2 + u (x, t)2 ) dx
E(t)
2
is the internal energy viewed as heat energy, and
...
t)dx,
a(t) = f (x, t)u(x,
t) dx, r(t) = u (x, t)u(x,
(8.2)
where
(8.3)
(8.4)
43
R r(t) dt =
u(x, t)2 dxdt 0
(8.5)
showing the dissipative nature of the radiation term....
If the incoming wave is an emitted wave f = U of amplitude U , then
1
2
AR
(f u u )dxdt =
(U u u2 ) dx (R
in R), (8.6)
2
with Rin =
U 2 dxdt the incoming radiation energy, and R the outgoing.
R
in , that is, in order for
We conclude that if E(t) is increasing, then R
energy to be stored as internal/heat energy, it is required that the incoming
radiation energy is bigger than the outgoing.
Of course, this is what is expected from conservation of energy. It can
also be viewed as a 2nd Law of Radiation stating that radiative heat transfer
is possible only from warmer to cooler. We shall see this basic law expressed
differently more precisely below.
44
Chapter 9
Spectral Analysis of Radiation
But the conception of localized light-quanta out of which Einstein got
his equation must still be regarded as far from established. Whether
the mechanism of interaction between ether waves and electrons has
its seat in the unknown conditions and laws existing within the atom,
or is to be looked for primarily in the essentially corpuscular ThomsonPlanck-Einstein conception of radiant energy, is the all-absorbing uncertainty upon the frontiers of modern Physics (Robert A Millikan in
The electron and the light-quanta from the experimental point of view,
Nobel Lecture, May 23, 1923).
9.1
46
< t < ,
= 0, 1, 2, ...,
(9.2)
u (t)eix ,
=m
2
where m is a fixed maximal frequency and m
< 1. We then use Fourier
transformation in t,
1
it
u (t)eit dt,
u (t) =
u, e d, u, =
2
(3)
2
2
u
|u (t)| dt = 2
|u, |2 d
|f, |2 d
2
2
2 4 2
( ) ( + ) +
|f,+ 2 |2 d
2
|f, |2 d
=
,
4( )2 + 2 4
4
4
2 + 1
= 2
2
2
1 2
f
2
for | |
,
4
(9.3)
47
which requires that |f, |2 is small else, where we use to denote proportionality with constant close to 1. With this assumption we get noting that
2 < 1,
1
u2 4 f2 ,
that is,
R u2 4 u2 u 2 = T 2 f2 ,
(9.4)
u2
R=
0
f 2 dx = f 2 ,
dx =
(9.5)
48
Figure 9.1: Sir James H. Jeans (1877-1946) and forced damped oscillators
as electromagnetic circuit with capacitor (condenser), inductor and resistor,
and as mechanical system with spring, mass and viscous shock absorber.
9.2
Rayleigh-Jeans Law
(9.6)
9.3
49
The spectral analysis shows how radiation arises from a phenomenon of nearresonance: Each frequency f of the incoming wave f excites resonant vibrations of the string with radiation R = f2 and temperature T determined
by R = T 2 .
The effect of the near-reonance with small is that the solution u will
be nearly in-phase with f , that is u is nearly out-of-phase with f with a
phase shift of a quarter of a period. This is to be compared with the case
not small ( 1 say) when instead u will be in-phase with f .
Accordingly, the absorption f u is much smaller, relatively speaking,
in the case of small damping. More precisley, we have the energy balance
obtained by multiplying (9.8) by u and integrating in time:
f u = R = f2 ,
(9.7)
(9.8)
where f in the case is not small is balanced mainly by the damping force
...
u , and in the case is small mainly by the oscillator. The Rayleigh-Jeans
Law results from a non-trivial interaction of radiation with a background of
near-resonant vibration.
...
Since is small, u represents in one sense a small perturbation of
the wave equation, or a small damping of the harmonic oscillator, but this
is compensated by the third order derivate in the radiation term, with the
effect that the radiated energy is not small, but equal to the incoming energy
measured by f 2 with 1.
9.4
50
of nearly the same frequency interact and interaction can be expected to decrease differences in oscillator energy as a form of spectral diffusion and thus
tend to distribute energy evenly over different frequencies towards thermal
equilibrium.
We shall see below that two blackbodies in radiative interaction will tend
towards thermal equilibrium of equal temperature by sharing a common force
f . Similarly, two different oscillators of a blackbody of nearly the same
frequency can be expected to tend towards a common temperature by
sharing the forcce f in near-resonance interaction .
9.5
51
52
Chapter 10
Acoustic Near-Resonance
Examples ... show how difficult it often is for an experimenter to
interpret his results without the aid of mathematics. (Lord Rayleigh)
10.1
10.2
54
2
F = f (t) dt, R = u 2 (t) dt ,
(10.2)
with integration over a time period. If the forcing f (t) is periodic with the
resonance frequency , referred to as perfect resonance, then u(t)
= 1 f (t),
which gives E = with u in phase with f (t).
We shall distinguish two basic different cases with the forcing f (t) balanced by the harmonic oscillator term u(t) + 2 u(t) and the damping term
u(t)
in phase
and E = .
If is small there is thus a fundamental difference betwen the case of nearresonance with E 1 and the case of perfect resonance with E = << 1.
In applications to blackbody radiation we may view F as input and R as
output, but it is also possible to turn this around view R as the input and
F as the output, with E1 = FR representing emissivity 1 in the case of
near-resonance.
In the case of near-resonance the force f (t) is balanced mainly by the
excited harmonic oscillator with a small contribution from the damping term,
which gives E 1.
In the case of perfect resonance the oscillator does not contribute to the
force balance, which requires a large damping term leading to small efficiency.
55
10.3
to get
( 2 + 2 )
u() + i
u() = f().
56
We then use Parsevals formula, to seek a relation between the mean value
of u2 (t) and f 2 (t), assuming f() is supported around = :
u2
|u(t)| dt = 2
2
2
2
|
u()| d = 2
2
|f()|2 d
2
= 2
2
2
4( ) +
|f()|2 d
( )2 ( + )2 + 2 2
|f( +
)|2 ) d
,
2
4
+1
10.4
57
In the case of near resonance in equilibrium the input from the vibrating
string is amplified by the resonator to an efficiency index E 1, while perfect
resonance would give E << 1, with small damping.
During start-up we consider the forcing f to be given by the vibrating
string (without damping) and acting in-phase with the velocity u thus is
pumping vibrational energy from the string into the body. Once equilibrium
is reached, we shift view and consider f as the output from the body, which is
sustained by a still vibrating string generating the viscous force. This mean
that during both start-up and equilibrium the string vibrates in-phase with
the body, by pumping energy into the body during start-up, and sustaining
the output from the body in equilibrium.
The importance of near-reonance forcing is well-known to a piano-tuner,
who tunes the three strings of a tone (except single stringed bass tones) at
slightly different pitches (of about 0.5 Hz), which gives a longer sustain and
a singing quality to the piano.
10.5
Computational Resonance
k=5,k=0
sin((n +
k
)t) 0.1
10
(10.3)
58
Figure 10.3: Einstein testing his theory of quanta to the resonance of his new
Razor Atomic Guitar
.
59
60
61
62
Chapter 11
Model of Blackbody Radiation
Despite the great success that the atomic theory has so far enyoyed,
utimately it will have to be abandoned in favor of the assumption of
continuous matter (wave mechanics) (Planck 1882).
11.1
We will model the effect of computing solutions of the wave equation with
finite precision by G2 as a viscous force 2 u with viscosity coefficient 2
effectively limiting the resolution to a smallest coordination length with
corresponding largest resolved frequency 1 .
We shall choose = Th where h is a fixed precision parameter reflecting
atomic dimensions in the physical model and T is temperature. The highest frequency which can be represented as a coherent wave motion is thus
represented by Th scaling with T , in accordance with Wiens displacement
law.
The choice = Th reflects that finite precision computation requires sufficient variation of a wave u over the coordination length to allow
coherent
emission,
> h since
with sufficient variation expressed as the condition |u|
T h|u|
as shown in the next section.
As an illustration one may think ofthe Mexican wave around a stadium
which cannot be sustained unless people raise hands properly; the smaller
the lift is (with lift as temperature), the longer is the required coordination
length or wave length.
The viscosity introduces dissipation of energy of intensity 2 (u )2 which
63
64
= 0 if ||
= 0,
h
T
if
T
,
h
T
< || < m ,
h
(11.1)
2
where m
< 1. This is a sharp switch of dissipation from exterior radiation to internal heating for frequencies above a certain threshold scaling with
temperature. The switch in actual G2 computation is less sharp with a continuous transition from exterior radiation to internal heating over a certain
frequency band.
11.2
(11.2)
1
E = (u 2 + 2 u2 )
2
(11.3)
65
definition of T = hE.
11.3
Theorem 3.1 gives directly a Planck Law as a Rayleigh-Jeans Law with cutoff:
R (T ) u2 T 2 h (, T )
(11.4)
where R (T ) = R = u2 with u 2 = T .
T
h
T
h (, T ) = 0 for || > .
h
h (, T ) = 1 for ||
(11.5)
2
,
c2
(11.6)
h
T
h
eT 1
(11.7)
11.4
Plancks Law: R + H = F
...
Using that the dissipative effects of u and 2 u are similar, we have by
the proof of Theorem of 3.1 for frequencies with || > Th and / 1:
H 2 (u )2 = f2
(11.8)
66
expressing that the internal heating above cut-off equals the the forcing. We
thus obtain a balance of radiation and heating with forcing
R + H = f2
for all
(11.9)
or by summation
R + H = f 2 F,
2 2
2
where H =
(u ) dxdt and as above R =
u dxdt.
We summarize in the following formulation of Plancks Law:
(11.10)
Theorem 8.1: The radiation R and heating H in the wave equation (11.2)
with forcing f and switch (11.1) satisfies R + H = f 2 = F , where R =
T 2 for || Th and H = 2 T 2 for || > Th with R H = 0, / 1 and
u 2 = T .
Note that
the absorption as the work done by force f on the velocity u
equals A =
f udxdt
11.5
We now make a connection between the finite precision switch from radiation
to internal heating at = Th and Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle. Since
T = u 2 and u 2 2 u2 the switch can be written u 2 = h or u2 h , from
which follows by multiplication
u 2 u2 h2 ,
(11.11)
11.6
Stefan-Boltzmanns Law
||< Th
T 2 = T 4
(11.12)
67
with 2
a constant. This is Stefan-Boltzmanns Radiation Law with
3h3
Stefan-Boltzmans constant. The total radiation of the blackbody model
thus scales like T 4 with T the common temperature of all frequencies below
cut-off Th .
11.7
Radiative Interaction
(11.13)
which expresses a transfer of radiation energy R2, into internal energy H1,
with a corresponding increase of T1 until T1 = T2 . For frequencies with
|| < Th1 we have R1, = R2, while frequencies with || > Th2 cannot be
present without additional external forcing. Plancks Law for two blackbodies
in radiative interaction can thus be expressed as
R1 + H1 = R2 + H2 .
11.8
(11.14)
Heat Capacity
68
11.9
69
Radiative Cooling
If the forcing f is terminated then the blackbody will start cooling according
to
Edt = u2 dxdt = R
(11.15)
with E defined by (8.3). With E T 2 and R T 4 , this gives assuming
f (t) = 0 for t > 0
1
E(t) =
E(0)
(11.16)
1+Ct
with C a positive constant, and thus the following cooling curve
T (t) = T (0)(1 + C t) 2 .
1
(11.17)
(11.18)
(11.19)
with less rapid decay with time. Experiments [40] appear to favor (11.17)
before (11.19), see Fig. 11.2.
11.10
70
11.11
71
11.12
2
(A(u) f )v dxdt +
(A(u) f )A(V ) dxdt = 0,
(11.20)
...
where A(u) = u u u and V is a primitive function to v (with V =
v), and Vh is a a space-time finite element space continuous in space and
discontinuous in time over a sequence of discrete time levels.
Here A(u) f is the residual and the residual stabilization requires
2
(A(u) f )2 to be bounded, which should be compared with the dissipation
u2 in the analysis with u2 being one of the terms in the expression
(A(u) f )2 . Full residual stabilization has little effect below cut-off, acts
like simplified stabilization above cut-off, and effectively introduces cut-off
2
...
to zero for || m since then | u | 2 |u|
= 2 |u|
|u|,
which signifies
m
massive dissipation.
11.13
Cordination Length
72
Chapter 12
Universal Blackbody
I had always looked upon the search for the absolute as the noblest
and most worth while task of science.... My original decision to devote
myself to science was a direct result of the discovery which has never
ceased to fill me with enthusiasm since my early youth - the comprehension of the far from obvious fact that the laws of human reasoning
coincide with the laws governing the sequences of the impressions we
receive from the world about us; that, therefore, pure reasoning can
enable man to gain an insight into the mechanism of the latter. In this
connection, it is of paramount importance that the outside world is
something independent from man, something absolute, and the quest
for the laws which apply to this absolute appeared to me as the most
sublime scientific pursuit in life. (Planck)
12.1
74
75
12.2
(12.1)
76
Chapter 13
Model of Universal Blackbody
Kirchhoff formed a conceptual model of a universal blackbody as a cavity
with the property of absorbing all incident radiation. We shall now see how
universality can be captured in our wave model with its apparent dependence
as reference
on the pair of coefficients (, h), by choosing a specific pair (
, h)
or universal standard. We recall the elements of our wave model:
Utt Uxx Uttt 2 Uxxt = f : force balance,
Utt Uxx : material force from vibrating string with U displacement,
Uttt is Abraham-Lorentz (radiation reaction) force with a small
positive parameter,
2 Uxxt is a friction force acting on frequencies larger than the cut-off
frequency Th and then contributing to internal heating,
= Th is a smallest coordination length with h a measure of finite
precision,
T is the common energy/temperature of each vibrating string frequency,
f is exterior forcing.
Oue wave equation as a blackbody model is thus defined by the pair
of parameters (, h), assuming the coefficients of the vibrating string are
normalized to 1, which can be achieved by adjusting space and time units.
We shall now show that (, h) for a blackbody B effectively are determined
77
78
coefficient and h a minimal precision parameter and choose the model with
to be the reference
maximal and minimal h, that is = and h = h,
blackbody which will be used as reference thermometer.
Consider now a blackbody body B defined by (, h) in radiative equilib by sharing a common
defined by (
rium with the reference blackbody B
, h)
forcing f = f . Radiative equilibrium requires
T = T,
(13.1)
have h = h.
as a model of a univerWe may thus choose the model defined by (
, h)
sal blackbody with radiation only depending on temperature and frequency
expressing universality of blackbody radiation: All blackbodies defined by
with h = h,
will then have the same radiation spectrum
and h h
given by Plancks law as T 2 .
By choosing maximal we ensure that a blackbody represents a reference of maximal absorption/emission to which a greybody with less absorption/emission will be compared, as expanded below.
We understand that the universality reflects the choice of the blackbody
Chapter 14
Radiative Heat Transfer
Either the quantum of action was a fictional quantity, then the whole
deduction of the radiation law was essentially an illusion representing
only an empty play on formulas of no significance, or the derivation of
the radiation law was based on sound physical conception. (Planck)
14.1
for || < T2 ,
f2 = 0 else.
(14.1)
Q12 =
(T2 2 T1 2 ) +
T2 2
||T1
T1 <||T2
(14.2)
that is,
Q12 = (T24 T14 ) with T2 > T1 ,
79
(14.3)
80
which expresses Stefan-Boltzmanns Law for the radiative heat transfer from
a one body in radiative contact with a body of lower temperature. We see
that the heat transfer has a contribution from frequencies below the cut-off
T1 for B1 as the difference (T2 T1 ) 2 and one contribution from freqencies
above T1 as T2 2 .
We can view the Stefan-Boltzmann Law (14.3) as form of Fourier Law
stating a positive rate heat transfer from a higher temperature T2 to a lower
temperature T2 . In differentiated form this law can be expressed as
Q12 4T 3 (T2 T1 ) for some T1 < T < T2
(14.4)
14.2
Notice the requirement in (14.3) that T2 > T1 . In the literature one finds the
law without this requirement in the form
Q12 = T24 T14 ,
(14.5)
81
Stefan-Boltzmanns Law (14.3) thus requires T2 > T1 and does not contain
two-way opposing heat transfer, only one-way heat transfer from warm to
cold. Unfortunately the misinterpretation has led to a ficititious non-physical
backradiation underlying CO2 global warming alarmism.
82
Chapter 15
Greybody vs Blackbody
We now consider a greybody B defined by the wave model with (, h) and
assume the temperature T of B is calibrated so that T = T in radiative equi with maximal and cut-off (minimal
librium with the reference blackbody B
h). Energy balance can be expressed as
T =
T
(15.1)
= <1
(15.2)
blackbody
B with full force f . We thus obtain a connection through the
factor between force interaction and absorptivity.
The spectrum of a greybody is dominated by the spectrum of a blackbody,
here expressed as the coefficient = < 1. A greybody at a given temperature may have a radiation spectrum of a blackbody of lower temperature as
seen in the front page picture.
83
84
Chapter 16
2nd Law of Radiation
There is only one law of Naturethe second law of thermodynamicswhich recognises a distinction between past and future more profound
than the difference of plus and minus. It stands aloof from all the rest.
... It opens up a new province of knowledge, namely, the study of organisation; and it is in connection with organisation that a direction
of time-flow and a distinction between doing and undoing appears for
the first time. (Eddington)
Just as the constant increase of entropy is the basic law of the universe,
so it is the basic law of life to be ever more highly structured and to
struggle against entropy. (Vaclav Havel)
16.1
Irreversible Heating
Radiative heating of a blackbody is an irreversible process, because the heating results from dissipation with coherent high frequency energy above cut-off
being transformed into internal heat energy.
We assume that the dissipation is only active above cut-off, while the
radition is active over the whole spectrum. Below cut-off radiation is a reversible process since the same spectrum is emitted as absorbed. Formally,
the radiation term is dissipative and thus would be expected to transform
the spectrum, and the fact that it does not is a remarkable effect to the
resonance.
85
86
16.2
The 2nd Law of thermodynamics has posed a mystery to science ever since it
was first formulated by Clausius in the mid 19th century, because it involve
the mysterious concept of entropy which is postulated to never decrease by
some mysterious mechanism.
In [22] I state and prove a 2nd Law of thermodynamics in terms of kinetic
energy, heat energy, work and turbulent dissipation, without reference to
entropy.
16.3
(16.1)
(16.2)
Chapter 17
Reflection vs Blackbody
Absorption/Emission
A blackbody emits what it absorbs (f 2 R), and it is thus natural to
ask what makes this process different from simple reflection (e.g. f f
with f 2 f 2 )? The answer is that the mathematics/physics of blackbody
...
radiation f u u u , is fundamenatlly different from simple reflection
f f . The string representing a blackbody is brought to vibration in
resonance to forcing and the vibrating string string emits resonant radiation.
Incoming waves thus are absorbed into the blackbody/string and then are
emitted depending on the body temperature. In simple reflection there is no
absorbing/emitting body, just a reflective surface without temperature.
87
Chapter 18
Blackbody as Transformer of
Radiation
The Earth absorbs incident radiation from the Sun with a Planck frequency
distribution characteristic of the Sun surface temperature of about 5778 K
and an amplitude depending on the ratio of the Sun diameter to the distance
of the Earth from the Sun. The Earth as a blackbody transforms the incoming radiation to a outgoing blackbody radiation of temperature about 288 K,
so that total incoming and outgoing energy balances.
The Earth thus acts as a transformer of radiation and transforms incoming high-frequency low-amplitude radiation to outgoing low-frequency
high-amplitude radiation under conservation of energy.
This means that high-frequency incoming radition is transformed into
heat which shows up as low-frequency outgoing infrared radiation, so that
the Earth emits more infrared radiation than it absorbs from the Sun. This
increase of outgoing infrared radiation is not an effect of backradiation, since
it would be present also without an atmosphere.
The spectra of the incoming blackbody radiation from the Sun and the
outgoing infrared blackbody radiation from the Earth have little overlap,
which means that the Earth as a blackbody transformer distributes incoming high-frequency energy so that all frequencies below cut-off obtain the
same temperature. This connects to the basic assumption of statistical mechanics of equidistribution in energy or thermal equilibrium with one common
temperature.
In the above model the absorbing blackbody inherits the equidistribution
of the incoming radition (below cut-off) and thereby also emits an equidis89
Chapter 19
Hot Sun and Cool Earth
19.1
Emission Spectra
The amplitude of the radiation/light emitted from the surface of the Sun
at 5778 K when viewed from the Earth is scaled by the viewing solid angle
(scaling with the square of distance from the Sun to the Earth), while the
light spectrum covering the visible spectrum centered at 0.5 m remains the
same. The Earth emits infrared radiation (outside the visible spectrum) at
an effective blackbody temperature of 255 K (at a height of 5 km), thus with
almost no overlap with the incoming Sunlight spectrum. The Earth thus absorbs high-frequency reduced-amplitude radiation and emits low-frequency
radiation, and thereby acts as a transformer of radiation from high to low
frequency: Coherent high-frequency radiation is asborbed and dissipated into
incoherent heat energy, which is then emitted as coherent low-frequency radiation.
The transformation only acts from high-frequency to low-frequency, and
is an irreversible process representing a 2nd law.
91
92
Chapter 20
Blackbody Dynamics
20.1
Recollection of Model
(20.1)
where here the subindices indicate differentiation with respect to space latexx
and time latext, and
Utt Uxx is out-of-equilibrium force of a vibrating string with displacement U ,
Uttt is the Abraham-Lorentz (radiation reaction) force with a small
positive parameter,
2 Uxxt is a friction force replacing the radiation reaction force for
frequencies larger than a cut-off frequency Th and then contributing to
the internal energy,
= Th is a smallest coordination length with h a measure of finite
precision,
T is the common energy/temperature of each frequency of the vibrating
string,
93
94
R=
Utt2 dxdt,
H=
2
Uxt
dxdt,
F =
f 2 dxdt,
(20.3)
which expresses that all incident radiation F is absorbed and is either reemitted as radiation R or stored as internal energy from heating H with a
switch from R to H at the cut-off
2 frequency. We here assume that all frequencies have the same energy U,t dxdt, where
2 U is the amplitude of frequency
, and we refer to the common value U,t dxdt = T as the temperature.
With dynamics the wave equation (1) expressing force balance is complemented by an equation for the total energy E:
t
E(t) E(0) + R =
f U dxds
(20.4)
0
expressing that the change E(t) E(0) is balanced by the outgoing radiation
R and absorbed energy from the forcing f U dxdt, where E = e + with e
the
energy and the internal energy as accumulated dissipated energy
2string
2
Uxt dx. Equivalently, the change of the internal energy is given as (t)
all
(0) = H. The temperature T connects to E by T hE, assuming
2
frequencies U of U have the same energy U,t = T , because e T and
2
2
so U,t
= Th assuming is dominated by e.
Our model thus consists of (20.1) and (20.4) combined with a mechanism
for equidistribution of energy over all frequencies.
20.2
Let us now consider two blackbodies in radiative contact, one body B with
with
amplitude U sharing a common forcing f with another blackbody B
95
Et + R = f U dxdt,
Et + R = f U dxdt.
(20.5)
20.2.1
Let us now consider the basic case of interaction with all frequencies below
The difference W = U U then satisfies the
cut-off for both B and B.
damped wave equation
Wtt Wxx Wttt = 0,
(20.6)
which upon multiplication by Wt and integration in space and time gives for
t > 0 (modulo two terms from integration by parts in time with small effect
if the time scale is not short):
t
G(t) = G(0)
Wtt2 dxds,
(20.7)
where
G(t) =
1
(W 2 + Wx2 )dx.
2 t
(20.8)
96
20.2.2
assuming B is
For frequencies below cut-off for B and above cut-off for B,
with a heating effect
the warmer, the model shows a transfer from R into H
20.2.3
Chapter 21
The Photoelectric Effect
21.1
Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for the discovery of the law
of the photo-electric effect:
h = W + P,
(21.1)
21.2
98
pages in one of his five famous 1905 papers [6] earning him the Nobel Prize
in 1921, has the simple form
K + W = h,
where K is the kinetic energy of an electron ejected by light of frequency
hitting a surface and W 0 is the energy required to release the electron
from the surface. In particular, there is a threshold frequency crit = W/h
below which no electrons will be emitted. Einstein motivated his model
simply by viewing light of frequency as a stream of particle-like photons
of energy h, each of will be absorbed by an atom and eject an electron of
kinetic energy K = h W if h W , while it will be reflected without
ejection otherwise.
The prediction that the kinetic energy K would scale linearly with the
frequency (modulo the shift W ) was confirmed in experiments in 1916 by
Millikan in the Ryerson Laboratory at the University of Chicago (presently
a cite of Finite Element Center and FEniCS). This experiment was received
as a convincing proof of the existence of photons, albeit Millikan had set
up the experiment in order to disprove the photon concept, which he did
not believe in: while Einsteins photoelectric equation was experimentally
established... the conception of localized light-quanta out of which Einstein
got his equation must still be regarded as far from being established.
Millikans success was above all attributable to an ingenious device he
termed a machine shop in vacuo. A rotating sharp knife, controlled from
outside the evacuated glass container by electromagnetic means, would clean
off the surface of the metal used before exposing it to the beam of monochromatic light. The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons were found by measuring the potential energy of the electric field needed to stop them - here
Millikan was able to confidently use the uniquely accurate value for the charge
e of the electron he had established with his oil drop experiment.
Ironically, it was Millikans experiment which convinced the experimentalistinclined committee in Stockholm to give the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics to
Einstein, while Millikan received it in 1923 for his work on the elementary
electric charge, and the photoelectric effect.
In 1950, at age 82, Millikan conceeded in his Autobiography, in Chapter
9 entitled The Experimental Proof of the Existence of the Photon - Einsteins
Photoelectric Equation: The experiment proved simply and irrefutably, I
thought, that the emitted electron that escapes with the energy h gets that
99
Figure 21.1: The motivation of the 1921 Nobel Prize to Einstein: For his
services to theoretical physics, in particular for his discovery of the law of
the photoelectric effect K + W = h (and in particular not his derivation
based on light particles, which the Nobel Committee rejected).
100
energy by the direct transfer of h units of energy from the light to the
electron, and hence scarcely permits of any other interpretation than that
which Einstein had originally suggested, namely that of the semi-corpuscular
or photon theory of light itself. In the end, Millikan thus seemed to have
re-imagined the complex personal history of his splendid experiment to fit
the simple story told in so many of our physics textbooks, but it appears
that Millikan was never really convinced, maybe just getting old ...
Suppose now, following Millikans reservations to photons, that we seek
to model photoelectricity in the above wave model. This can readily be done
by a frequency dependent non-linear viscosity in a model of the following
form after spectral decomposition (with for simplicity = = 0):
...
...
u + 2 u u + 2 (u ) u = f ,
(21.2)
|
u |
W )+
|u |
21.3
101
21.4
(T )(h
|u (t)|
W )+ u eix .
|u (t)|
102
Chapter 22
The Compton Effect
22.1
The one observation believed to demonstrate the photon theory most convincingly is the effect discovered 1923, again in the Ryerson Laboratoy at
the University of Chicago, by Arthur Compton (1892-1962) while investigating the scattering of X-rays. Compton observed that incoming light of
frequency of a certain frequency could eject electrons and at the same
time be scattered into light of a lower frequency < with the change in
frequency corresponding to the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons, assuming the electrons where the outmost electrons of carbon atoms with W
comparatively small. This red-shift is called the Compton effect.
Can we alternatively model the Compton effect in the above model? Yes,
it seems so: In the above -model high-frequency waves are absobed and eject
electrons according to the Einsteins formula, while low-frequency waves will
be absorbed and radiated. Evidently, this could be viewed as a red-shift in
radiated waves, if we assume multiple frequencies of incoming light.
22.2
(22.1)
104
(22.2)
reflecting a two-body problem with two coupled bodies of different eigenfrequencies > .
Bibliography
[1] J. Hoffman and C. Johnson, Computation Turbulent Incompressible Flow,
Springer 2008.
[2] J. Hoffman and C. Johnson, Computational
http://www.nada.kth.se/cgjoh/ambsthermo.pdf
Thermodynamics,
106
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[11] You believe in the God who plays dice, and I in complete law and order
in a world which objectively exists, and which I, in a wild speculative way,
am tryin to capture. I hope that someone will discover a more realistic
way, or rather a more tangible basis than it has been my lot to find. Even
the great initial success of Quantum Theory does not make me believe
in the fundamental dice-game, although I am well aware that younger
collegues interpret this as a consequence of senility. No doubt the day
will come when we will see those instictive attitude was the correct one.
(Einstein to Born, 1944)
[12] Some physicists. among them myself, cannot believe that we must abandon, actually and forever, the idea of direct representation of physical reality in space and time; or that we must accept then the view that events
in nature are analogous to a game of chance. (Einstein, On Quantum
Physics, 1954)
[13] If God has made the world a perfect mechanism, He has at least conceded
so much to our imperfect intellects that in order to predict little parts of
it, we need not solve inumerable differential equations, but can use dice
with fair success. (Born, on Quantum Physics)
[14] The theory (quantum mechanics) yields a lot, but it hardly brings us
closer to the secret of the Old One. In any case I am convinced that He
does not throw dice. (Einstein to Born 1926)
[15] A. Einstein, On a Heuristic Point of View Toward the Emission and
Transformation of Light, Ann. Phys. 17, 132, 1905.
[16] Einstein: I consider it quite possible that physics cannot be based on the
field concept, i.e., on continuous structures. In that case, nothing remains
of my entire castle in the air, gravitation theory included, and of the rest
of physics. (Einstein 1954)
[17] Shut up and calculate. (Dirac on quantum mechanics)
[18] The more success the quantum theory has, the sillier it looks. (Einstein)
[19] C. Johnson, Computational Blackbody Radiation, in Slaying the Sky
Dragon: Death of the Greenhouse Gas Theory, Stairways Press, 2010.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
107
108
BIBLIOGRAPHY
are just schaumkommen (appearances). ... Let me say at the outset, that
in this discourse, I am opposing not a few special statements of quantum
physics held today (1950s), I am opposing as it were the whole of it, I am
opposing its basic views that have been shaped 25 years ago, when Max
Born put forward his probability interpretation, which was accepted by
almost everybody.
[26] I dont like it, and Im sorry I ever had anything to do with it. (Erwin
Schrodinger talking about Quantum Physics)
[27] Fritjof Kapra, 1975: A careful analysis of the process of observation
in atomic physics has shown that the subatomic particles have no meaning as isolated entities, but can only be understood as interconnections
between the preparation of an experiment and the subsequent measurement. Quantum physics thus reveals a basic oneness of the universe. The
mathematical framework of quantum theory has passed countless successful tests and is now universally accepted as a consistent and accurate
description of all atomic phenomena. The verbal interpretation, on the
other hand, i.e. the metaphysics of quantum physics, is on far less solid
ground. In fact, in more than forty years physicists have not been able to
provide a clear metaphysical model.
[28] Lamb, Willis E Jr., Antiphoton, Applied Physics B 60, 77-84 (1995)
[29] Shankland, R S, An apparent failure of the photon theory of scattering,
Physical Review 49, 8-13 (1936)
[30] Stephen Hawking, 1988: But maybe that is our mistake: maybe there
are no particle positions and velocities, but only waves. It is just that we
try to fit the waves to our preconceived ideas of positions and velocities.
The resulting mismatch is the cause of the apparent unpredictability.
[31] Arthur C. Clarke:If a scientist says that something is possible he is
almost certainly right, but if he says that it is impossible he is probably
wrong.
[32] Schrodingers point of view is the simplest; he thought that by his
develpoment of de Broglies wsave mechanics the whole pardoxical problem of the quanta had been settled: there are no particles, no quantum
BIBLIOGRAPHY
109
jumps there are only waves with their well-known vibrations, characterized by integral numbers. The particles are narrow wave-packets. The
objection is that one generally needs waves in spaces of many diemnsions,
which are something entirely different from the waves of classical physics,
and impossible to visualize (Born in the Born-Einstein Letters)
[33] Schrodinger was, to say the least, as stubborn as Einstein in his conservative attitude towards quantum mechanics; indeed, he not only rejected
the statitical interpretation but insisted that his wave mechanics meant a
return to a classical way of thinking. He would not accept any objection to
it, not even the most weighty one, which is that a wave in 3n-dimensional
space, such as needed to describe the n, is not a classical concept and
cannot be visualized. (Born in the Born-Einstein Letters)
[34] What wanted to say was just this: In the present circumstances the
only profession I would choose would be one where earning a living had
nothing to do with the search for knowledge. (Einsteins last letter to
Born Jan 17 1955 shortly before his death on the 18th of April, probably
referring to Borns statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics).
[35] De Broglie, the creator of wave mechanics, accepted the results of quantum mechanics just as Schrodinger did, but not the statistical interpretation. (Born in the Born-Einstein Letters)
[36] I cannot understand how you can combine an entirely mechanistic universe with the freedom of the ethical will. (Born in the Born-Einstein
Letters)
[37] At any moment, the knowledge of the objective world is only a crude approximation from which, by applying certain rules such as the probability
of quantum mechanics, we can predict unknown (e.g. future) conditions
(Born in the Born-Einstein Letters)
[38] It seems to me that the concept of probability is terribly mishandled
these days. A probabilistic assertion presupposes the full reality of its
subject. No reasonable person would express a conjecture as to whether
Caesar rolled a five with his dice at the Rubicon. But the quantum mechanics people sometimes act as if probabilistic statements were to be
applied just to events whose reality is vague. (Schrodinger in a letter to
Einstein 1950)
110
BIBLIOGRAPHY
http