CHAPTER

1
Limits

Chapter Outline

1.1

Limits

1.2

One Sided Limits

1.3

Limits Properties

1.4

Limits Involve Infinity

1.5

Continuity

Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives

This chapter presents to find limit of a function is an interesting concept where it may
be possible that value of the function does not exist at a point but we try to find the
value in the neighbourhood of the point. We will talk about this in more detail in the
chapter. In the other part of the chapter we will discuss continuity of a function which
is closely related to the concept of limits. There are some functions for which graph is
continuous while there are others for which this is not the case.

After careful study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Clearly understand to identify the limits of a given function using the left and right
limits.
2. Clearly understand to define the continuity of a given function.

Chapter 1

1.1

Limits

Limits
A limit of a function f (x) at a number x a looks at the behavior of the

function f (x) as a x gets closer and closer to the point x a as illustrated in Figure
1. In other word, we are looking at the value taken by f (x) as x approaches x a .
f(x)

from right side

from left side

Figure 1
Notice that x approaches x a from two directions. If x approaches ( x a) from
right side, then the limit of f (x) as x approaches x a from right side is written as

lim f ( x)

x a

If f (x) approaches a number L as x approaches x a from right side, then we write

as

lim f ( x) L

x a

On the other hand, if x approaches x a from left side, then the limit of f (x) as x
approaches x a from left side is written as

lim f ( x)

x a

If f (x) approaches a number M as x approaches x a from left side, then we write

as

lim f ( x) M

x a

Consequently, if lim f ( x) lim f ( x) , then we say that the limit of f (x) as x

x a

x a

approaches x a exist and denoted by lim f ( x) . That is, if L M , then

x a

lim f ( x) L . If not, we say that lim f ( x) does not exist.

x a

xa

Page 2

Chapter 1

1.2

Limits

One Sided Limits

Definition 1.1: Left hand Limit

We write

lim f ( x) M

x a

and say the left-hand limit of f ( x) as x approaches a (or the limit of f ( x) as x

approaches a from the left) is equal of M if we can make the vales of f ( x) arbitrarily
close to M by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less than a ( x a ).
Definition 1.2: Right hand Limit
We write

lim f ( x) L

x a

Provided we can make f ( x) as close to L as we want for all x sufficiently close to a

and x a without actually letting x be a.
Example 1.1:
Evaluate lim x 2
x 2

Solution
Note that we are only interested on the behaviour of f ( x) x 2 as x approaches 2 .
For intuitive understanding, we consider values close to number 2 as given below.

x
From right side

From left side

2.2
2.1
2.01
2.001
2.0001
2
1.9999
1.999
1.99
1.8

f ( x) x 2

4.2
4.1
4.01
4.001
4.0001
4
3.9999
3.999
3.99
3.8

Figure 2
Page 3

Chapter 1

Limits

From the right side, f ( x) x 2 approaches value 4. Hence, lim x 2 4 .

x 2

From the left side, f ( x) x 2 also approaches value 4. Hence, lim x 2 4 .

x 2

In conclusion, the limit of

f ( x) x 2 as approaches x 2 exist because

lim f ( x) lim f ( x) because and given by lim x 2 4 .

x 2

x 2

x 2

This is the same value when we substitute x 2 directly into the function
f ( x) x 2 . However, this is only true if the function f ( x) is continuous at x a .

In this example, f ( x) x 2 is continuous at x 2 as shown of the plot of

f ( x) x 2 in Figure 2.

Example 1.2:
Evaluate lim
x 1

x3 1
x 1

Solution
We try to further enhance the understanding intuitively by solving this problem. Note

x3 1
x3 1
that f ( x)
is undefined at x 1. However, lim
can still be found
x 1 x 1
x 1
because our interest is on the neighbourhood of x only, not on the point x 1 . Hence,
we obtained the following table.

From right side

From left side

1.2
1.1
1.01
1.001
1.0001
1
0.9999
0.999
0.99
0.9
0.8

x3 1
f ( x)
x 1
3.6400
3.3100
3.0300
3.0030
3.0003
Undefined
2.9997
2.9880
2.9701
2.701
2.44
Figure 3

Page 4

Chapter 1

Limits

From the right side, f ( x)

From the left side, f ( x)

x3 1
x3 1
approaches value 3. Hence, lim
3.
x 1 x 1
x 1

x3 1
x3 1
also approaches value 3. Hence, lim
3.
x 1 x 1
x 1
x3 1
as x approaches x 1 exist because
x 1

In conclusion, the limit of f ( x)

lim f ( x) lim f ( x) because and given by lim

x 1

x 1

f ( x)

x 1

x3 1
when x approaches x 1 can be observed easier from Figure 3. It is
x 1

clear that x approaches x 1, f ( x)

1.3

x3 1
3 . The behaviour of
x 1

x3 1
approaches 3.
x 1

Limits Properties
Table 1: List of basic properties of limits
Limit Properties

Example

(a) lim a a , where a and c is any

x c

lim 7 7 , lim 2 2 , lim 0 0

x5

x3

x8

real number
(b) lim x c , n is positive integer
n

x c

lim x3 23 8
x 2

lim x3 x lim x3 lim x

x 1

(c) lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) lim g ( x)

x c

x c

x c

x c

x c

f ( x)
f ( x) lim
x c

(e) lim
,
x c g ( x )
g ( x)

lim
x c
if lim g ( x) 0

x c

x 1

1 1 2
3

lim x3 x lim x3 lim x

x 1

(d) lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) lim g ( x)

x 1

x 1

x 1

1 1 0

lim x 4 x 1 lim x 4 lim x 1

x 2

x 2

x 2

24 2 1 16
lim x 2
x2
0
lim
x 0
0
x 0 x 5
lim( x 5) 5
x 0

x c

Page 5

Chapter 1

Limits

(f) lim af ( x) a lim f ( x) , where a is

x c

x c

any constant

x 2

3 lim x3 lim x 2 lim 10

x 2
x 2
x 2

3 8 4 10 42

lim 3 x 2 x 4 3 lim x 2 x 4

(g) lim n f ( x) n lim f ( x)

x c

lim 3 x3 x 2 10 3 lim x3 x 2 10

x 2

x 3

x 3

x c

(where n is any integer and lim f ( x) 0 )

x c

OR

93 4 3 8 2
3

OR
1

lim n f ( x) lim f ( x) n lim f ( x)

x c
x c
x c

1
n

lim 3 x 2 x 4 lim x 2 x 4 3
x 3
x3

83 2
lim x 1 lim x 1 x 1
2

(h) lim f ( x) lim f ( x) , where n is

x c
x c

real number
n

x 2

x 2

lim x 1 lim x 1
x 2

x 2

3 3 9

Example 1.3:
Evaluate the following limits:
(a)
(c)

lim x 2 3x

(b)

x 2

lim

x 7

4x 2
x2

(d)

lim 3x 1

x 0

lim 2 x 5 (3x 2 4)

x 2

Solution
(a)

lim x 2 3x lim x 2 + lim 3x

property (c)

lim x 2 3 lim x

property (f)

x 2

x 2

x 2

x 2

x 2

(2) 2 3(2)

(b)

lim 3x 1

x 0

lim (3x 1)

x 0

property (g)

3 lim x lim 1

properties (c) and (f)

3(0) 1

property (a)

x 0

x 0

1
Page 6

Chapter 1

(c)

lim

x 7

Limits

(4 x 2)
4 x 2 lim
x 7
lim ( x 2)
x2

property (e)

x 7

4 lim x lim 2
x 7

x 7

lim x lim 2
x 7

x 7

4(7) 2
72
3.33

(d)

property (c) and (f)

lim 2 x 5 (3x 2 4) lim 2 x 5 lim (3x 2 4)

x 2

x 2

property (d)

x 2

2 lim x 5 3 lim x 2 lim 4

x 2

x 2

x 2

property (c) and (f)

2(2) 5 (3(2) 2 4)
512

f ( x)
f ( x) lim
x a
Property (f) states that lim
only if lim g ( x) 0 . What happen

x a
x a
g ( x)
g ( x) lim
x a
when lim g ( x) 0 . One possibility is that the limit does not exist as illustrated in the
x a

following examples:
lim

x2

1
x2

and

lim

x 0

x4
x

Both limits above do not exist. However, the other possibility is that the limit can still
exist because

f ( x)
is only undefined at x a but both one-sided limits from the left
g ( x)

and right sides and equal (refer Example 2). This can be obtained by simplifying

f ( x)
first as follow:
g ( x)
(a) Factorized f (x) or g (x) and then simplify

f ( x)
g ( x)

For example: if f ( x) x 2 4 , then x 2 4 ( x 2)( x 2) or

f ( x) x 3 1 , then x 3 1 ( x 1)( x 2 x 1)

Page 7

Chapter 1

(b) Multiply

Limits

f ( x)
with the conjugate of f (x) or g (x) and then simplify
g ( x)

For example: if f ( x) x 4 2 , then f ( x) x 4 2 is the conjugate of

f (x) .

This is illustrated in the following examples.

Example 1.4:
Evaluate
(a)

x2
lim 2

x 2 x 4

x 4 2
lim

x 0
x

(b)

Solution
(a)

f ( x)
x2
lim
lim 2

x 2
g ( x ) x 2 x 4
Note that g ( x) x 2 4 and this can be factorized as x 2 4 ( x 2)( x 2) .

x2
x2
lim
Hence, lim 2

x 2 ( x 2)( x 2)
x 2 x 4

1 1
lim

x 2 x 2
4

(b)

x 4 2
f ( x)
lim

lim

x 0
x
g ( x ) x 0

x 4 2 . Now, multiplying

Note that f ( x) x 4 2 and its conjugate

f ( x)
with
g ( x)

x42
x42

does not change the function as

x 4 2

lim
lim
x 0
x

x 0

x4 2

x42
x42

1 . Hence,

x42

x42

x44
lim

x 0
x x 4 2

Page 8

Chapter 1

Limits

x
lim

x 0
x x 4 2

lim
x 0

1.4

x42
1

Limits Involve Infinity

In the previous part of this section, the limit of a function f (x) takes a real

number L as x approaches x a . There is a possibility that as x approaches x a ,

f (x) becomes unbounded, that is f (x) becomes larger and larger towards infinity. If

the function f (x) increases without limit when x approaches x a , then we write

lim f ( x)

x a

The above limit takes this form if both the left and right sides of the limit approaches

. That is, lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) . It is clearly illustrated by Figure 4.

x a

x a

f ( x)

Figure 4
Likewise, the above limit takes this form if lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) and
x a

x a

shown graphically in Figure 5. Note that when we write lim f ( x) or,

x a

lim f ( x) , that does not mean that the limit exist. This is because or is

x a

not real number. Instead, it only points out that f ( x) will take a very value when x
approaches x a .
Page 9

Chapter 1

Limits

f ( x)
x

Figure 5

Example 1.5:
Evaluate lim

x 1

1
x 1

Solution
Consider the following table.

x
From right side

From left side

0.8
0.9
0.99
0.999
0.9999
1
1.0001
1.001
1.01
1.1
1.2

f ( x)

1
x 1

5
10
100
1000
10000
Undefined
10000
1000
100
10
5

Figure 6

It can be seen that as x approaches 1 from right side, f ( x)

1
becomes larger
x 1

and larger approaching infinity. On the other hand, as x approaches 1 from left side,
f ( x)

1
becomes smaller and smaller approaching negative infinity as shown in
x 1

Figure 6. Hence, we can write both limits as lim

x 1

1
1
and lim

x 1 x 1
x 1
Page 10

Chapter 1

Limits

respectively. As both one-sided limits have different sign for infinity, lim
x 1

1
x 1

cannot be written as equal to or . In cases above, we only consider the limits

as x approaches a real number only. It is possible to look at the limits as x approaches
a very large value, usually denoted by symbols or . Those limits are written
as
lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) .

If the function f ( x) approaches L when x increase without limit to positive infinity,

then we can write it as
lim f ( x) L

If the function f ( x) approaches M when x decrease without limit to negative infinity,

then we can write it as
lim f ( x) M

These limits can be understood intuitively as well and is illustrated in the next
example.

Example 1.6:
1
x x

Evaluate lim

Solution

1
.
x x

Consider the following table to determine lim

To positive infinity

...
100000
10000
1000
100
10
...

f ( x)

...
0.00001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
...

1
x

f ( x)

f ( x) 0
x

Figure 7

Page 11

Chapter 1

Limits

Note that as x goes to infinity, f ( x)

1
gets closer and closer to 0 . Hence, we write
x

1
0 and illustrated in Figure 7.
x x

the limits as lim

Example 1.7:
1
x x

Evaluate lim

Solution
Consider the following table to determine lim

f ( x)

To negative
infinity

...
10
100
1000
10000
100000
...

1
.
x

1
x

f ( x)
x

...
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
...

f ( x) 0

Figure 8
Note that as x goes to infinity, f ( x)

1
gets closer and closer to 0 . Hence, we write
x

1
0 and illustrated in Figure 8. We can also find the limits
x x

the limits as lim

involving infinity using the basic properties of limits as given Table 1.

Example 1.8:
Evaluate the following limits:
(a) lim x 2 ( x 1)

(b) lim 3( x 1)2

(c) lim

1
4x 3

Solution
(a) lim x 2 ( x 1) lim x 2 lim ( x 1)
x

property (a)
Page 12

Chapter 1

Limits

lim x 2 lim x lim 1 property (c)

x
x
x
( 1)

()

(b) lim 3( x 1)2 3 lim ( x 1)2
x

property (f)

(c) lim

lim 1
1
x

4 x 3 lim 4 x 3

property (e)

lim 1

x
x

properties (c) and (f)

4 lim x lim 3
x

1
(4 ) 3

From example 1.8, we use standard results involving infinity such that (4 ) or
1 or ( ) or

answer for lim

1
or
0 . However, what happen if the
4

f ( x)

f ( x)
is ? The alternative approach is to change the form of

g ( x)
g ( x)

1
n
f ( x)
x
first by multiplying
with
g ( x)
1
n
x

where n is the highest power of x in g ( x) .

This is illustrated in the next examples.

Example 1.9:
Evaluating lim

2x 3
x2 1
Page 13

Chapter 1

Limits

Solution
Direct substitution of in the function gives lim

lim

2x 3
. Hence, let us consider
x2 1

2x 3
f ( x)
.
lim 2
g ( x) x x 1

Now, the term with the highest power in g ( x) x 2 1 is x 2 . Then, we multiply

1
2
f ( x) 2 x 3
with x , so that
2
g ( x) x 1
12
x

f ( x) 2 x 3

g ( x) x 2 1

1
x2
1
x2

2x 3
2 3
2

2
x
x x x2
1
x2 1
2 1 2
2
x
x
x

2 3
2
2x 3
00
Hence, lim 2
lim x x
0
x x 1
x
1
1

0
1 2
x

Example 1.10:
Evaluate the following limits:

3x 2 1
(a) lim 2
x x 1

5 x3 1
(b) lim
x x 1

(c) lim

3x 1
x2 1

Solution

1
3x 1
3x 1 x 2
lim 2

(a) lim 2
x x 1
x x 1
1
2
x
2

3x 2 1
2
lim 2x
x x 1
x2
1
3 2
x 3 0 3
lim
x
1
1 2 1 0
x

METHOD NOTE
x 2 is the with the highest
power of x in the denominator.
Hence, we multiply
1
x2
f ( x)
with
g ( x)
1
x2

Page 14

Chapter 1

Limits

1
5x 1
5 x 1 x
(b) lim
lim

x x 1
x x 1
1

x
3

METHOD NOTE

x is the with the highest

power of x in the denominator.
Hence, we multiply
1
x
f ( x)
with
g ( x)
1
x

5 x3 1
x
lim
x x 1
x

1
x 0
lim
x
1
1 0
1
x
5x2

3x 1
3x 1
(c) lim
lim

x
x 2 1 x x 2 1

lim

x2
1

x2

3x 1

x x
x2 1

x2 x2

1
x 3 0 3
lim
x
1
1 0
1 2
x

METHOD NOTE

x 2 is the with the highest

power of x in the denominator.
Hence, we multiply
1
2
f ( x)
x
with
g ( x)
1
2
x

Exercise 1.1:
Evaluate the following limits:
(a) lim

3x 1
x 1

Answer: 0

(b) lim

x 1
x 1

Answer: 0

Page 15

Chapter 1

Limits

TUTORIAL 1
Limits

1. Evaluate the following limits

(a) lim x 3 3x 2 2 x 10

(b) lim x 2 1 x 2 4

x 2 3x 2
x2 1

(d) lim 3 x 2 5 x 21

x 1

(c) lim
x 3

(e) lim
x 5

x 2

x 3

10 7 x x 3
x2 9

x6
x6

(f) lim

x 6

2. Find the following limits

(a) lim 3x 7

(b) lim 7 x 3

(c) lim ( x 2)( x 1)

(d) lim

(e) lim x 2

(f) lim (4 x 7) 3

x 2

x c

x 1

x 0

( x 2)
( x 1)
1

x 5

x 5

1
x 9

(h) lim

x3
x2 9

x5
2
x 5 2 x 9 x 5

(j) lim

x2 9
x 3 27

(l) lim

x
5 x

(g) lim
x 3

x 3

(i) lim

(k) lim 3x 2 2
x 3

x 3

x 3

3. Find the limits in question (a) (d).

(a) lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) where

x 2

x 2

7 x 2
f ( x)
x 3

x2

x2
x2

Page 16

Chapter 1

Limits

(b) lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) where

x 2

x 2

e
f ( x)

x 2

x0
x0

(c ) lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) where

x 4

x 0

f ( x ) 2
3

x3

x0
0 x4
x4

4. Evaluate the limits, if it exists (Hint: Use One-Sided Limits)

(a) lim x 3
x 3

2x x 4
x 16
x 16

(e) lim

2x
xa a

(b) lim

(f) lim
x 2

(c) lim
x 2

x3 8
x2 4

x2
x2

(d) lim 3
x4

(g) lim 8
x

5. Find the limits

x2 4

(a) lim

x 2 4

x 2

2 4x 2
2
x x
x 1

x
1 2x 1
x

(b) lim
2

x2 x 6
x2

(d) lim

(e) lim

1 x 1
(g) lim
x 2
x2

x3 8
(h) lim
x 2 x 2

(j) lim
x 4

x 1
2 5 x

x 2

x5
x 2 25

(f) lim
x 5

(i) lim

16 x 2

x4

2 x
x2

4x 3 2x 2 x 1
x
2x3 x 1

(l) lim

1
x x 2

(o) lim 3x 2 1

3x
x 2 x 2

(r) lim

(k) lim

1 1
(m) lim 2
x x
x

(n) lim

x2
x 2 x 1

(q) lim

(p) lim

4 x2 x 1
x
3x 1

(c) lim

x 2

x2 4

x2 x 2
2x 3

Page 17

Chapter 1

1.5

Limits

Continuity
Continuity, in layman word, means smooth transition from something to

another. Continuity in function means the motion of the function from one point to
another is unbroken. Intuitively, we can imagine drawing such continuous function
using a pen without having to lift the pen smoothly. For example, consider plots in
Figure 9.

Figure 9 (a)

Figure 9 (c)

Figure 9 (b)

Figure 9 (d)

Page 18

Chapter 1

Limits

Consider Figure 9 (a) and 9 (b). If we move a pen along the curve from left to right,
we do not have to lift the pen at all. That means, the function is continuous at x a .
However, for Figures 9 (c) and 9 (d), we have to lift the pen at x a because the
function is undefined at x a . Thus, these functions are not continuous.

Definition 1.3: Continuous

A function f ( x) is said to be continuous at x a if it satisfies the following three
conditions.

(a) f (a) is defined (exist)

(b) lim f ( x) exists if L M where
x a

lim f ( x) L and lim f ( x) M

x a

x a

(c) lim f ( x) f (a)

x a

Example 1.11:
Determine whether f ( x)

3x 2 5
is continuous at x 3 .
2x 1

Solution
We inspect the three conditions:
(a) Is f (3) defined?

f (3)

3(3)2 5 32

4.5714 4.57 . Hence, f (3) is defined and the first

2(3) 1
7

condition is satisfied.

(b) Does lim f ( x) exist?

x 3

Right-hand limit: take x 3.001 , lim

x 3

3(3.001)2 5
4.57269 4.57
2(3.001) 1

Page 19

Chapter 1

Limits

Left-hand limit: take x 2.999 , lim

x 3

3(2.999)2 5
4.5701 4.57
2(2.999) 1

Since lim f ( x) lim f ( x) 4.57 . Hence, the limit exists and the second
x 3

x 3

condition holds
(c) Does f ( x) f (3) ?
From (a) and (b), the third condition also hold. Hence, we conclude that

f ( x)

3x 2 5
is continuous at x 3 .
2x 1

Example 1.12:
2

x ; x 0
Determine whether f ( x)
is continuous at x 0 .

2 x ; x 0

Solution
We inspect the three conditions:
1. Is f (0) defined?

f (0) (0)2 0 . Hence, f (0) is defined and the first condition is satisfied.

2. Does lim f ( x) exist?

x 0

2
0.000001 0
Right-hand limit: take x 0.001 , lim(0.001)

x 0

Left-hand limit: take x 0.001 , lim 2(0.001) 0.002 0

x 0

Since lim f ( x) lim f ( x) 0 . Hence, the limit exists and the second condition
x 0

x 0

holds.
3. Does f ( x) f (0) ?
From (a) and (b), the third condition also hold. Hence, we conclude that f ( x) is
continuous at x 0 .

Page 20

Chapter 1

Limits

Exercise 1.2:
Determine whether the function given is continuous at the indicated point.
x 2 ; x 1

(a) f ( x)
is continuous at x 1 .
; x 1

Answer: not continuous

4x 1

(b) f ( x) x 2
3x 2

Answer: continuous

x2
x2

5
is continuous at x .
3

Page 21

Chapter 1

Limits

TUTORIAL 2
Continuity

1. Determine whether the function given is continuous at the indicated point.

(a) f ( x) 2 x 3 5 ; x 2

(b) f ( x) x 2 3 ; x 4

x2
(c) f ( x)
; x3
x3

x
(d) f ( x)
2

1 x

x 1
(e) f ( x)

1 x

x 2

(f) f ( x) x 2
0

x 1
x 1

; x 1

x3
x3

; x3

x 1
1 x 1 ; x 1,1
x 1

2. Determine whether or not the function is continuous at the indicated point.

(a) f ( x) x 3 5x 1; x 2
(b) g ( x)

x 12 5; x 1

x 4,
(c) f ( x) 3

x ,

x 5,
(d) f ( x) 3

x ,

x 2;
x 2;

x 2;
x 2;

x 2 4,

(e) f ( x) 5
x 3

x 2;
x 2;

x 2 5,

(f) f ( x) 10
1 x 3

x 2;
x 2;

x2

x2

x2

x 2;

x2

x 2;

Page 22

Chapter 1

Limits

3. A function f is defined as follows:

1
x 1

f ( x) 1 kx 1 x 1
x 1
x 1

(a) Given the f is continuous at x 1 . Find the value of constant k.

(b) Determine whether f is continuous at x 1 .
(c) Sketch the graph of y f ( x)

4. A function f is defined as follows:

x2 4

f ( x) x 2
3

x2
x2

(a) Sketch the graph

(b) Discuss the continuity of f at x 2 .

Page 23