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University of Malta
Group 3 :
Zachary Cassar Torreggiani
545093(M)
290394(M)
Raisa Chetcuti
325894(M)
Sarah Ciappara
156794(M)
Marvic Cordina
31794(G)
Braden-Steve Cutajar
93694(M)
Daniel Dalli
73994(M)
Zachary De Giovanni
162194(M)
Julian Debono
204294(M)
Christopher Dimech
37794(M)
1
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Contents
Introduction......03
History
Production
Wrought Aluminium Alloys ...................................................03
Classification
Temper of Wrought Alloys
Cast Aluminium Alloys...........................07
Heat treatable alloys
Non-heat treatable alloys
Classification
Impurities and defects in Cast aluminium alloys
Hydrogen Porosity.......................10
Effects of Hydrogen Porosity
Hydrogen Porosity in Welding
Hardening Mechanisms...............14
Solid Solution hardening
Grain-size hardening
Precipitation hardening
Work hardening
Properties and Applications of Aluminium...........................................18
Physical Propeties
Mechanical Properties
Chemical Properties
Applications of Aluminium
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Introduction
Aluminium is the third most common element
in the worlds crust, sitting at around eight
percent, giving a near unlimited supply. It is a
chemical element having the symbol Al and
an atomic number of 13, meaning it has three
electrons in its outer shell. This gives it a
propensity to form Aluminium oxide,
otherwise known as Alumina. This oxide is
normally extracted from Bauxite, an
aluminium ore.
History
In 1807, English chemist Sir Humphry Davy underlined the existence of the element Alumium, a
then unknown metal which produced the salt alum. The element was renamed Aluminium.
However, he was unable to successfully produce Aluminium. In 1825, Danish physicist Hans
Christian rsted first produced Aluminium in an impure form by reacting anhydrous Aluminium
chloride with potassium amalgam, producing a tin-like metal. Friedrich Whlers research in
1845 led to the discovery of the properties of Aluminium, giving it great importance at the time.
The first industrial process to produce alumina from bauxite was created by Henry Sainte-Claire
Deville who entitled it, The Deville Process,. It was invented in 1859, and involves the extraction
of alumina with sodium carbonate. This process was of great importance at the time, as it
produced larger quantities of alumina than with previous methods.
The process of electrolytic reduction of alumina dissolved in molten cryolite was developed by
Charles Hall (Ohio) and Paul Heroult (France) in 1886. Both developed their methods
simultaneously. However, Hall is credited with the discovery since he filed the earlier patent. In
1888, Austrian scientist Karl Bayer further improved the Hall/Heroult method of production. The
Bayer Process is the main industrial means of producing alumina from bauxite.[2]
Production
Aluminium is made by using two processes. First, the Bayer Process is used to produce alumina
(pure aluminium oxide) from bauxite. Four tonnes of bauxite are required to give around two
tonnes of alumina. Then, pure aluminium is extracted from the alumina by electrolysis, using the
Hall/Heroult electrochemical smelting process. Two tonnes of alumina give around one tonne of
aluminium.[3]
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Classification
Wrought alloys are classified into eight series according to the different impurities added and
their concentrations. A four-digit code is used to define each specific alloy - the first digit
indicating the series it is included in, the second digit showing the alteration of the specific alloy
and the remaining two digits classifying each independent alloy. For instance, the alloy 4164 is
included in the fourth series of silicon, and is the first alteration to the initial 4064 alloy. The last
two digits identify it within the 4xxx series.
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however this comes at the expense of ductility. Consequently, manganese content should not
exceed 1%.
Alloys in this series are therefore used for applications where a high strength-to-weight ratio is
favorable, including truck and aircraft wheels, military vehicles and bridges. Low carbon content
alloys have better corrosion resistance and are used in the automotive manufacturing. [6]
3xxx series Manganese
Manganese is the main alloying element of this series, producing medium-strength and ductile
alloys with good formability. Only a few alloys of this series are produced due to the small
amount of manganese that can be added to aluminium (generally 1-2%). However, they are
widely used for general purpose applications which include beverage cans, cooking utensils,
packaging and heating equipment.[6]
4xxx series Silicon
High amounts of silicon, up to 12 wt%, are added to create brittle alloys. The silicon is present as
intermetallic precipitates as well as elemental particles, producing low ductility and poor
formability. Their applications include welding materials and brazing sheets due to their low
melting point and casting products where high rigidity is required.[6][4]
5xxx series Magnesium
Alloys having magnesium as the main alloying element are of medium strength and of very good
formability. This is because of the solute and strain hardening that occurs. When the magnesium
content level is below 3 wt%, the alloys of this series are very resistant to corrosion. In fact, their
performance in marine environments is superior to any other series. These properties also make
them suitable for outdoor exposure such as scaffolding. These alloys tend to be harder than those
of the manganese series and can be added in higher quantities; however stress-corrosion cracking
can result as a result of excessive cold work and operation temperature.
6xxx series Magnesium and Silicon
Magnesium and silicon are present in approximately equal proportions in the 6xxx series,
ranging from 0.3-1.5 wt% each, creating the intermetallic compound, Mg2Si. These alloys
possess medium-high strength, though not as much as the 2xxx and 7xxx series. However, they
have high corrosion resistance, formability and weldability. They are widely used in transport,
automotive outer body panels, buildings - including doors and windows, offshore marine
structures and heating such as brazing sheets. Some of these alloys can also be extruded to be
used for machine parts by adding low melting elements such as lead.[4]
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Cast Aluminium alloys are also classified in a four digit system in order to identify the type of
alloy as shown in table 2.
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The second two digits of all the aluminium alloys classified under the 1xx.x represent the
minimum percentage of aluminium available in the alloy. For example 190.x implies that the
particular composition obtained has a minimum amount of 99.90% aluminium. The last digit
after the decimal point represents the product form denoting the castings.
The second two digits of all the aluminium alloys classified under the 2xx.x to the 9xx.x series
represent a particular number used to represent different aluminium alloys. Additionally, the last
digit after the decimal points represents the product form of the alloy.[10][11]
Heat Treatable Alloys
The cast aluminium alloys that demonstrate a significant improvement in their mechanical
characteristics are known as heat treatable alloys. These alloys' solid solubility improves with
increasing temperature, thus allowing them to undergo heat-treatments like quenching in water,
which traps the alloying element inside the material, making it stronger.[12] The three cast
aluminium alloys which exhibit the best results from any heat treatment operations are the 2xx.x,
the 3xx.x and the 7xx.x series.[13][14][15]
In the 2xx.x series, copper is alloyed with aluminium in order to create a material that can retain
high levels of strength over a wider temperature range making it adequate for aerospace
equipment and heavy duty military vehicles. However, the copper content reduces the corrosion
resistance and ductility of aluminium whilst making the material more vulnerable to hot
cracking, which in turn makes the alloy inappropriate for welding.[13][16][17]
The 3xx.x series can be defined as a combination of Aluminium-Silicon-Magnesium or
Aluminium-Silicon-Copper alloy. It is often used in compressors/pumps or piping systems due to
its increased wear resistance properties and machinability/cast-ability. Even though ductility and
corrosion resistance decrease, strain hardness and weld-ability properties increase.[13][16]
The 7xx.x series, composed of aluminium and zinc, forms one of the strongest composites in the
cast aluminium alloy series. Thus, it is often used in high performance applications where it is
subjected to demanding circumstances. Despite the added strength from the zinc alloying
element, these alloys tend to have low fracture toughness. Consequently, tempering is carried out
to minimise this disadvantage.[13][16]
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The 8xx.x series consists of Aluminium-Tin cast alloys. These alloys are not the best with
regards to strength. They are however, highly machinable due to their great ductility. These
alloys are typically used as bearings in internal combustion engines due to their good
compressive properties and lubricating capabilities.[13][20]
Impurities and Defects in Cast Aluminium Alloys
Due to the ever-growing industrial demand of cast aluminium alloys, a lot of research and
techniques are being developed to minimize both manufacturing defects and aluminium
impurities which of course hinder the process of achieving the desired mechanical properties.[21]
Manufacturing defects such as material shrinkage and thermal cracks are two of the most
common imperfections when dealing with cast aluminium alloys. Material shrinkage occurs in
the solidifying process when the solidified product occupies less volume than when it was in the
liquid state. These features are unfavourable due to the tolerance specifications of certain
components. Therefore, in order to minimize them, additional molten material is injected into the
moulds during the solidifying process in order to compensate for the volumetric
discrepancy.[21][22][23]
On the other hand, amending thermal cracks is somewhat a harder task to accomplish than
material shrinkage because of the way they develop in the castings. Thermal cracks are the result
of stresses being applied by the already solidified portions of the component on the semisolidified sections which are not as strong. Under these stresses, the semi-solid portions form
cracks and if the volume of the liquid inside the cast is not large enough to cover the cracks, they
will have a significant influence on the fatigue life of the component.[21]
One more factor which highly affects the properties of cast components are material impurities,
caused by the inclusion of impurity elements (Ca, Li, Na) during the melt. These increase the
hydrogen solubility in aluminium, thus resulting in a very porous component with a lower
fatigue life. Hence, the total amount of these impurities should be as low as possible.[21][23]
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Hydrogen Porosity
Hydrogen gas is considered to be the
only gas having an appreciable degree
of solubility in aluminium and its alloys.
The solubility of hydrogen gas in
aluminium is dependent on the phase of
the latter. In fact, hydrogen is more
soluble in aluminium when it is in its
liquid form (0.69mg/L just above the
solidus) rather then when aluminium is
in its solid form (0.04mg/L just below
the solidus). Moreover, within each
aluminium phase, solubility varies
proportionally with temperature and
with the square root of the pressure as
clearly demonstrated in figure 5. [24]
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[24]
Due to the difference in the solubility of aluminium when it is in the two different phases, when
aluminium cools and solidifies, hydrogen pores start precipitating. This is due to the fact that the
hydrogen concentration is in excess of the low threshold of solubility in solid aluminium. This
process occurs when aluminium solidifies in the presence of hydrogen sources, which include the
atmosphere, moisture and hygroscopic fluxes.
Hydrogen, derived from water by the reaction; 2Al + 3HO AlO + 3H, diffuses in
aluminium when in its liquid state and depending on the cooling rate and hydrogen content, some
hydrogen will be trapped inside the aluminium solid. The issue of hydrogen porosity, which is
evident in the casting and welding processes, should be catered for since it could affect the final
product's desired properties.
As figure 6 demonstrates, the more hydrogen dissolved in aluminium, provided they are at the
same temperature, pressure and cooling rate, the larger is the pore volume fraction and the
average pore size. The rate through which aluminium is cooled plays an important role in this
issue since a slow cooling rate would allow hydrogen to precipitate out of aluminium, thus
giving rise to a larger pore fraction and average pore size. Inversely, a fast cooling rate helps
minimising the hydrogen porosity as illustrated in figure 7. From these relationships, a third
graph, as shown in figure 8, could be obtained. It shows the relationship between the hydrogen
content and cooling rate. Whilst keeping a constant cooling rate, a higher hydrogen content
results in a larger pore fraction, thus agreeing with figure 6.
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Figure 6 : Relationship between Hydrogen content and Pore Volume Fraction [24]
Figure 7 : Pore fraction vs. Cooling Rate (Graphs 1-5 represent different conditions) [24]
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Figure 8 : Cooling rate vs. Hydrogen content (fp denotes pore fraction) [24]
Certain measures one can take in order to prevent or rather reduce hydrogen porosity in
aluminium, are the following :
High pressure : It follows the same relationship as temperature since solubility increases
proportionally with the square root of pressure
Fast cooling rate: A fast cooling rate will limit the time in which hydrogen can
precipitate and produce pores
Limit hydrogen sources : These can all act as donors of hydrogen molecules or ions and
will increase the hydrogen content of the aluminium
In casting, turbulence in the melt, such as during pouring, can facilitate the absorption of
hydrogen from the atmosphere [24]
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Porosity in aluminium welds can be minimized by cleaning the piece of aluminium which is
prepared for welding with a degreaser while also making sure that the solvent evaporates before
proceeding on to the welding process.[27] Stainless wire brushes or carbide wheels must be used
in order to remove the protective oxide film. Moreover, a moderate weld travel speed (less than
the solidification rate) and a correct weld position are also factors of utmost importance so that a
good weld with less hydrogen porosity could be produced.[26]
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Hardening Mechanisms
Pure aluminium is a very soft and ductile material. Therefore, in order to use it for certain
applications where better strength and hardness are required, it must undergo certain hardening
mechanisms.[29]
There are four main types of hardening mechanisms:
The type of hardening mechanism used depends on the properties of the material:
Solid Solution Hardening
Solid solution hardening is the effect of lattice strains imposed by foreign particles/atoms in the
crystalline lattice of a pure metal. These strains are present due to the restriction of motion or
dislocations of a slip plane. This increases the yield strength and hardness of a material.[29]
These foreign bodies are introduced into the aluminium matrix by forming solid solutions. The
strengthening effects are caused by the atomic size difference and by the difference in the
modulus of elasticity. A substitutional or interstitial solid solution can form depending on the
atomic size; in either case the crystal structure remains unchanged (FCC).[29]
A common problem encountered in
this process is that even if aluminium
has many alloying properties, very
few elements have sufficient solid
solubility to give a substantial solution
hardening effect.[29]
The dominant property affecting the
hardness and strength of an
aluminium alloy is known as the size
effect, which is the difference in
atomic size between the solution and
solute atoms - the secondary factor
being solubility. This combination of
effects make copper and magnesium
the prominent solutes for this
hardening mechanism.[29]
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figure 11, where with increasing amounts of magnesium, yield and ultimate tensile strength
increase, whilst elongation decreases radically.[29]
Grain Size Hardening
In a polycrystalline material, the grain size
affects the physical properties of the material.
Adjacent grains have different crystallographic
orientations with a common grain boundary. For
slip to occur across a grain boundary, large
forces are needed since one grain will have to
change its direction of motion in order to
overcome the crystallographic misorientation.
Therefore, if the grain size is reduced, the area of
grain boundaries increases, thus increasing the
strength of the material. In addition, fine grained
materials are harder and stronger than coarsegrained materials according to the Hall-Petch
equation:
as can be seen in
Precipitation Hardening
The most commonly used technique to harden aluminium is precipitation/age hardening which is
used to produce the strongest aluminium alloys. Precipitation hardening is the process in which
heat is first applied to the ductile material. In this mechanism, very small particles of a different
phase within the primary matrix, known as precipitates, are evenly distributed throughout. These
particles inhibit the movement of dislocations present in the primary matrix, thus hardening and
strengthening the heat-treated alloy.[31][32]
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However, not all materials can be strengthened by precipitation hardening. Due to the processes
involved, the material must have a higher solid solubility at a higher temperature. An example of
such a material is an aluminium alloy containing copper. This can be seen in the phase diagram
of figure 14, where Duralumin (an alloy of 96wt%Al--4wt%Cu) is taken into account. At 550C
the material is simply made up of a solid solution of phase . However, as the temperature
decreases to around 500C, a material of phase begins to form (the solvus at 96wt%Al-4wt%Cu). As the temperature decreases further, more is being formed. This means that the
solid solubility of decreases with decreasing temperature. [31]
Figure 14 : Al-Cu phase diagram, showing the 100wt%Al side, along with the
microstructures present in the three stages of precipitation hardening [31]
Solution treatment
Quenching
Aging.[31]
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Step 2 : Quenching
At this stage, the solid solution is cooled very quickly. This forms a supersaturated solid
solution (denoted as SS) containing excess copper, thus meaning that it is an unstable phase.
This occurs because the solution is not given enough time for the excess copper to diffuse out of
the phase, and consequently no precipitates form. The faster the alloy is quenched, the
stronger and tougher the alloy will be. However, quenching too quickly will have negative
consequences as residual stresses and distortion will occur. The medium in which the solid
solution is quenched dictates the rate of quenching.[31][32]
Step 3 : Aging
The final stage is aging. For the evenly distributed precipitate to form, the now supersaturated
phase must be heated to a temperature lower than both the solvus temperature and the GP
(Guinier Preston) solvus line. Materials can be either naturally or artificially aged. Natural aging
occurs at room temperature, while artificial aging occurs at a raised temperature. Alloys with a
low precipitation reaction rate are artificially aged. As mentioned previously, this supersaturated
solid solution containing excess copper is not stable. Therefore, the excess copper diffuses to
various nucleation sites and the precipitates grow even more. These precipitates which are GP
zones, are small, finely spread out and coherent in the matrix of the alloy. This in turn makes it
difficult for dislocation movement to occur as it would need to cut through the precipitated
particles or bypass them. This makes the alloy stronger and therefore the hardening process is
complete. Over-aging, however, makes the alloy more ductile and lessens in strength as
recrystallization occurs. This is caused by the formation of the intermediate phase and should
be avoided.[31]
Work Hardening
Work or strain hardening is another method of
hardening metals such as aluminium. Not all alloys
are heat-treatable; therefore not all can be hardened
by precipitation hardening. However, work
hardening can also be used to improve certain
properties of alloys that have already been
hardened by precipitation hardening. These
properties include tensile strength, yield strength
and hardness. However, ductility and formability
decrease. This occurs by normal crystallographic
slip processes. The more cold work is done on the
metal, the higher the dislocation density, thus
resulting in an increase in mechanical properties
and a decrease in elongation. This can be seen in
the graphs in figure 15. [33] The effects of work
hardening can be reversed to its original state
through annealing.
Figure 15 : Work-hardening curves for various
wrought non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys [37]
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Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of aluminium alloys are largely dependent on the following micro
structural features:
Inter metallic compounds which are course and range from 0.5 to 10m. These usually
form while the ingot is solidifying by eutectic decomposition. [39] Silicon as well as Iron
are present as impurities. These constituent particles are however divided in soluble
compounds (Al2Cu, Mg2Si, Al2CuMg,) and non soluble constituents (Al3Fe, Al7Cu2Fe, Al (Fe, Mn, Si), Al6 (Fe, Mn)).[40] In wrought high strength alloys, these particles are not
useful and they have the appearance of aligned stringers [39]
Submicron particles which are smaller and range from 0.05 to 0.5 m. They form by
precipitation of the solid state while the ingots are being homogenized. [39] These
compounds consist of at least one transition metal (Manganese, Chromium or Zirconium)
or other elements having a high melting temperature. Such compounds include
Al20Mn3Cu2 and Al3Zr. [40] During heat treatments, recrystallization and grain growth are
retarded by these particles. They relate to the mechanical properties of aluminium
through their influence on the movements of dislocations.[37][39]
Fine precipitates which form up to 0.01m. These develop during the age-hardening heat
treatment processes and contribute significantly to strengthening.[39][40]
Grain shape and size - As Aluminium is being subjected to hot deformation, it recovers
dynamically, thus producing sub grains. Thicker sections undergo less deformation and
therefore the grain structure remains elongated.[40]
Dislocation substructures which do not respond to the age-hardening processes and are
principally formed during cold working.[39][40]
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Tensile Properties
These can be classified into two groups, those who react to precipitation hardening and those
who do not. For the former, the finely dispersed precipitates are the most effective in increasing
the tensile and yield strengths. [39][40] For the latter, the yield and tensile strengths obtained are
dependent on the dislocation substructures formed through cold-working. On the other hand,
course inter metallic compounds are not very effective in increasing the tensile and yield strength
but they reduce the ductility of the aluminium alloys considerably. [39]
The tensile properties of aluminium vary according to the purity of the aluminium, the added
alloying elements and also on the heat treatments the material has undergone. However, pure
aluminium, has its own elastic properties. In fact, it has an elastic modulus of 69-72GPa, and a
shear modulus of 25-26.5GPa. Even if the elastic properties are not very sensitive to changes in
temperature of the test, the same things cannot be said for its mechanical properties which
include hardness, tensile and yield strengths. Pure aluminium is not heat treatable. Yet there are a
number of grades through which pure aluminium is classified. Stable properties along with
strength are enhanced by strain hardening. This is performed from the basic annealing temper.
High grade aluminium is used for electrical conductors and also for foil amongst other uses. [37]
Toughness
While tensile strength caters for the prevention of failure due to excess mechanical load, it is the
toughness which prevents the fracture of the material due to cracks.[39][40] However, as tensile
strength increases by heat treating and by adding alloying elements, toughness has a tendency to
decrease.[40] This is greatly dependent on the micro structures.[39] For instance, the fine
precipitates, forming during the age-hardening process, reduce deformation resulting in a better
toughness. Yet they also have the tendency to generate localization of slip while the material is
plastically deforming. Thus developing 'pockets of slip just before a crack. This is common for
alloys which have aged to peak strength and hardness. The end result would however be a large
loss of toughness where very high strength exists.[40] The reduction or rather control of the
Silicon and Iron impurities would help in increasing the toughness parameter.[39]
Fatigue
This parameter occurs when the material is subjected to fluctuating stresses and dynamic
loading.[40] The fatigue limit is therefore the maximum loading and stress a material can sustain
before failing. Since Aluminium has a face centered cubic crystal structure it has the tendency to
retain its ductility even at very low temperatures.[37] Thus failure occurs gradually making the
fatigue limit an essential parameter. With regards to pure aluminium, necking preceeds failure of
the specimen as voids cause cracks in the material's structure causing the material to fail.
Usually, as the tensile strength of a non-ferrous alloy improves, the fatigue strength decreases.[39]
Moreover, if an alloy relies mostly on precipitation hardening in order to achieve a better tensile
strength, its endurance limit becomes even lower. Hence the importance of the heat treatments
chosen to process the material and the control over the alloying elements to be added. By
carefully selecting these factors, one would be able to achieve the desired properties from the
material. When under cyclic stress, aluminium alloys which have age-hardened tend to have
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magnesium does. However, when zinc is alloyed to Aluminium, electrode potential of the
metallic compound increases. In fact, the latter type of alloy serves as clad coating and also of
galvanic anodes in order to protect steel constructions in salty water. On the other hand, copper,
which is only there as a micro constituent is the least resistant to corrosion amongst all the alloys.
This is because micro constituents are usually the reason behind electrochemical corrosion since
they tend to cause inconstant attacks at localized areas on the alloy's surface such as pitting.
Impurities (iron and silicon) mostly form cathodic compounds such that for instance, Al3Fe
comes up with points where the oxide film of the surface is weak. This promotes electrochemical
attack. However, Magnesium helps in reducing the detrimental effects of iron. Even if they do
not aid much with respect to the corrosion issue, other alloying elements such as titanium help in
refining the size of the grain.[40][39]
Applications of Aluminium
Aluminium with its excellent properties: - Light weight,
Good corrosion resistance, high conductivity and high
ductility, make it a material with very good machining
properties. These all tend to increase the demand for
aluminium, especially since technologically sustainable
products are being increasingly sought by the market.[37][39]
In fact, Aluminium is utilised in various important
industries which include the manufacturing of tools and
machinery, building constructions, Aerospace equipment,
electricity transmission, packages and containers of food
and beverages and development in transportation production of vehicles amongst other sectors.[39] The
intention of the designer is to produce consumer products
which last as long as possible and aluminium is often the
right material to choose in order to achieve so. Aluminium,
usually found in oxide forms is also very useful in nuclear
reactors.[39] In fact, aluminium was the material used as a
protective case around fuel elements (uranium) and also for
tubes in order to have good conduction.[37]
Figure 18 : Aluminium in
powerlines[41]
References
[1] Figure 1 - Availability of materials around the world - EAA. [2009]. Alumina production. [Online]. [Accessed on 12 th October 2013].
Available from - http://www.alueurope.eu/about-aluminium/production-process/
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[3] ALU.
[2012]. Refining process.
[Online].
[Accessed on 12th October 2013].
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[2] EAA. [2009]. History of Discovery. [Online]. [Accessed on 12 th October 2013]. Available from - http://www.alueurope.eu/aboutaluminium/production-process/
[4] Alu Matter. [No Date]. Introduction. [Online]. [Accessed on 11 th October 2013]. Available from http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/eng/default.asp?catid=214&pageid=2144417044
[5] ESAB. [No Date]. Understanding the aluminium alloy designation System. [Online]. [Accessed on 9 th October 2013]. Available from http://www.esabna.com/us/en/education/knowledge/qa/-Understanding-the-Aluminum-Alloy-Designation-System.cfm
[6] ASM international. [1993]. Aluminium and Aluminium alloys. Illustrated edition. Great Britian: ASM international.
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[9] Figure 4 Picture taken during the process of sand casting - submarineboat. [No date]. Casting Flask. [Online].[Accessed on 3rd October
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[10] IJ Polmear, IJP, 1981, Light Alloys- Metallurgy of the light metals, 41 Bedford square London, Edward Arnold (Publishers) limited.
[11] Suranaree University of Technology. [2007]. Aluminium and its alloys. Cast aluminium alloys. Ppp. 85. Designations of cast aluminium
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[12] ESAB. [No date]. The difference between heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys. [Online]. [Accessed on 4th October
2013].
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[13] SubsTech.
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[14]- ASM international. [No date]. Aluminium and aluminium alloys. [Online]. [Accessed on 5 th October 2013]. Available from http://www.asminternational.org/portal/site/www/SubjectGuideItem/?vgnextoid= f50045d3f365d210VgnVCM100000621e010aRCRD
[15]- Key To Metals. [No date]. Heat treatable aluminium alloys. [Online]. [Accessed on 5 th October 2013]. Available from http://www.keytometals.com/article39.htm
[16] The American welder. [No date]. Understanding aluminium alloys. [Online]. [Accessed on 5 th October 2013]. Available from http://www.aws.org/wj/amwelder/04-02/feature1.html
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Group Form
Name and Surname
545093(M)
290394(M)
Chetcuti Raisa
325894(M)
Ciappara Sarah
156794(M)
Cordina Marvic
31794(G)
Cutajar Braden-Steve
93694(M)
Dalli Daniel
73994(M)
De Giovanni Zachary
162194(M)
Debono Julian
204294(M)
Dimech Christopher
37794(M)
25