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Control Valves
Table of Contents
CONTROL VALVES.................................................................................................................2
GLOBE VALVES...................................................................................................................2
CAGE GUIDED VALVES.................................................................................................3
STEM AND POST-GUIDED VALVES.............................................................................3
BALL VALVES......................................................................................................................4
V-NOTCH BALL VALVES...............................................................................................5
ECCENTRIC ROTARY PLUG VALVES..........................................................................6
BUTTERFLY VALVES..........................................................................................................6
HEAVY DUTY BUTTERFLY VALVES...........................................................................6
HIGH PERFORMANCE BUTTERFLY VALVES............................................................7
SELECTION PARAMETERS...............................................................................................7
PRESSURE RATINGS......................................................................................................8
PRESSURE DROP RATINGS...........................................................................................8
TEMPERATURE RATINGS.............................................................................................9
MATERIAL SELECTION.................................................................................................9
CAPACITY .....................................................................................................................10
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS.........................................................................................11
SHUTOFF ANSI CLASS SEAT LEAKAGE .....................................................................11
ANSI SEAT LEAKAGE CLASSIFICATIONS .............................................................12
CLASS V1........................................................................................................................13
NOISE CONSIDERATIONS...............................................................................................14
END CONNECTIONS........................................................................................................14
GLOSSARY.........................................................................................................................15
GLOBE VALVE NOMENCLATURE.............................................................................15
ROTARY-SHAFT VALVE NOMENCLATURE.............................................................17
CONTROL VALVES
To define a control valve, we will apply a standard definition from the Instrument Society of
America; a society that endorses standards, procedures, and definitions that are commonly
recognized in the process industries. ISA defines a control valve as "A power operated device
which modifies the fluid flow rate in a process control system. It consists of a valve
connected to an actuator mechanism that is capable of changing the position of a flow
controlling element in the valve in response to a signal from the controlling system".
In other words, a control valve automatically responds to some feedback from sensing
element that measures a variable in the process loop. The variable can be temperature,
pressure, flow, or level of the process fluid. The sensing element sends a signal, either
directly or through intermediate instrumentation, to the actuator. The actuator, which is often
pneumatically operated, responds to the signal and adjusts the position of the valve.
The ISA definition implies major differences between control valves and non-control valves.
Non-control valves are generally on-off devices, manually operated, and designed for light or
intermittent service. On the other hand, a control valve that automatically responds to
frequent changes in the control loop may throttle or cycle very frequently - from several
times a day to several times a minute. Consequently, control valves must be ruggedly built to
provide consistent and reliable operation day after day in high cycle service. As compared to
on-off valves, control valves generally use higher-grade materials, heavier internal parts, and
more precise tolerances. Another basic design difference between on-off and control valves
stems from specific purposes of each.
An on-off valve is generally used to either open a pipeline to direct flow, or to close off a
pipeline for shutdown or emergencies. Therefore, the on-off valve should offer little
restriction when open and tight shutoff when closed. This is the function it is designed for.
In contrast, a control valve is used to absorb energy from an imperfect process. Therefore,
even when fully opened, the control valve absorbs a fractional amount of energy so that it can
provide an immediate system effect in the first increment of closure. On-off valves may move
15 to 20 percent of the available travel before a significant system impact occurs. Therefore, a
control valve provides an immediate response, while a non-control, or on-off valve, would
likely introduce an unacceptable lag if used in a throttling application.
GLOBE VALVES
Globe valves are so named because of the globular shaped cavity through which flow passes.
These rugged valves use a plug to shut off flow at the valve seat and to control flow through
the body passages. The plug is attached to a valve stem that protrudes through the bonnet.
The bonnet retains pressure in the valve body and contains the packing that prevents leakage
of process media along the valve stem. Because the valve plug is positioned by linear motion
of the plug stem, these valves are also referred to as sliding-stem, valves. Most globe or
sliding stem valves fall into one of the general categories, categories, cage-guided valves and
stem or post-guided valves.
BALL VALVES
Ball valves use a full sphere or a portion of an spherically shaped component to control flow
through a body passage. The three common categories are reduced bore ball, V notch partial
ball segment, and rotary plug.
Reduced Bore Ball Valves
Reduced bore ball valves control flow with a complete, rotating ball. The bore of the ball is
reduced from line size so that the valve can begin to control flow as soon as it is stroked away
BUTTERFLY VALVES
Butterfly valves are available in two basic styles, heavy-duty butterfly valves and high
performance butterfly valves.
Because the large surface area of the disk acts like a lever in applying the dynamic forces off
flowing media to the drive shaft, butterfly valves are generally limited in pressure handling
capability compared to other valve types. Because they are high recovery valves, there is a
potential for cavitation under certain service conditions. Standard designs are limited in their
shutoff capabilities. Lined valves are generally limited to services with clean process fluids
and require more operating torque for seating and unseating the disk.
SELECTION PARAMETERS
When selecting a valve for a specific service, several parameters of valve design and
performance must be evaluated. This discussion will focus on the more important
specifications and attributes to be considered when selecting a control valve. They a pressure
/ temperature ratings, material compatibility, capacity, flow characteristics, shutoff, cavitation
and flashing, noise, end connections, economy, and maintenance.
PRESSURE RATINGS
When selecting a valve for a given service we must consider both the inlet pressure rating and
the maximum pressure drop rating of the control valve.
Inlet pressure ratings refer to the capabilities of the pressure retaining components such as
bodies and bonnets. This capability is commonly expressed in terms of ANSI Class ratings.
ANSI stands for the American National Standards Institute. ANSI Class ratings of 150, 300,
600, 900, 1500, or 2500 pounds are commonly used. Generally speaking, valves with higher
ANSI Class ratings have heavier or thicker pressure retaining components.
Other ANSI ratings define requirements for classes over 2500 and other special categories.
While ANSI standards are commonly referenced, other standards such those published by the
API (American Petroleum Institute) are also used to define pressure/temperature capabilities.
A valve with a given ANSI Class rating is likely to be capable of withstanding inlet pressures
much greater than the nominal ANSI class. For example, an ANSI Class rating of 150 does
not limit the valve to 150 psig. In fact, ANSI Class 150 carbon steel valves bodies are
typically rated at 285 psig at lower temperatures.
Within the same ANSI Class, different materials have different pressure-temperature
capabilities. Therefore, when a valve is selected that does not quite meet the service pressure
requirements, it may be possible to select the same valve in the same ANSI class but in a
different material that will meet pressure/temperature requirements. In, many instances, this
can be more economical than selecting a heavier body with a higher ANSI Class rating.
Increased temperatures limit the maximum inlet pressure rating, the higher the temperature,
the lower the maximum inlet pressure rating.
TEMPERATURE RATINGS
Temperature capabilities are essentially a function of the materials used. However, as we saw
in the ANSI pressure-temperature ratings charts, temperature a pressure ratings are
interactive; that is, the higher the temperature, the lower the pressure capability.
Each component of the valve has a temperature rating; the body, trim, packing, seals, gaskets,
and so forth. Therefore, the temperature capability of the valve assembly is defined by the
component with the most restrictive rating. In the workbook example, the bonnet bolts limit
the maximum service temperature to 450 degrees. Since all other materials are capable of
higher temperatures, the bolting specification is the limiting factor. Most manufacturers have
checking systems in place to prevent this inconsistency in material selection.
In some instances, the effects of thermal expansion and contraction may be more limiting
than the nominal temperature rating of the construction material used. This is especially true
when large or long valve components are used in extremely high or low temperature service.
In such instances, the valve assembly may have a more limited temperature capability than
the materials from which it was manufactured. Manufacturers generally consider these factors
and rate their products accordingly.
MATERIAL SELECTION
Material specification is an important step in control valve selection. Material selection has
great impact on the suitability of a valve for a given medium, the life of the valve, and the
cost of the valve. Factor's which govern material selection are:
• Chemical compatibility with a given process fluid
• Physical ability to withstand the affects or wear, pressure drop, and erosive fluids
Trim materials are often made of more durable materials than the body, because they are in
the flowstream and subject to more wear. Heat treated or hard-faced stainless steels are
commonly used for valve trim.
Carbon steel valve bodies are popular because of their economy and broad range of
availability. Stainless steel valve bodies may be specified when exceptionally high or low
temperature capabilities are required or for resistance to some corrosive process fluids.
Soft valve components such as seats, seals, and packing are available in a broad range of
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natural and synthetic materials. Application requirements such as temperature and chemical
compatibility dictate the materials used.
In erosive applications, trim parts can be hard-faced or manufactured from very durable
materials such as Alloy 6, tungsten carbide, ceramics, and other new specialty materials.
For extremely corrosive applications, bodies and trim may be made from one of a broad
range of nickel based alloys such as the Hastelloys, Inconels, and Monels.
As a word of caution, many different standards exist for describing materials. Materials can
be described with common names such as "stainless steel", or with proprietary names, such as
Inconnel, which is a trademark of the International Nickel Company. These rather general
terms could apply to any one of a number of specific materials within that family. For
instance, a general reference to Inconel could be interpreted as Inconel 718 or Inconel 600.
The 718 material has a yield strength of 180,000 psi while the 600 material has a yield
strength of only 25,000 PSI. Therefore, with this wide range of capability in the same family
of material, it is important to specify the exact material desired.
CAPACITY
Capacity is defined as the rate of flow through a valve under stated conditions as, expressed
as a "flow coefficient". The flow coefficient is supplied by the valve manufacturer and is
useful for determining the size of a given control valve needed for a given flow requirement.
Different flow coefficients are used for each of the physical states - liquid, gas, and steam.
Liquid capacity is expressed as the coefficient Cv. Cv is defined as the number of gallons of
water at 60 degrees F. that will flow through the valve in one minute at a pressure drop of 1
psi at stated conditions. The stated conditions will include percent of rated travel.
Gas and steam capacities are expressed with different flow coefficients because they behave
differently than liquids. In arriving at these coefficients, allowances are made for the effects
of compressibility and other important factors. The coefficients Cg, - gases, and Cs - for
steam, are commonly used.
Specific ANSI standards define commonly accepted procedures for determining flow
coefficients. These standards define procedures for determining flow coefficients by actual
pipeline tests and by calculation. The procedures used by different manufacturers to
determine flow coefficients can vary so it is a good practice to know if the manufacturer
typically rates their valves conservatively or optimistically. Tested results may be preferred as
they may be more accurate.
Rotary-shaft valves, with the exception of the eccentric rotary-plug design, provide the
highest liquid flow coefficients. This is expected as these valves have a straight through flow
path with minimal obstruction. While it might be expected that the full ball valve would have
the highest flow coefficient, recall that the full ball valve discussed earlier had a reduced port
to provide accurate throttling control. Because, globe valves have a more tortuous flow path
than rotary-shaft valves, we would expect them to have somewhat diminished capacity
compared to rotary valves.
When flowing gasses, the difference in capacity between the valve families is less
pronounced. This is because liquid flow coefficients are dependant on how tortuous the flow
path is, while gas flow coefficients are more a function of the minimum cross-sectional flow
area of the control valve.
Closely related to capacity, recovery is a relative term used to describe how downstream
pressure is affected by the design and geometry of the control valve. For example, globe
CLASS V1
1 25 0.15 1
1-1/2 38 0.30 2
2 51 0.45 3
2-1/2 64 0.60 4
3 76 0.90 6
4 102 1.70 11
6 152 4.00 27
8 203 6.75 45
Class I shutoff does not require testing but is mutually defined by and agreed to by the user
and supplier. It is a special classification that might apply to a valve with a higher leakage
class rating which has been modified for some purpose.
Class II shutoff allows leakage of up to one-half of one percent (0.5%) of the rated capacity
of the valve using air or water as the test medium at a pressure drop of 50 psid. In our
example, leakage of the specified valve is five gallons per minute.
Class III shutoff allows leakage of up to one-tenth of one percent (0.1 %) of the rated
capacity of the valve again using air or water as the test medium with a 50 psid pressure drop.
This is one-fifth the leakage of Class II and as an the example, is one gallon per minute.
Class IV shutoff allows leakage of one one-hundredth of one percent (.01 %) of the rated
capacity of the valve under the same test conditions as above. Leakage is slightly less than
one pint per minute.
Class V standards become more stringent and allow only.0005 milliliters of water per minute
per inch of port diameter at a minimum test pressure drop of 100 psid. In the example, wide
open flow should be increased to about 1400 gallons per minute because of the increased test
pressure. However, because of the more demanding requirements, an eyedropper could be
used to measure leakage accumulated in one minute.
Class VI standards are very demanding. Instead of water as a test medium, air or nitrogen is
used with a pressure drop of 50 psid. The allowable leakage for different nominal port
diameters is expressed in both milliliters per minute and bubbles per minute. Allowable
leakage does not follow a linear scale but is identified for port diameters through 8-inches.
Obviously, this leak class provides very tight shutoff.
In some instances, tight shutoff should be specified even though it not a specific process
requirement. For instance, when flowing toxic or flammable fluid, tight shutoff is often
specified for safety reasons. In severe services involving erosive fluids, high pressure drops,
or cavitation (discussed later), tight shutoff may be specified to reduce wear or erosion of
closure members and seats.
NOISE CONSIDERATIONS
Aerodynamic noise is generated by the turbulence associated with control of gas, steam, or
vapors. While generally thought of as accompanying high capacity, high pressure systems,
damaging noise levels can be produced in a two-inch line with as little as a 200 psi pressure
drop.
Concern for high levels of noise is a twofold issue. First, noise control is an environmental
issue as OSHA (the Office for Safety and Health Administration) has determined safe and
acceptable limits for control valve noise as it affects the working environment. Secondly,
research indicates that noise levels above the recommended limit of approximately 110
decibels can result in mechanical damage to control valves, their associated parts and piping.
During the valve sizing process, noise can be predicted by using well established
mathematical techniques. When unacceptable noise levels are predicted, noise abatement
equipment and techniques are available to reduce noise to acceptable levels. Noise control
can be provided by source treatment at the origin (generally the control valve), by path
treatment downstream of the origin, or by both.
Source treatment strategies generally involve special valve trims or accessories designed to
reduce turbulence of the process fluid within the valve. Source treatments actually limit the
amount of noise generated by a control valve. For cage guided valves, special cage designs
are used. For other types of valves, diffusing components are inserted downstream to reduce
noise generation within the valve.
Path treatments such as pipeline insulation or the use of heavy wall pipe do not eliminate the
noise but rather reduce the intensity, of the sound transmitted into the working environment.
Silencers, on the other hand, do absorb part of the noise energy and therefore reduce the
sound intensity in both the flowstream and the working environment.
END CONNECTIONS
End connection selection is generally a simple question of whether the desired end
connection style is available for the type of valve being considered. In some instances,
however, end connection style is dictated by safety standards or plant policies.
GLOSSARY
GLOBE VALVE NOMENCLATURE
Bonnet
A valve pressure retaining boundary which may guide the stem and contain the packing box
and seal. The major part of the bonnet assembly, excluding the sealing means. (This term is
often used in referring to the bonnet and its included packing parts. More properly, this group
of component parts should be called the Bonnet Assembly.)
Bonnet Assembly
An assembly including the part through which a valve plug stem moves and a means for
sealing against leakage along the stem. It usually provides a means for mounting the actuator.
Cage
A hollow cylindrical trim element that is a guide to align the movement of' a valve plug with
a seat ring. The cage may also retain the seat ring in the valve body. (The walls of the cage
have openings that usually determine the flow characteristic of the control valve.)
Extension Bonnet
A bonnet with an extension between the packing box and bonnet flange for hot or cold
service.
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Globe Valve
A valve construction style with a linear motion flow controlling member with one or more
ports, normally distinguished by a globular-shaped cavity around the port region. Two
categories are commonly recognized depending on the method of plug guiding; cage guided
and stem or plug guided.
Guide Bushing
A bushing in a bonnet, bottom flange, or body to align the movement of a valve plug with a
seat ring.
Isolating Valve
A hand-operated valve between the packing lubricator and the packing box to shut off the
fluid pressure from the lubricator.
Packing Lubricator
An optional part of the bonnet assembly used to inject lubricant into the packing box.
Port
A fixed opening, normally the inside diameter of a seat ring, through which fluid passes.
Retaining Ring
A split ring that is used to retain a separable flange on a valve body.
Seat
That portion of the seat ring or valve body which a valve plug contacts for closure.
Seat Ring
A separate piece inserted in a valve body to form a valve body port. It generally provides a
seating surface for the closure member.
Separable Flange
A flange which fits over a valve body flow connection. It is generally held in place by means
of a retaining ring.
Stern Connector
A two piece clamp which connects the actuator stem to the valve plug stem.
Ball, V-notch
The flow-controlling member for a popular style of throttling ball valve. The V-notch ball
includes a polished or plated partial-sphere surface that rotates against the seal ring
throughout the travel range. The V-shaped notch in the ball permits wide rangeability and
produces an equal percentage flow characteristic.
Note
The balls mentioned above, and the disks that follow, perform a function comparable to the
valve plug in a globe-style control valve. That is, as they rotate they vary the size and shape
of the flowstream by opening more or less the seal area to the flowing fluid.
Disk, Conventional
The flow-controlling member used in the most common varieties of butterfly rotary valves.
High dynamic torques normally limits conventional disks to 60 degrees maximum rotating in
throttling service.
Disk, Eccentric
Common name for valve design in which the positioning of the valve shaft/disk connections
causes the disk to take a slightly eccentric path on opening. (This allows the disk to be swung
out of contact with the seal as soon as it is opened, thereby reducing friction and wear.) This
design is also commonly referred to as a high performance butterfly valve (HPBV).
Flangeless Body
Body style common to rotary-shaft control valves. Flangeless bodies are, held between
ANSI-class flanges by long through-bolts. (Sometimes also called wafer-style valve bodies.)
Flow Ring
Heavy-duty ring used in place of ball seal ring for V-notch rotary valves in severe service,
applications where some leakage can be tolerated.
Reverse Flow
Flow of a fluid in the opposite direction from that normally considered the standard direction.
(Some rotary-shaft control valves, such as conventional-disk butterfly valves, are capable of
handling flow equally well in either direction. Other rotary designs may require modification
of actuator linkage to handle reverse flow. Capacity and allowable working pressures are
often lowered to maintain allowable leakage limits with flow in the reverse direction.)
Seal Ring
The portion of a rotary-shaft control valve assembly corresponding to the seat ring of a globe
valve. Positioning of the disk or ball relative to the seal ring determines the flow area and
capacity of the unit at that particular increment of rotational travel. As indicated above, some
seal ring designs permit bi-directional flow.
Shaft
The portion of a rotary-shaft control valve assembly corresponding to the valve stem of a
globe valve. Rotation of the shaft positions the disk or ball in the flowstream and thereby
controls the amount of fluid that can pass through the valve.