PET RO N A S

GA S

TRAINING MODULE

ELECTRICAL

TITLE
:
MODULE NO :

EARTHING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION

E02

Capability & Improvement Dept.2004

For Internal Use Only

EARTHING & LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this module, the technician would be able to demonstrate knowledge
and understanding on the following:
1. Electrical Fundamentals on earthing and lightning protection system
2 General principles on earthing and lightning protection system installation
3 Importance of earthing and lightning protection system in an electrical installation
4 Different types of earthing arrangement
5 Basic materials used in earthing system and lightning protection system installation
6 Requirements in earthing system installation
7 Maintenance and inspection for earthing and lightning protection system
8 Periodic maintenance and inspection on the installation
9 Different tests and testing instruments for earthing and lightning protection system
10 Earth resistance measurement
11 How to improve earthing system
12 Different means of protection against lightning surges
13 Principle of protection of Surge Arrester
14. Earthing and lightning protection system installed in the plant.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Topic

Page

1.0.0 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ..........................................................................................6

2.0.0 EARTHING FUNDAMENTALS ...................................................................................8
2.1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ............................................................................................................8
2.2.0 OBJECTIVES OF EARTHING ........................................................................................................8
2.3.0 SAFE WORK ENVIRONMENT THROUGH EARTHING ..................................................................8

3.0.0 EARTHING SYSTEM INSTALLATION ........................................................................9

3.1.0 SYSTEM EARTHING (GROUNDING ) ...........................................................................................9
3.2.0 EQUIPMENT EARTHING (GROUNDING).....................................................................................9
3.2.1 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT TO EARTHING SYSTEM ............................................................... 11

4.0.0 IMPORTANCE OF EARTHING IN AN INSTALLATION ..............................................12

4.1.0 PROTECTION BENEFITS FROM EARTHING/ GROUNDING ........................................................12

5.0.0 BASIC MATERIALS USED FOR EARTHING SYSTEM ...............................................13

5.1.0 EARTH ELECTRODES ................................................................................................................13
5.2.0 EARTHING CONDUCTORS .........................................................................................................14
5.2.1 SIZE OF EARTHING CONDUCTOR ....................................................................................................................... 14

5.3.0 MAIN EARTHING TERMINALS OR EARTHING BARS ...............................................................14

5.4.0 PROTECTIVE CONDUCTORS .....................................................................................................15

6.0.0 EARTHING ARRANGEMENT AND PROTECTIVE CONDUCTORS .............................16

6.1.0 EARTHING ARRANGEMENTS ....................................................................................................17
6.1.1 TN-C SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.1.3 TN-C-S SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................. 18
6.1.4 TT SYSTEM ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
6.1.5 IT SYSTEM ......................................................................................................................................................... 19

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7.0.0 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EARTHING INSTALLATION ................................21

7.2.0 INSTALLATION OF EARTHING SYSTEM PATH ..........................................................................21
7.2.1 SOLID GROUNDING ............................................................................................................................................ 21
7.2.2 LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING (NEUTRAL GROUNDING RESISTORS OR REACTORS) .................................... 22

8.0.0 MEASUREMENTS, TESTS AND TEST INSTRUMENTS ..............................................25

8.1.0 IMPORTANCE OF CONDUCTING TEST ON EARTHING/GROUNDING SYSTEMS ........................25
8.2.0 TEST METHOD FOR EARTHING SYSTEM COMPLIANCE TESTING ...........................................25
8.2.1 FALL OF POTENTIAL METHOD .......................................................................................................................... 25
8.2.2 DIRECT MEASUREMENT BY THE USE OF CLAMP-ON-METER ......................................................................... 26

8.3.0 TESTING ON EARTHING INSTALLATION ..................................................................................26

8.3.1 EARTH LOOP IMPEDANCE TESTING ................................................................................................................. 26
8.3.2 EARTHING ELECTRODE RESISTANCE TESTING ............................................................................................... 28
8.3.3 TYPICAL EARTH ELECTRODE TESTING INSTRUMENTS .................................................................................... 29
8.3.4 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE- PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 30

9.0.0 EARTHING SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT .....................................................................31

10.0.0 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION OF EARTHING SYSTEM INSTALLATION ........32
10.1.0 POSSIBLE CAUSES OF ACCIDENTAL EARTHING ....................................................................32
10.2.0 CONTINUITY OF THE EARTHING CIRCUIT .............................................................................32
10.3.0 PERIODIC CHECKS ON THE EARTHING SYSTEM ...................................................................32
10.3.1 INSPECTION OF EARTHING SYSTEM INSTALLATION ...................................................................................... 33
10.3.2 TYPICAL CHECKLIST FOR INSPECTION OF EARTHING SYSTEM ..................................................................... 33

11.0.0 LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM .....................................................................34

11.1.0 EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING STROKES ........................................................................................34
11.2.0 HARMFUL EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE SURGES............................................................................34
11.3.0 MEANS OF PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING SURGES .......................................................35
11.4.0 TYPICAL DEVICES/MATERIALS FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION ...........................................35

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12.0.0 LIGHTNING PROTECTION BY SURGE ARRESTER ...............................................36

12.1.0 TYPES OF SURGE ARRESTERS ................................................................................................36
12.2.0 PRINCIPLE OF SURGE ARRESTER PROTECTION ....................................................................36
12.2.1 GAPPED ARRESTERS (GAPPED SILICON CARBIDE ARRESTERS) .................................................................... 36
12.2.2 GAP LESS ARRESTERS (METAL OXIDE VARISTORS SURGE ARRESTERS) ...................................................... 37

12.3.0 TYPICAL INSTALLATION AND TYPE OF SURGE ARRESTER ...................................................38

12.4.0 TESTS ON LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. .......................................................................................39

13.0.0 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION OF SURGE ARRESTERS ..................................40

13.1.0 PERIODIC INSPECTION ON THE SURGE ARRESTER................................................................40

14.0.0 SURGE COUNTERS ...............................................................................................41

14.1.0 INSTALLATION OF SURGE COUNTER .....................................................................................41
14.2.0 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION OF SURGE COUNTER ........................................................42

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1.0.0 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

1. Earthing - the act of connecting exposed conductive parts of an installation to the main earthing
terminal of an installation.
2. Earthing conductor - a protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal of an installation
to an earth electrode or to the other means of earthing.
3. Earth electrode - a conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and providing an
electrical connection to, Earth.
4. Earth electrode resistance - the resistance of an earth electrode to Earth.
5. Exposed conductive part - a conductive part or metalwork of electrical equipment which can be
touched and which is not a live part but may become live under fault conditions.
6. Main earthing terminal - the terminal or bar provided for the connection of protective conductors,
including equipotential bonding conductors, and conductors for functional earthing if any, to the
means of earthing
7. Circuit protective conductor - a conductor connecting exposed conductive parts to the main
earthing terminal.
8. Equipotential bonding - an electrical connection between exposed conductive parts and extraneous
conductive parts which puts them at approximately the same potential.
9. Extraneous conductive part - metalwork that is not part of the electrical installation, and which is
liable to introduce a potential, generally earth potential
10. Bonding conductor - a conductor used for equipotential bonding
11. Live part - a phase or neutral conductor, or part intended to be energized in normal use.
12. Protective conductor - a conductor used as means of protection against electric shock by connecting
extraneous conductive parts together, or to exposed
13. Electrical equipment - any item for such purposes as generation, conversion, transmission,
distribution or utilization or electrical energy, such as transformers, apparatus, measuring instruments,
protective devices, wiring materials, accessories and luminaires.
14. System - an electrical system consisting of a single source of electrical energy and an installation.
15. TN system - a system having one or more points of the source of energy directly earthed, the
exposed-conductive parts of the installations being connected to that point by protective conductors.
16. TN-C system - a system in which neutral and protective functions are combined in a single conductor
throughout the system.
17. TN-S system - a system having separate neutral and protective functions throughout the system.
18. TN-C-S system - a system in which neutral and protective functions are combined in a single
conductor in part of the system.

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19. TT system - a system having one point of the source of energy directly earthed, the exposedconductive-parts of the installation being connected to earth electrodes independent of the earth
electrodes of the source.
20. IT system - a system having no direct connection between live parts and Earth, the exposedconductive parts of the electrical installation being earthed.
21. System grounding (earthing) - intentional connection of neutral point to ground.
22. Equipment grounding (earthing) - refers to the connection of noncurrent carrying parts to earth
(ground).

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2.0.0 EARTHING FUNDAMENTALS

2.1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
In Britain, it is termed as earth while in Northern America, it is called ground. Basically,
these two terms means exactly the same thing, only different terms are used in different countries.
Earthing or grounding is connecting an electrical system to the earth with a wire. Excess or stray
current travels through this wire to an earthing device (commonly called a ground) deep in the earth.
Grounding prevents unwanted voltage on electrical components.
Sometimes an electrical system will receive a higher voltage than it is designed to handle. These
high voltages may come from a lightning strike, line surge, or contact with a higher voltage line.
Sometimes a defect occurs in a device that allows exposed metal parts to become energized. Earthing will
help protect the person working on a system, the system itself, and others using tools or operating
equipment connected to the system. The extra current produced by the excess voltage travels relatively
safely to the earth.

2.2.0 OBJECTIVES OF EARTHING

The objectives of earthing system may be summarized as follows:
1. To provide safety to personnel during normal and fault conditions by limiting step and touch potential.
2. To assure correct operation of electrical/electronic devices.
3. To prevent damage to electrical/electronic apparatus.
4. To dissipate lightning strokes.
5. To stabilize voltage during transient conditions and therefore to minimize the probability of flash over
during transients.
6. To divert stray RF energy from sensitive audio, video, control, and computer equipment.

2.3.0 SAFE WORK ENVIRONMENT THROUGH EARTHING

Earthing creates a path for currents produced by unintended voltages on exposed parts. These
currents follow the grounding path, rather than passing through the body of someone who touches the
energized equipment.
Leakage current occurs when an electrical current escapes from its intended path. Leakage's are
sometimes low-current faults that can occur in an electrical equipment because of dirt, wear, damage, or
moisture. A good grounding system should be able to carry off this leakage current.
Proper grounding protects against ground faults. Ground faults are usually caused by misuse of a
tool or damage to its insulation. This damage allows a bare conductor to touch metal parts or the tool
housing. When you ground a tool or electrical system, you create a low-resistance path to the earth. This
path has sufficient current-carrying capacity to eliminate voltages that may cause a dangerous shock.

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3.0.0 EARTHING SYSTEM INSTALLATION

The two most common earthing system installation that will be described are:
1. System earthing (system grounding), and
2. Equipment earthing (equipment grounding)

3.1.0 SYSTEM EARTHING (GROUNDING )

System earthing is the intentional connection of neutral point to earth. If neutral point is earthed,
the phase to ground voltages under each fault condition do not rise to high value. Earth fault protection
becomes easy.
An earthed distribution system has one conductor of the system solidly connected to a common
system ground. The earthed system offers advantages of :
1) greater safety to personnel and equipment
2) reduced exposure to over voltages, and
3) easier location of ground faults

L1

L2

L3

E
Ex. Grounded distribution system: Grounded Neutral
Accidental grounds in a grounded system generally cause the opening of breakers or the blowing
of fuses. However, the best protection against damage due to a ground fault may be obtained with a
ground-sensing relay that operates a tripping coil in the breaker. In the absence of a ground relay, the trip
setting of the breaker should be set as low as possible; however, the trip setting must be high enough to
prevent false tripping that may be caused by motor starting current.

3.2.0 EQUIPMENT EARTHING (GROUNDING)

Equipment earthing is connecting to earth the noncurrent carrying metal parts. The noncurrent
carrying metal parts include motor body, switch gear structure, transformer core and tank, sheaths of
cables, body of portable equipment, etc.

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L1

N
L2
L3
Metallic
Enclosure

E
Ex. Equipment Earthing System
The framework of all electrical equipment, large or small, should be connected with lowresistance metallic conductors to a common point, usually the earth. Such connections eliminate the
shock hazard to operating personnel caused by normal leakage current and normal capacitive effects, and
reduce the hazard to personnel if an insulation fault should occur within the apparatus. ..

The equipment grounding conductors under normal conditions carry no current. The only time
they carry current is under abnormal conditions when the electrical equipment is faulty and has become a
shock or fire hazard. Under a fault condition, the earthing conductor that is connected to the outer sheet of
the equipment must be able to provide a very low resistance path back to the source of power so that
enough current will flow causing a breaker or fuse to open the circuit and automatically disconnect the
hazard from the system. It is not the purpose of this equipment earthing system to send current through

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the ground. The only time the current is intentionally sent into the earth is during a lightning strike or line
surge due to a nearby lightning strike.
3.2.1 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT TO EARTHING SYSTEM
Apparatus

Parts to be earthed

Method of connection

Power transformer

Transformer tank

Support of bushing
insulators, lightning arrester,
fuse, etc.

Device flange or base plate

Earthing switch and surge

arrester

Earth terminal of each pole

on 3 phase surge arrester.
Earth terminal of earthing
switch

Cabinets of control relay

panels

Framework of switch gear

and cabinets

High voltage circuit breakers

Operating mechanism, frame

Isolator

Isolator base (frame)

operating mechanism base
plate

Shunt reactor

Neutral, tank

Steel doors and wire guards

in chambers or cubicles door
or guard steel mount

Door or guard steel mount

Connect the earthing bolt on

transformer tank to station
earthing system. Connect
the neutral to earthing
system
Connect the earthing bolt on
transformer tank to station
earthing system. In the
absence of earthing bolt or in
case of connection to non
conducting structures,
connect device fastening bolt
to earth.
When the device is mounted
on a steel structure, connect
each supporting structure of
the apparatus to earthing
main via separate conductor
Weld the framework of each
separately mounted board
and cabinet to earth
conductor of earthing system
minimum at 2 points
Connect the earthing bolt on
the frame and operating
mechanism of the CB to
earthing system
Weld the isolator base frame,
connect it to the bolt on the
operating mechanism bed
plate and station earthing
Connect neutral point of 3
phase shunt reactor to the
station earth
Weld the mount of each door
and guard and connect to
earth system

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4.0.0 IMPORTANCE OF EARTHING IN AN INSTALLATION

Earthing of an installation offers the following advantages:
1. It eliminates the shock hazard to operating personnel caused by normal leakage current and normal
capacitive effects.
2. It reduces the hazard to personnel if an insulation fault should occur within the apparatus
3. It protects equipment from damage,
4. It allows fault or lightning energy to dissipate easily,
5. It is essential to the effective operation of circuits used in process control systems and in
communication
6. It allows operation of fault protection equipment,
7. It eliminates the buildup of static electricity
8. It provides a reference for the easier location of earth faults.

4.1.0 PROTECTION BENEFITS FROM EARTHING/ GROUNDING

Earthing or grounding protect against;
Equipment faults to ground
Distribution faults to ground
Flash overs and lightning strikes on a system
Direct lightning strike
Radiation hazard
Static build up

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5.0.0 BASIC MATERIALS USED FOR EARTHING SYSTEM

Basic materials used for earthing system installation are:
1. Earth electrode
2. Earthing conductor
3. Main earthing terminals or earthing bars
4. Protective conductor

5.1.0 EARTH ELECTRODES

Earth electrode is a metal plate or metal pipe or metal conductors electrically connected to earth.
Copper. Aluminum, mild steel and galvanized iron are the materials generally used for earthing
electrodes.
The following types of earth electrodes are recognized by the regulations and may be used:
1. Earth rods (5/8 in. Dia.) or pipes (3/4 in. dia.),
2. Earth tapes or wires,
3. Earth plates (1/4 in. Thick x 2 sq.ft.),
4. Underground structural metalwork embedded in foundations,
5. Welded metal reinforcement of concrete (except pre-stressed concrete) embedded in the
earth,
6. Metallic sheaths or other coverings of cables, providing;
A) they are not liable to deterioration through excessive corrosion, and
B) the cable sheath is in effective contact with earth
The design used, and the material from which earth electrodes are made, shall be able to withstand
damage due to corrosion. The earth electrode should be buried at a depth such
that the earth electrode resistance is not increased by the soil drying or freezing.
Connections to earth electrodes shall
not be made with aluminum, or copper clad
aluminum conductors. Connections to earth
electrodes shall be soundly made, so that they
are electrically and mechanically satisfactory;
they shall have a label permanently attached
in a visible position, durably

marked in

legible type with the words, Safety electrical

EARTH PLATES
EARTH RODS

connection do not remove. The connection

must also be suitably protected against
corrosion.

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5.2.0 EARTHING CONDUCTORS

Earthing conductor is a protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal of an
installation to an earth electrode or to other means of earthing. Minimum cross-sectional area of a buried
earthing conductor is 25 mm2 copper.
The connection of an earthing conductor to an earth electrode or other means of earthing shall be
soundly made and be electrically and mechanically satisfactory, and labeled in accordance with the
Regulations. It shall be suitably protected against corrosion.

5.2.1 SIZE OF EARTHING CONDUCTOR

Plant earthing ring conductors shall have a cross-sectional area of 70 mm2.The cross-sectional
area of branch conductors connecting equipment and structures to the plant earth ring shall be:
1. To metallic enclosures of HV electrical equipment

70 mm2

2. To metallic enclosures of LV electrical equipment having a supply cable with a conductor cross
section of 35 mm2 and more

70 mm2

3. To metallic enclosures of LV electrical equipment having a supply cable cross-sectional area less
than 35 mm2

25 mm2
25 mm2

4. To control panels, etc..,

5. To non-electrical equipment exposed to lightning, e.g. Tanks, columns and tall structures
70 mm2
25 mm2

6. To other non-electrical equipment

5.3.0 MAIN EARTHING TERMINALS OR EARTHING BARS

A main earthing terminal or bar shall be provided for every installation, to connect the following
to the earthing conductor:
1. The circuit protective conductors,
2. The main equipotential bonding conductors,
3. Any functional earthing conductors, and
4. The lightning protection system bonding conductor.
The consumers main earthing terminal shall be

EARTHING BAR

connected to the earthed point of the source of electrical

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energy for a TN-S system, by the supply undertaking to the neutral of the source of electrical energy for a
TN-C-S system, and connected by an earthing conductor to an earth electrode for a TT or IT system.
The main earthing terminal shall be accessible, to enable the earthing conductor to be
disconnected for test purposes. The joint shall be mechanically strong, reliably maintain electrical
continuity, and be capable of disconnection only by means of a tool.

5.4.0 PROTECTIVE CONDUCTORS

It is a conductor used for some measures of protection against electric shock and intended for
connecting together any of the following parts:
1. Exposed-conductive parts
2. Extraneous-conductive-parts
3. The main earthing terminal
4. Earth electrode (s)
5. The earthed point of the source, or an artificial neutral

A protective conductor (minimum cross-sectional area shall not be less than 2.5 mm2 copper),
may consist of one or more of the following:
1) a single core cable
2) a conductor in a cable
3) an insulated or bare conductor in a common enclosure with insulated live conductors
4) a fixed bare or insulated conductor
5) a metal covering, for example, the sheath, screen or armouring of a cable
6) a metal conduit or other enclosure or electrically continuous support system for conductors
7) an extraneous-conductive-part like suitable structural metalwork

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6.0.0 EARTHING ARRANGEMENT AND PROTECTIVE CONDUCTORS

M
M

3
E

T
Legend: 1,2,3,4
1
2
3
4
B
M
C
P
T
E

= protective conductors
= circuit protective conductor
= main equipotential bonding conductor
= earthing conductor
= supplementary equipotential bonding conductors (where required)
= main earthing terminal
= exposed-conductive-part
= extraneous-conductive-part
= main metallic water pipe
= earth electrode (TT and IT systems)
= other means of earthing (TN systems)

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6.1.0 EARTHING ARRANGEMENTS

Before commencing an installation the type of earthing arrangement shall be determined: i.e. the
type of system which the installation and supply will comprise. Depending upon the requirements of the
installation, joint or separate earthing arrangement may be used both for protection or functional purposes.
The main earthing terminal shall be connected with Earth by one of the methods described and
identified as follows (TN-C, TN-S, TN-C-S, TT, IT system), depending upon the relationship of the
source, and of exposed-conductive-parts of the installation, to Earth.
6.1.1 TN-C SYSTEM
source of energy

L1
L2
L3
combined
protective and
neutral conductor
PEN

consumers'
installations

source
of earth

equipment
in
installation

additional
source earth

exposed
conductive
parts

Neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor throughout system.

For a TN-C system, means shall be provided for the connection of PEN conductor to the main earthing
terminal.
6.1.2 TN-S system
source of energy

L1

consumers'
installations

source
of earth

L2
L3
N
protective
conductor (PE)

equipment
in
installation
exposed
conductive
parts

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TN-S system.
Separate neutral and protective conductors throughout the system.All exposed-conductive parts of
an installation are connected to this protective conductor via the main earthing terminal of the installation.
The protective conductor (PE) is the metallic covering of the cable supplying the installations or separate
conductor.
For a TN-S system, means shall be provided for the main earthing terminal of the installation to be
connected to the earthed point of the source of energy. Part of the connections may be formed by the
suppliers lines and equipment.
6.1.3 TN-C-S SYSTEM

source of energy

L1
L2
L3
combined
protective and
neutral conductor
PEN

consumers'
installations

source
of earth

equipment
in
installation

additional
source earth

exposed
conductive
parts

Neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor in a part of the system.
The usual form of a TN-C-S is as shown, where the supply is TN-C and the arrangement in the
installation is TN-S. The supply system PEN conductor is earthed at several points and an earth electrode
may be necessary at or near a consumers installation.
All exposed-conductive-parts of an installation are connected to the PEN conductor via the main
earthing terminal and the neutral terminal, these terminals being linked together.
For a TN-C-S system means shall be provided for the main earthing terminal of the installation to
be connected by the supplier to the neutral of the source of energy.

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6.1.4 TT SYSTEM
source of energy

L1
L2
L3
N
consumers'
installations

source
of earth

equipment
in
installation
exposed
conductive
parts

installation
earth
electrode

installation
earth
electrode

All exposed-conductive parts of an installation are connected to an earth electrode which is

electrically independent of the source earth.
For a TT system, the main earthing terminal shall be connected via an earthing conductor to an
earth electrode.
6.1.5 IT SYSTEM
source of energy

L1
L2
L3

earthing
impedance

consumers'
installations

equipment
in
installation

source
of earth

exposed
conductive
parts

installation
earth
electrode

installation
earth
electrode

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IT system.
All exposed-conductive-parts of an installation are connected to an earth electrode.
The source is either connected to Earth through a deliberately introduced earthing impedance or is
isolated from Earth.
For a IT system, the main earthing terminal shall be connected via an earthing conductor to an
earth electrode.

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7.0.0 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EARTHING INSTALLATION

The earthing of the installation shall be:
1. Continuously effective,
2. Able to carry earth fault currents and earth leakage currents without danger, particularly from
thermal, thermomechanical, and electromechanical stresses,
3. Adequately robust, or have additional suitable mechanical protection,
4. Arranged so that the risk of damage to other metallic parts through electrolysis is avoided.
7.1.0 EARTHING INSTALLATION PRACTICE IN INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION AND
UTILIZATION SYSTEM
Nominal Voltage

Grounding Practice and Reason

1,000 V and below (phase to phase)

Solid Grounding
- Low earth fault current
- No sustained earth fault
- Easy fault detection
- Easy protection
- Higher safety

1,000 V to 15,000 V (phase to phase)

Low Resistance Grounding or Reactance

Grounding
- To limit fault currents
- To prevent damage to machines from overvoltage

Above 15,000 V (phase to phase)

Solid Grounding
- Fault currents limited by fault resistance
- No rotating machines connected at this voltage

7.2.0 INSTALLATION OF EARTHING SYSTEM PATH

7.2.1 SOLID GROUNDING
The earthing system of power plants and substations is usually formed by several vertical ground
rods connected to each other and to all equipment frames, neutrals and structures that are to be earthed.
Such a system that combines a horizontal grid and a number of vertical ground rods penetrating lower soil
layers has several advantages in comparison to a grid alone. Sufficiently long ground rods stabilize the
performance of such a combined system. Rods are more efficient in dissipating fault currents because the
upper soil layer usually has higher resistivity than the lower layers. Therefore, the touch and step voltages
are reduced significantly compared to that of the grid alone.

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The earthing system usually consists of an earthing grip of copper wires or strips. In order to
avoid the interference with installations for corrosion prevention, the grid shall consists of insulated wires
or strips instead of bare conductors, whilst earthing electrodes should be of suitable material.
The earthing path may include solidly connected metallic conduit, metallic piping, one-piece
copper conductor of appropriate size, the steel structure of a building, the hull of a ship, etc..
The connection to earth may be accomplished by connection to a metallic underground watersupply system or to driven earth electrodes using unpainted galvanized pipes, rods, or metal plates. The
pipes (3/4 inch in diameter) or rods (5/8 inch in diameter) should be driven to a depth of at least 8 feet.
Each plate electrode should be at least inch thick and have a cross-sectional area of at least 2 sq. ft.
Where over one electrode is used, spacing between them should be no less than 6 feet.
Earthing electrodes are spotted throughout the grid to provide a low enough earthing resistance.
Generally a resistance of the entire grid below 4 (four) ohms will be satisfactory.
Example of typical solid grounding installation

Chemically Charged Ground Rod

7.2.2 LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING (NEUTRAL GROUNDING RESISTORS OR REACTORS)

Neutral Grounding Resistors are used in industrial power systems for resistance grounding of
wye-connected generators and transformers. A neutral
grounding resistor limits the fault current to a value which is
sufficient enough to operate protective relays, yet prevent
unwanted fault damage. Resistance grounding can limit pointof-fault damage, eliminate transient overvoltages, reduce the
flash hazard, limit voltage exposure to personnel, and provide
adequate tripping levels for selective ground-fault detection
and coordination.

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In order to limit the fault current on transformers with a wye connected secondary, neutral
grounding resistors or reactors are often used on medium voltage systems from 1000 volts to 15,000 volts
phase to phase. These current limiting devices are connected in series with the transformer secondary
neutral. In the event of a phase-to-ground fault, the current will flow through, and be limited by, the
neutral resistor or reactor.

The three electrical ratings required to select a grounding resistor are: Voltage Rating, Current
Rating, and Time Rating.
Voltage Rating: based on the system phase-to-neutral voltage (phase-to-phase voltage divided by
square root of 3.
Current Rating: Low Resistance Grounded Systems, generally the range is from 25 to 600 amps.
High Resistance Grounded Systems, the current is limited to 10 amps or less

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 Time Ratings: Standard Time Ratings are : Ten seconds, One minute, Ten minutes and Extended
Time
When a system has protective relays which will trip the circuit if a ground fault occurs, a
grounding resistor with a 10 second rating is often specified, because the relays will trip the system in less
than 10 seconds. However, one minute or ten minute ratings are sometimes used for an extra margin of
safety, even though the cost will be greater.

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8.0.0 MEASUREMENTS, TESTS AND TEST INSTRUMENTS

The earthing system (ground system) is critical for the protection, reliability, and performance of
sensitive equipment. Verifying that a grounding system installation meets the standard and specification
is very important for many reasons.

Validation of design and construction

Validation of equipment warranty
Establishment of baseline for future testing

8.1.0 IMPORTANCE OF CONDUCTING TEST ON EARTHING/GROUNDING SYSTEMS

Test results from the earth resistance measurement will be used as a baseline to make sure that the
minimum standard requirement for earthing is met. A good grounding system will ensure the following:
1. Good (low resistance) grounding systems enhances life safety.
2. Protects from lightning and unwanted voltages.
3. Circuit breakers can function properly.
4. Lightning protection systems can operate properly
5. Power surges and impulses can be shunted by surge protection devices.
6. Reduces standalone and networked systems noise.

8.2.0 TEST METHOD FOR EARTHING SYSTEM COMPLIANCE TESTING

There are several methods used for earth resistance measurement. The two methods commonly
used for compliance testing are:

3-Point Fall of Potential Test (Three Point Method) and

Direct measurement by the use of Clamp-On Meter

8.2.1 FALL OF POTENTIAL METHOD

The fall-of-potential method is often referred to as the three point method. Utilizing a earth
resistance meter, two auxiliary electrodes are driven into the soil at predetermined distances, in a straight
line from the ground rod being tested. During normal test of ground rods, the meter supplies a constant
current between the ground rod under test and the most remote auxiliary electrode. A
series of measurements of the voltage drops between the ground rods under test and
the remote electrode are made by moving the intermediate electrode in steps away
from the ground rod under test. The goal is to reach the actual rods resistance and
this is most often reached at the 62% distance point.

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The most remote electrode must be placed a minimum of 5 times the distance of the length of the
ground rod being tested. It is preferable the most remote electrode be placed a distance equal to 10 times
the length of the rod under test. During the test the neutral must not be connected to the ground rod. The

neutral ground bond must be disconnected as the current flow on the neutral will invalidate the test results
and not all the test instrument will provide an accurate reading.
8.2.2 DIRECT MEASUREMENT BY THE USE OF CLAMP-ON-METER
There are test situations where fall-of-potential will be difficult at best. Examples are hilly terrain
and deep driven rods and places where 5 or 10 times the rod length may be difficult or what if you
cannot disconnect the neutral/ground bond.

If the fall-of-potential method is not feasible, the best

possible substitute is by the use of Clamp-On Ground Resistance Tester. While not as accurate, but very
close to the accuracy of the fall-of-potential method.
The Clamp-On Ground Resistance Testers measure ground rod and grid resistance without the use
of auxiliary ground rods. The instrument take advantage of the connection between the ground and the
utility neutral. The clamp-on tester jaws contain two current transformers (CTs). One CT induces a high
frequency, fixed voltage into the conductor. If a continuous circuit exists, a resulting
current flows. The second CT then senses and measures the flowing current. The
instrument already knows the amount of voltage induced, and it can calculate the
resistance in Ohms and display the results.

8.3.0 TESTING ON EARTHING INSTALLATION

1. Earth Loop Impedance Testing (Ground Loop Impedance Testing)
2. Earthing Electrode Resistance Testing (Grounding Electrode Resistance Testing)
8.3.1 EARTH LOOP IMPEDANCE TESTING
The main purpose of a good grounding connection is to provide a low impedance ground path in a
wiring installation allowing a fault current to flow and operate circuit protective devices. These devices
can be fuses or circuit breakers designed for phase-phase, phase-neutral or phase-ground faults.
If the impedance of any part of the earth loop is high, then the protective device may be rendered
useless because the current, which would flow in the event of a fault, may be less than required to operate
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the protective device. The circuit would remain connected and energized and the fault current would
continue to flow. This could result in damage to equipment or the installation, and severe or fatal electric
shock to personnel in contact with grounded equipment.
Earth Loop Impedance Testing is used to determine the total alternating current of the circuit that
would be involved under fault conditions. Loop testing is required to ensure that the earth path is adequate
for the maximum possible fault current.
The test is conducted by using a ground loop impedance tester. The tester places a limited fault
current (about 20 amps) on the circuit under test for a limited time (about 20 ms). By measuring the
voltage drop across a reference resistor, the tester indicates the ohmic value of the fault loop. Digital loop
testers are available and are designed for a quick, accurate and reliable testing.
Loop impedance tests should be used to identify circuits with high resistance. The high resistance
may denote poor connections or excessive conductor length.
Example of Ground Loop Impedance Testing
R lo o p

V s u p p ly

V test

R test

I
Circuit with the loop tester on
Loop impedance R lo o p = (Vs u p p l y Vt e s t )/I

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Example of Digital Loop Tester

(Megger LT7)
The Megger LT7 Digital loop tester is a compact portable instrument designed to measure earth
loop impedance and prospective short circuit current.

8.3.2 EARTHING ELECTRODE RESISTANCE TESTING

Earth electrode testing is used to determine the effectiveness and integrity of the earthing system.
It will ensure a safe, low resistance path for the electrical current to flow to earth in the event of a fault.
Periodic testing is necessary because variations in soil resistivity are caused by changes of soil
temperature, soil moisture, conductive salts in the soil, and corrosion of the earth connectors. An earth
electrode rod must have a resistance to ground of 25 ohms or less.
The test set used will ordinarily be a earth resistance test set, designed for the purpose, using the
principle of the fall of potential of AC circulated current from a test spot to the earth connection under
test. This instrument is direct reading with a scale calibrated in ohms of earth resistance.

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8.3.3 TYPICAL EARTH ELECTRODE TESTING INSTRUMENTS

A. DET62D Ground Resistance Tester
The DET62D is a fully automatic, 3-terminal
instrument built into a rugged, water resistant case for
outdoor use. The instrument is suitable for the testing of
single ground electrodes such as lightning conductors and
other small grounding systems, or for measuring the
resistance of conductors. Ground resistance can be
measured directly from 100mohm to 2kohm.
B. DET 5/4R Ground Resistance Tester
The DET 5/4R ground tester provides the higher resistance range necessary for the testing of
ground electrodes and measuring ground resistivity. The
fully automatic operation is started by simply choosing a 3
or 4 terminal measurement, all other operations are
automatic. These instruments are suitable for soil resistivity
measurements used to establish the optimum ground
electrode system design and location, and archaeological and
geological investigations. There are 4 ranges covering
measurements from 10mohm to 20kohm.
C. Clamp-On Ground Resistance Tester
The 3711 Clamp-on Ground Resistance Tester is used in multigrounded systems without disconnecting the ground under test. This meter
simply clamps around the ground conductor or rod and measures the
resistance to ground. By performing measurements on intact ground systems,
the user also verifies the quality of the grounding connections and bonds.
Resistance and continuity of grounding loops around pads and buildings may
also be measured

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8.3.4 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE- PROCEDURE

Earth Resistance Testing using Earth Resistance Tester

20-30 m

20-30 m

R
3m

MEGGER

RP

CURRENT
SPIKE (C)

POTENTIAL
SPIKE(P)

ELECTRODE
UNDER TEST ( X )

3m

DET62D

EARTH
TESTER

RC
NOISE
BRUI T

ME ASUR E R

READING NO.1

Ohms

READING NO.2

Ohms

READING NO.3

Ohms

AVERAGE

Ohms

EARTH TESTER

1. Refer to the above diagram for the connections

2. Drive to the ground Current Spike (C) at a distance (D) at least 10 times the length of Electrode (X)
3. Drive to the ground Potential Spike (P) at a distance midway of X and C
4. Connect the earth leads (wires) to the tester and spikes with the proper connectors and clips
5. Press Test button on the tester and record the readings as shown on the window.
6. Repeat measurement with spike P installed at a distance about 10% of D measured from the first
position of P (midway)
7. Take readings on position L and position R
8. Evaluate the three resistance readings. If all three resistance readings are within 5% of one another,
earth resistance is acceptable.
9. Record the average Earth Electrode Resistance.
10.If the resistances are not within 5% of each other, it means the earth resistances areas are overlapping
and the test must be repeated with spikes P and C further apart.
Generally a resistance of the entire grid below 4 (four) ohms will be satisfactory.

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9.0.0 EARTHING SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT

To obtain a sufficiently low earth resistance, the following can be done:
1) Area of the mesh is increased,
2) Spacing of buried rods of mesh is reduced,
3) Soil is irrigated,
4) Number of earthing electrodes are increased
5) Application of substances like sodium chloride (common salt), calcium chloride, sodium
carbonate, copper sulfate, charcoal, soft coke.
6) Implementation of the chemically charged ground rods
7) Use of deep-driven ground rods reaching underground water table or lower soil layers with low
resistivity

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10.0.0 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION OF EARTHING SYSTEM

INSTALLATION
10.1.0 POSSIBLE CAUSES OF ACCIDENTAL EARTHING
1. Chafing of a cable insulation against the sharp edge in the opening of a connection box
2. Damage in the insulation of electrical machinery due to the effects of age, heat, and vibration,
permitting the entry of conducting dust.
3. The dust which forms a bridge between the exposed conductor and the frame, makes the wiring
grounded.
4. The moisture which condenses inside the apparatus and eventually enough water may collect to
make an electrical connection between the wiring and the frame, and the equipment is
grounded

10.2.0 CONTINUITY OF THE EARTHING CIRCUIT

1) The continuity of the earthing circuit shall be ensured by effective connections through
conductors or structural members
2) Bonding of equipment with bolts or other identified means shall be permitted where paint and
dirt are removed from the joint surfaces or effectively penetrated
3) Moving machine parts, other than accessories or attachments, having metal to metal bearing
surfaces shall be considered as bonded. Sliding parts separated by a nonconductive fluid under
pressure shall not be considered as bonded
3) Portable, pendant, and resilient mounted equipment shall be bonded by separate conductors
4) Lids, doors, cover plates, etc.., shall be connected to the earthing circuit by a earthing
conductor. Where no electrical equipment is attached to the lids, door, cover plates, the usual
metal hinges and the like shall be considered sufficient to provide continuity.
5) Raceways, wire ways, and cable trays shall not be considered as earthing or bonding conductor
6) When a part is removed, the continuity of the grounding circuit for the remaining parts shall
remain intact.

10.3.0 PERIODIC CHECKS ON THE EARTHING SYSTEM

Earthing systems should be checked after commissioning and periodically during the course of
maintenance.
The following checks apply for newly installed earthing system:
1. Buried elements of earthing systems are checked for condition at random by unearthing; other
elements are examined at accessible places;

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2. Circuit continuity is checked between earthing devices and earthed elements. Open circuit and
poor contact shall not be admitted.
3. The earthing system resistance shall be checked.
4. Cross-sectional areas of earth conductors should be checked.
10.3.1 INSPECTION OF EARTHING SYSTEM INSTALLATION
1. Disconnect each earthing electrode, measure the earthing resistance of each electrode. Earth
electrode must have a resistance of 25 ohms or less.
2. Measure the earthing resistance of the grid only.
3. Connect all electrodes to the grid and measure earthing resistance. Generally a resistance of the
entire grid below 4 (four) ohms will be satisfactory.
4. Connections and clamps are to be inspected as fas possible. At least a number of spot checks
shall be made of the buried connections.
5. Check the protective measures against mechanical damage of the grid and the earthing
electrodes.
10.3.2 TYPICAL CHECKLIST FOR INSPECTION OF EARTHING SYSTEM
Location: _____________________________________________________
Number of Electrodes: __________________________________________
Type of Electrodes: _____________________________________________
Type of Conductors: ____________________________________________
CHECK LIST
Actions

Check
Mark

Remarks

1. Earthing resistance of each electrode

No 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2. Earthing resistance of grid only

3. Earthing resistance of system
4. Inspection installation of electrodes
5. Inspect bolted and clamped connections
6. Check protective measures
Date of Inspection: ___________________ Inspection conducted by: ____________________

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11.0.0 LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM

There is no question about the hazards posed by lightning strikes and their associated effects.
Fires, injury or loss of life, damage and destruction of property, and the significant downtime and outagerelated revenue losses due to equipment damage all make lightning a serious threat. Although lightning is
an unavoidable hazard to electrical systems, its effects on the system can be minimized through proper
application of lightning arresters.

11.1.0 EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING STROKES

Direct lightning strokes and even induced voltage due to lightning strokes elsewhere in the system
may cause damage or complete destruction to unprotected electrical apparatus.

Direct or induced

voltages caused by lightning strokes can cause a high-voltage wave to travel along a power line. Unless
this high surge voltage is reduced before reaching the terminals of an electrical machine, severe damage
will result.

11.2.0 HARMFUL EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE SURGES

1. Possible failure of insulation of transformers, motors.
2. Possible flash over at very high stressed points, external or internal to equipment
3. Aging of non-restorable insulating materials.

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11.3.0 MEANS OF PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING SURGES

Protective device

Where applied

Lightning Masts (earthed)

Above tall buildings

Surge Arresters

On incoming lines in each

substation
Near terminals of
transformers, motors and
generators
Above overhead lines
Above the substation area

Overhead Grounded Wires

Rod gaps
Horn gaps

Across insulator string,

bushing insulators
Across insulator string,
bushing insulators

Remarks
Protect buildings against
direct strokes.
Diverts over voltages to
earth without causing shortcircuit

Provide effective protection

against direct strokes on
line conductors, towers,
substation equipment
Difficult to coordinate
Difficult to coordinate

11.4.0 TYPICAL DEVICES/MATERIALS FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION

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12.0.0 LIGHTNING PROTECTION BY SURGE ARRESTER

Surges and spikes from nearby lightning strikes, arc-welders and high voltage cables can destroy
or disrupt unprotected electronic equipment. These destructive forces enter mains power circuits within
buildings by a variety of methods and cause powerful surges.
The primary route is where power-often dirty and spike laden actually enters the building and it
is at this point that surges should be stopped in order to prevent them from propagating further. However,
surges and RFI can also corrupt mains power supplies from within the building.
By providing power protection at the main distribution board and then at each piece of equipment,
mains power borne surges and spikes are eliminated before they can cause damage.

Surge Arrester (Lightning Arrester) is a device designed to protect electrical equipment from high
voltage surges and to limit the duration and amplitude of the discharge current. The arrester holds the
voltage across its terminals below the protective level and therefore the voltage appearing across surge
arrester terminals and on the terminal of the protected equipment does not exceed the protective level.

12.1.0 TYPES OF SURGE ARRESTERS

1. Gapped Arresters with Silicon-Carbide resistor discs in series with gap units. This is called
valve type or conventional arrester.
2. Gap less Arresters with zinc-oxide resistor discs in series. These are called Metal-oxide
Arresters

12.2.0 PRINCIPLE OF SURGE ARRESTER PROTECTION

12.2.1 GAPPED ARRESTERS (GAPPED SILICON CARBIDE ARRESTERS)
Surge arrester is connected between line and earth. It consists of resistor elements in series with
gap elements. The resistor element offer nonlinear resistance such that for normal frequency power
system voltages the resistance is high. For discharge currents the resistance is low. The gap units consists
of air gaps of appropriate length. During normal voltages the surge arrester does not conduct. When a
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surge-wave traveling along the overhead line comes to arrester, the gap breaks down. The resistance
offered being low, the surge is diverted to the earth. Thus the high voltage surge is discharged to earth.
Hence the insulation of the equipment connected to the line is protected. After a few microseconds, the
surge vanishes and normal power frequency voltage is set up across the arrester. The resistance offered by
resistor to this voltage is very high, therefore the arc current reduces and voltage across the gap is no more
sufficient to maintain the arc. The current flowing to the earth is automatically interrupted and normal
condition is restored.
12.2.2 GAP LESS ARRESTERS (METAL OXIDE VARISTORS SURGE ARRESTERS)
In another type of surge arresters, the active components are metal oxide resistors. They are
arranged in one stack and installed in an airtight sealed porcelain casing with sheds of high insulation
resistance. Metal-oxide resistors are highly nonlinear, i.e. They have a sharply kinked voltage-current
characteristic, with the result that below a certain voltage value only a small leakage current flows
through the arrester.

The arresters are so designed that under normal continuous voltage conditions only leakage
current flows, since the resistance value is several hundred megaohms. With lightning or switching over
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voltages, the resistors become conductive so that a surge current can flow to earth and the over voltage is
reduced to the value of the voltage drop across the arrester. The surge currents have values up to 1 kA
with switching over voltages, and of 1...10...20 kA with lightning over voltages.

12.3.0 TYPICAL INSTALLATION AND TYPE OF SURGE ARRESTER

BUS

ROTATING
MACHINE

DISTRIBUTION
LINE

BUS
TRANSFORMER

OVERHEAD LINE

1
SURGE
DIVERTER

1.
2.
3.
4.

First apparatus on incoming line in substation

For Transformer protection
For protection of High Voltage Motors and Generators
For Distribution line protection
LOCATION OF SURGE ARRESTERS

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12.4.0 TESTS ON LIGHTNING ARRESTERS.

1. Leakage current measurement
2. Insulating Resistance Measurement
3. Power factor testing

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13.0.0 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION OF SURGE ARRESTERS

In normal service the surge arresters may be exposed to different stresses that alone or together
may cause increased resistive leakage current and overloading. These stresses are as follows:
1. Normal operating voltage.
2. Temporary over voltages.
3. Switching over voltages.
4. Lightning over voltages.
5. External pollution.

13.1.0 PERIODIC INSPECTION ON THE SURGE ARRESTER

Periodic Inspection on the surge arrester are limited to the following:
1. Checking whether an arrester may have blown off, burned or damaged surface. In this event, a
new arrester must be fitted.
2. Checking the degree of pollution of the porcelain housing. In the event of heavy and uneven
contamination, cleaning and then siliconizing is to be recommended. Before cleaning or
otherwise working on lightning arrester, it must be disconnected from the power line.
3. Reading the surge counting device.
4. Earthing terminal connections.

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14.0.0 SURGE COUNTERS

Surge counter is a monitoring instrument suitable for installation in the
earth connection of a surge arrester which must be isolated from earth for the
counter to operate correctly. Generally, a surge counter is connected in series.
The riser from the station earth mat is connected to the surge counter and surge
counter is connected to the surge arrester earthing terminal.

14.1.0 INSTALLATION OF SURGE COUNTER

Surge counter is normally should be mounted at eye-level on a horizontal surface such as crosschannel or angle support. A clearance of at least 30 mm must be allowed between the live terminal of the
surge counter and any earthed object. Connections to the surge counter may be made with either cable or
bare conductor with suitable terminations and earth studs, with are nickel plated brass.

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14.2.0 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION OF SURGE COUNTER

Under normal operating conditions surge counter does not require any maintenance, except for the
following:
1. Periodic cleaning of the glass and the line bushing.
2. Checking of the tightness of connections.

References:
IEE Wiring Regulations
Handbook on the IEE Wiring Regulations
Preventive Maintenance of Electrical Equipment by Charles I. Hubert
Testing, Commissioning, Operation and Maintenance of Electrical Equipment by S. Rao

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