Equivalent-lacking words as the translation challenge.

Words, which have no correspondences in TT, because they have

no referents in T-culture.
1. realia (mono- or polilexemic units the lexical meaning of
which includes traditionally established complex of
ethnocultural information which is alien to the objective reality
of the TL and which is realised only within the limits of a
binary opposition. e.g. , ,
, (),
() . )

Geographical terms

Peoples name

Zoonyms

Social terms

Ergonyms

Titles & headlines

2. phraseologism
3. proper names (calling, combined, speaking)
4. neologism (internet, hamburger, )
Ways of translating realia:

Transcription, transliteration

Calque

Half-calque

Assimilation

Semantic neologism

Hyponymic
Means of attaining adequacy and equivalency in translation.
Translation theorists have long disputed the interrelation of the two
terms. V. Komissarov considers them to denote non-identical but
closely related notions. He claims that adequate translation is
broader in meaning than equivalent translation. Adequate
translation is good translation, as it provides communication in
full. Equivalent translation is the translation providing the
semantic identity of the target and source texts. Two texts may be
equivalent in meaning but not adequate, for example:
: . Nikita threatened ,
Ill put the fear of God into you! The Russian sentence is low
colloquial, whereas the English one, though it describes a similar
situation, has another stylistic overton.
Y. Retsker states that the notion of adequate translation comprises
that of equivalent. According to him, an adequate target text
describes the same reality as does the source text and at the
same time it produces the same effect upon the receptor.

Translatology as a branch of philology. Types of translation

and their specifity.
Branches:

General theory of tr. (investigates the most general

postulates and principals which are defined while
studying texts of various genres and functions and
translated from one language into another)

Special & particular of tr. (analyses the regularities of

translation depending on a unit of analyses, are divided
inti narrower particular branches)

Practice of tr. (to implement practically all the

achievements of theoretical study)

Criticism of tr. (1) territorial-to research into translation

activity in a country or continent; 2) social to
investigate translations activity in a certain period; 3)
genre- to investigate the development of dif. Types of tr;
4) linguistic to study ST and TT diachronically)

Methods of teaching tr. (has two sides:objective-to

notice timely the derivations of general and concrete
principals of tr and from the standart norms of literary
speech;to give recommendations how to overcome
difficulties and avoid them)

Bibliography of tr. (to register all the material and

scientific papers appearing in all branches of
translatology)

History of tr. (to bring the tt into the better agreement

with the standart morms og TL and culture as well as
with the traditions in the translation itself)

Editing of tr. ()
Methods of investigation:

Functional

Contextual

Structural

Comparative
1. KOMISSAROV distinguishes between literary and informative
translation and between written and oral translation (or
interpretation), on the other hand.
Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of
fiction or poetry whose main function is to make an emotional
impression upon the reader. Their communicative value
depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the
translator's primary task is to reproduce this quality in
translation.

Informative translation is rendering into the TL non-literary

texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount
of ideas, to inform the reader.
In written translation the ST is in written form, as is the TT.
In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to
the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral
message in TL.
There are two main kinds of oral translation consecutive and
simultaneous.
In consecutive translation the translating starts after the
original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here
the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great
extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the
segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely
follows the original speech.
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be
able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the
original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or
telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives the
original speech through his earphones and simultaneously
talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the
listeners.
2.BARHUDAROV is a process of transf. text from one text into
another without changing its content plane.
Types of the text:

O-o interpretation (simultaneous & consecutive)

O-w

W-w

W-o
2. NEWMARK goes on to refer to the following methods of
translation (what is emphasis?):
Word-for-word translation: in which the SL word order is
preserved and the words translated singly by their most
common meanings, out of context.
Literal translation: in which the SL grammatical
constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but
the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.
Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise
contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the
TL grammatical structures.
Semantic translation: which differs from 'faithful translation'
only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic
value of the SL text.

 Adaptation: which is the freest form of translation, and is used

mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes,
characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is
converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten.
Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style,
form, or content of the original.
Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the 'message' of the
original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring
colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the
original.
Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact
contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both
content and language are readily acceptable and
comprehensible to the readership.
1) genre-and-style classification of the tr. types(Komissarov),
2) psycholinguistic classification of the tr. types(Barhudarov);
3) western scholars classif. (Newmark)
Translation modeling.
Modeling convent. represented of translation process, describing
mental operations, by means of which the ST is created,
irrespective of whether the translator is aware of these operations.
1.
2.
3.

Situational model (based on the identity of information)

ST situation TT
Transformation model (by Eugene Nida)
ST nuclear structure nuclear structure in TL TT
Semantic model
ST semantic category semantic category in TL TT

The existing models of the translating process are, in fact, based on

the situational (or referential) model and the semantictransformational model. These models are supposed to explain that
the translator actually makes a mental travel from the original to
some interlingual level of equivalence and then further on to the
text of translation. In the situational model this intermediate level
is extralinguistic. It is the described reality, the facts of life that are
represented by the verbal description.The translator first
understands what the original is about and then says the same
things in TL.
The transformational model It is presumed that the translator
does the translating in three transformational stages. First the
stage of analysis he transforms the original structures into the
nuclear structures, i.e. he performs transformation within SL.
Second the stage of translation proper he replaces the SL
nuclear structures with the equivalent nuclear structures in TL. And
third the stage of synthesis he develops the latter into the
terminal structures in the text of translation.