Lampbrush chromosomes,

which occur in amphibian

oocytes, are so named because
their looped-out configuration
has the appearance of a brush
for
cleaning
lamps.
First
observedin amphibian oocytes
by Callan and Lloyd, and Gall in
the 1960s later in insects by
Beermann
and
his
colleagues.
Lampbrush chromosomes are formed
during
an
unusually
extended
meiosis, which can last up to several
months. During transcription on
oocyte lampbrush chromosomes, the
DNA in the condensed, beadlike
chromomere unravels and is spun out
into
a
loop
and
transcribed.
Chromosomes
are
held
in
a
stretched-out form in which they can
be visualized in the light microscope.
Later
during
meiosis,
the
chromosomes revert to their usual
compact
size.
The
lampbrush
chromosomes are meiotic bivalents,
each consisting of two pairs of sister
chromatids.
The
loops
of
the
lampbrush chromosomes are covered
by an RNA matrix and are the sites of active transcription. One
loop is said to represent one transcriptional unit. The spacers
represent non-transcribed regions. The size of the loop varies
time to time indicating the rate of transcription hence the loop
indicates specific transcription. Puffing in the giant polytene
chromosomes in the salivary glands of insects represents a direct
way of correlating chromosome structure with gene transcription.
Puff formation indicates genes that are actively transcribing RNA
which would be translated into salivary proteins. Further work of

Grossbach (1969) and others made it possible to relate the

synthesis of a specific protein with a specific puff.
The loops extend in pairs, one from each sister chromatid. The
loops are continuous with the axial thread, which suggests that
they represent chromosomal material extruded from its more
compact
organization
in
the
chromomere.
Lampbrush
chromosomes are expressed only during a certain period of the
active development during which the requirement of proteins is
very high. Since the expression of genes occur in a time
controlled manner specific genes can be located on the
chromosome during lampbrush stage.

Polytene Chromosomes
The interphase nuclei of some tissues of the larvae of Dipteran
flies contain chromosomes that are greatly enlarged relative to
their usual condition. They possess both increased diameter and
greater length and called as Polytene
chromosome. Each
member of the polytene set consists of a visible series of bands.
The bands contain most of the mass of DNA and stain intensely
with appropriate reagents The regions between them stain more
lightly and are called interbands.
The
centromeres
of
all
four
chromosomes of D. melanogaster
aggregate to form a chromocenter
that
consists
largely
of
heterochromatin (in the male it
includes the entire Y chromosome).
Allowing for 75% of the haploid DNA
set is organized into alternating
bands and interbands. Each giant
chromosome is produced by the
successive replications of a synapsed
diploid pair. The replicas do not
separate, but remain attached to
each other in their extended state. At the start of the process,
each synapsed pair has a DNA content of 2C (where C represents
the DNA content of the individual chromosome). Then this
doubles up to nine times, at its maximum giving a content of
1024C.The number of doublings is different in the various tissues
of the D. melanogaster larva. Each chromosome can be visualized
as a large number of parallel fibers running longitudinally, tightly
condensed in the bands, less condensed in the interbands.
Probably each fiber represents a single (C) haploid chromosome.
This gives rise to the name polytene. The degree of polyteny is
the number of haploid chromosomes contained in the giant
chromosome.
The banding pattern is characteristic for
each strain of Drosophila. The linear
array of bands can be equated with the
linear array of genes. So genetic

rearrangements, as seen in a linkage map, can be correlated with

structural rearrangements of the cytological map. Ultimately, a
particular mutation can be located in a particular band.
One of the intriguing features of the polytene chromosomes is
that active sites can be visualized. Some of the bands pass
transiently through an expanded state in which they appear like a
puff on the chromosome, when chromosomal material is
extruded from the axis. An example of some very large puffs
(called Balbiani rings).
The puffs are sites where RNA is being synthesized. The accepted
view of puffing has been that expansion of the band is a
consequence of the need to relax its structure in order to
synthesize RNA. Puffing has therefore been viewed as a
consequence of transcription. A puff can be generated by a single
active gene. The sites of puffing differ from ordinary bands in
accumulating additional proteins, which include RNA polymerase
II and other proteins associated with transcription.
Cytoplasmic inheritance
Inheritance of genes located outside the nucleus is called as
cytoplasmic inheritance. Eg . Mitochondiral and chloroplast
inheritance. Cytoplasmic inheritance differs from the inheritance
of characteristics encoded by nuclear genes in several important
respects. All cytoplasmic genes are inherited from mother to
offspring. It is due to the lack of enough cytoplasm in the sperm in
comparison to egg. Cytoplasmically inherited characteristics
frequently exhibit extensive phenotypic variation, because there
is no mechanism analogous to mitosis or meiosis to ensure that
cytoplasmic genes are evenly distributed in cell division. Thus,
different cells and individuals will contain various proportions of
cytoplasmic genes.
Chloroplast Inheritance in Mirabilis jalapa

One of the earliest and best

known
examples
of
cytoplasmic inheritance is
that discovered by Correns in
a variegated variety of the
four-o'clock plant Mirabilis
jalapa. Variegated plants have
some branches which carry
normal green leaves, some
branches
with
variegated
leaves (mosaic of green and
white patches) and some
branches which have all white
leaves.
Correns discovered that seed
produced by flowers carried
on the green branches gave
progeny
which
were
all
normal green. It made no difference whether the phenotype of
the branch which carried the flower used for pollen was green,
white or variegated. Seed taken from white branches likewise
gave all white progeny, regardless of the pollen donor phenotype.
These of course died in the seedling stage. Seeds from flowers on
variegated branches gave three kinds of progeny, green, white
and variegated, in varying proportions; again regardless of the
pollen donor phenotype. In other words, the phenotype of the
progeny always resembled the female parent and the male made
no contribution at all to the character.

Mitochondrial Inheritance
The
transmission
of
the
mitochondrial genome from mother
to
child.
Each
human
mitochondrion
contains
about
15,000
nucleotides
of
DNA,
encoding 37 genes.
In recent
years, a number of human diseases
(mostly
rare)
that
exhibit
cytoplasmic inheritance have been
identified. These disorders arise
from mutations in mtDNA, most of
which occur in genes coding for
components
of
the
electrontransport chain, which generates
most of the ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) in aerobic cellular
respiration. One such disease is
Leber hereditary optic neuropathy.
Patients who have this disorder
experience rapid loss of vision in
both eyes, resulting from the death
of cells in the optic nerve. Loss of
vision typically occurs in early
adulthood (usually between the
ages of 20 and 24), but it can occur
any time after adolescence. There
is much clinical variability in the severity of the disease, even
within the same family. Leber hereditary optic neuropathy exhibits
maternal inheritance: the trait is always passed from mother to
child.
Mitochondria are inherited only in the maternal ova and not in
sperm. Therefore, a pattern of inheritance associated with
alterations in mitochondrial DNA gives a pattern of the
condition affecting males and females, but always being
maternally inherited. An affected male does not pass on his

mitochondria to his children, so all his children will be unaffected.

This is called mitochondrial (sometimes matrilineal) inheritance.
It is known that there are some mitochondrial conditions
associated with incorrectly functioning mitochondria where the
mutation is not in the mitochondrial DNA, but in genes in the cell
nucleus that control functions in the mitochondria. It is therefore
possible for a mitochondrial condition not to show mitochondrial
inheritance but to show Mendelian inheritance.

Infective particles :
Sonneborn in 1938 discovered certain strains in Paramecium which showed a killer trait due
to
the presence of a cytoplasmic factor called kappa. The killer strain can destroy the sensitive
strains growing in culture which do not have kappa by liberating a toxic substance
paramecin.
Killer strains are not killed by their own paramecin. The production of kappa particles is

dependent on a dominant allele K, so that killer strains are KK or Kk and sensitive strains are
ordinarily kk. In absence of dominant allele K, kappa particles cannot multiply and in absence of
kappa particles, dominant allele K cannot produce them de novo. Consequently sensitive strains
with genotypes KK or kk can be obtained. These will not carry any kappa particles. However,
killer strain with genotype kk cannot be obtained, because even if kappa particles are present,
these would be lost in absence of dominant allele. If Paramecium clones with genotypes KK or
Kk are allowed to multiply asexually at such a fast rate, that division of kappa particles cannot
keep pace with division of cells, kappa particles will be eventually lost. Consequently sensitive
strains with dominant genotype (KK, Kk)having no kappa particles would be obtained.
If the killer (KK)and sensitive (kk)strains are allowed to conjugate, all exconjugants
(the cells separating after conjugation) will have same genotype Kk. Phenotypes of
these exconjugants will, however, depend upon duration for which conjugation is
allowed. If conjugation does not persist long enough for exchange of cytoplasm,
heterozygote (Kk)exconjugants will only have parental phenotypes. It means that
killers will remain killers and sensitive will remain sensitive even after conjugation
(Fig. 1). If conjugation persists, sensitive strain will receive kappa particles and will
become killer, so that exconjugants will be killers having genotype Kk Fig 2.

Single nucleotide variation

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are single-base-pair
differences in DNA sequence between individual members of a
species. Arising through mutation, SNPs are inherited as allelic
variants, although SNPs do not usually produce a phenotypic
difference. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms are numerous and
are present throughout genomes. In a comparison of the same
chromosome from two different people, a SNP can be found
approximately every 1000 bp. Because of their variability and
widespread occurrence throughout the genome, SNPs are
valuable as markers in linkage studies.
Human SNPs are being cataloged and mapped for use in
identifying genes that contribute to disease. When a SNP is
physically close to a disease-causing locus, it will tend to be
inherited along with the disease-causing allele. Thus the SNP
marks the location of a genetic locus that causes the disease. A
SNP can also be useful for determining family relationshipsmost
SNPs are unique within a population, having arisen only once by
mutation. Thus the presence of the same SNP in two persons
often indicates that they have a common ancestor.
The study of SNPs is also important in crop and livestock breeding
programs. The study on SNPs will help us to understand the effect
of drugs on different individuals.