3.

The PN Junction Diode

P and N type semiconductors are not useful in themselves. But when they
are joined together to form a PN junction, this forms a very useful device
called a diode. It is important to note that the P and the N type
semiconductors are not physically joined together. There has to be a
continuous boundary between them. This is achieved with a single Si bar, by
doping the two sides of the bar with Group III and V impurities. The so
formed PN junction is illustrated in the figure below. To study the
phenomena that take place as soon as the PN junction is formed we consider
the simpler representation of one row of the crystal lattice as shown in the
figure (b).
Acceptor ions

P
-

majority
carriers h+

- - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - - -

- + + + + + +
- + + + + + +
- + + + + + +

minority

Donor ions
majority
carriers e-

minority

carriers h+

carriers e(a)
P
-

- - - - - + + + + + +
(b)

As soon as the junction is formed the,

1) conduction and valence bands in the P and N type overlap, (a) below.
2) h+ from P diffuse to N and recombine with free e-, (b)
3) e- from N diffuse to P and recombine with free h+, (b)
4) Diffusion take place due to different concentrations (P has more h+, N
has more e-)
5) Diffusion of h+ and e- take place for a short time.
6) After a few recombinations near the junction a restoring force is
automatically set up due to the charge depleted region, (c)
7) As a result further diffusion of h+ and e- are stopped.
8) Potential barrier exerts a repelling force on further h+ and e-, (d).
At room temp, height of the potential barrier VB = 0.7V for Si.

Page 1 of 13

P-Type

N-Type

Eg

(a)

CB
Ef
VB

(b)

- - - - - + + + + + +
Depletion
Region

(c)

- - - - - + + + + + +
V
VB

(d)

Distance

VB : Height of potential barrier = 0.7 for Si

The value of VB depends on the doping levels in the P and N regions, the
type of material (ex: Si) and temperature as VB = (kT/q) ln (NAND/ni2) where
k is Boltzmanns constant (1.38x10-23J/K) and T material temperature in K.
The quantity kT/q has the units of V and called the thermal voltage V T. Then
VB = VT ln (NAND/ni2)
This is the unbiased PN junction. At room temp, due to thermal energy a few
h+ and e- will acquire enough energy to cross the junction. The energy
required is qVB. This is called majority carrier current. Diffusion of minority
carriers does not take place but the potential barrier helps this process. This
gives the minority carrier current. The semiconductor is electrically neutral.
Therefore,
majority carrier current = minority carrier current,
and point in opposite directions.
Thus there is no net flow of current for an unbiased PN junction

Page 2 of 13

Example: A Si PN junction is formed from P material doped with 1022

acceptors/m3 and N material doped with 1.2 x 1021 donors /m3. Find the
thermal voltage and the barrier voltage at 25 C.
T = 298 K and thus VT = 25.7 mV. For Si ni =1.5 x 1016 so substituting
VB = 0.635 mV.
Biasing the PN junction
Biasing the PN junction involves connecting an external DC voltage supply
to the junction. By applying the external voltage we can control the width of
the depletion region and thereby control the resistance of the PN junction
and the current passing through it.
Forward Bias
Positive (+ve) terminal of the DC voltage supply is connected to P and the
negative (-ve) terminal to N as shown in the figure below.
P

+ V

h+ are repelled by the +ve terminal, e- are repelled by the -ve terminal. Both
move towards the junction. They acquire energy from the voltage supply and
enter the depletion region and recreate the ionic structure. This reduces the
width of the depletion region and the height VB of the potential barrier. As a
result more majority carriers cross the junction and a large current will flow
through the junction. Note that the current in the external circuit is due to emovement only, while in the semiconductor will be due to e- and h+.
Current in external circuit will flow as long as V is present. Current
increases with increase in applied voltage over VB and is the order of milli
amperes (mA).
Reverse Bias
-ve terminal of the voltage supply is connected to P and +ve terminal to N as
shown in the figure below.

Page 3 of 13

- +
V

h+ in P are attracted to ve terminal and e- to +ve terminal. So majority

carriers move away from junction. This widens the depletion region and
increases the potential barrier and makes it very difficult for majority
carriers to cross the junction. No current flows due to majority carriers and
the junction offers high resistance. However, the increased potential barrier
helps minority carriers to sweep across the junction. So there is a minority
carrier current but it is very small. This current is only dependent on temp
and independent of applied voltage. It is called the Reverse Saturation
Current Is and is of the order of nA (10-9 A) for Si and A for Ge.
Reverse Breakdown
If the reverse bias voltage is increased to a large value, at a certain voltage
the current through the junction increases rapidly. The voltage at which this
abrupt increase occurs is known as Breakdown Voltage VBR. The abrupt
increase occurs due to the breakdown in crystal structure and when the
applied voltage is removed the crystal structure will return to normal, unless
permanently damaged. Two processes can cause junction breakdown,
1) Zener Breakdown
Occurs in junctions that are heavily doped, (narrow depletion region). When
reverse voltage is increased, a strong electric field is set up across the
junction which causes the covalent bonds to break and a large number of
minority carriers are generated and a large current flow through the junction,
2) Avalanche Breakdown
Occurs when the accelerated free e- acquire enough energy to ionize a lattice
atom (Si) by bombardment. The additional free e- created are accelerated by
the reverse field causing more and more ionization. The multiplication of the
number of free carriers causes the reverse current to increase rapidly.
V-I Characteristics of a PN junction (Diode)
From the above description we see that there are three distinct regions giving
the conductivity properties expressed as V-I Characteristics where V is
voltage and I is current, of a PN junction diode. These regions are shown in
the figure below.
Page 4 of 13

I
mA
Forward Bias Region
Steep curve VB

VBR

Knee

Is
VB

Reverse Breakdown
Region

V
Volts

Reverse Bias
Region

nA (Si)
A (Ge)

(Note the different scaling of the current axis)

Diode Current Equation
A mathematical equation can describe the forward and reverse
characteristics of a semiconductor diode.
Let
I = Forward (or reverse) diode current,
Is = Reverse Saturation Current,
V = External voltage, +ve for Forward Bias, -ve for Reverse Bias
= constant =1 for Ge and 2 for Si for low values of diode current,
=1 for Ge and Si for higher values
VT = Volt equivalent of temperature = T/11600 where T is absolute
temperature in K. At room temp (300 K), VT = 26mV.
The current equation for the forward biased diode can be approximated by
I = Is {exp[V/(VT)] 1}
The current equation for the reverse biased diode can be obtained by
changing the sign of V,
I = Is {exp[-V/(VT)] 1}
If V >> VT then the exp term is << 1 and I = Is . Diode current under reverse
bias is equal to reverse saturation current as long as V < VBR.

Page 5 of 13

Circuit Symbol for a diode

The diode has two terminals Anode (P type) and Cathode (N type). The
circuit symbol for the diode is shown in the figure.
A

Arrow shows direction of current flow for forward bias.

ac & DC Resistance of a diode
Diode has a definite value of resistance when forward biased. This is known
as DC or static forward resistance RF and is given by the ratio of DC voltage
across the diode to the dc current flowing through it,
RF = VF/IF.
Because of the forward biased V-I characteristics non-linearity of the graph
RF depends on the exact location of the point in the curve.
Resistance offered by a diode to an ac signal is called dynamic or ac
resistance and given by, see Figure 19,
rac= VF/IF
There is also the bulk resistance rB of the diode,
rB = rP + rN
where rP = ohmic resistance of P type semiconductor and rN for the N type.
Junction Resistance
Value for a forward biased PN junction depend upon value of forward DC
current and given by rj = 0.026/IF . rj is a variable resistance.
The ac junction resistance rac = rj + rB.
IF

IF
VF

VF
VF

Power and Current Ratings

Power dissipation for a forward biased diode is
PD=VF IF where VF = forward voltage drop and IF= forward current.
Similarly for reverse biased diode
Page 6 of 13

PD=VR IR
The maximum value of power which a diode can dissipate without failure is
called the power rating. Power dissipation should not exceed the power
rating. Manufacturers often list the maximum current which a device can
handle called current rating, because this is easier to measure than the
power rating.
Temperature Effects
The diode equations show that the forward and reverse currents are
dependent on temperature. The saturation current Is also very sensitive to
temperature and doubles for every 10 C rise in temperature.
Diode Terminal Identification
As a diode has an anode A and cathode K manufacturers identify the
terminals in various ways as shown in the figure.
A

Types of Diodes

Example:
A Si diode has a saturation current of 0.1 pA at 20 C. Find its current when
it is forward biased by 0.55V. Find the current in the same diode when the
temperature rises to 100 C.
At T = 25 C, VT = 25.27 mV. From the forward biased diode equation with
= 1, I = 0.283 mA
At T = 100 C, VT = 32.17 mV. In going from 20C to 100C the
temperature increases in 8 increments of 10 C [ (100-20)=80; 80/10 = 8].
Therefore Is doubles 8 times (increases by a factor 28 = 256). So at 100 C Is
= 2.56 pA and I = 0.681 mA.
The Load Line
Small-signal diode analysis can be performed graphically using the diode VI characteristics. Small-signal means changes in V and I are small. For the
analysis we connect the diode across a DC and ac source, as shown in the
left figure (a) below. To analyze the circuit we use the Principle of
Page 7 of 13

Superposition. This principle says that a circuit containing two voltage

sources can be analyzed by determining the current in the circuit due to each
source acting alone and then adding the results to find the current when both
sources are present. This is shown in the right figure (b).
e=
A sint

i(t)

v(t)

e=
A sint +

(a)
(b)
Using Kirchoffs Law for the DC circuit,
E = IR + V
or I = -(1/R)V + E/R
Let V and I be variables and E and R constants. The equation is of the form
y = mx + b where m = -(1/R) is the slope and b = E/R is the intercept on the
y axis. We first plot this line on a V-I graph as shown below. Then we
superimpose the diode forward bias curve on the same graph
The intersection point Q is called the quiescent point or operating point of
the diode. In the graph VF is the diode voltage and IF the diode current.
For V > VB the voltage drop across the diode is VB (= 0.7 V for Si). For
analysis purposes the diode can be replaced with a battery of 0.7V and with
opposite polarity to E.
I
Diode FB

E/R
Q

IF
VF

In the ac equivalent circuit we replace the diode with the diode ac resistance
rac which has a voltage drop VD across it, rac = rj + rB,
If we will let rB = 0 for convenience then rac ~ rj = 0.026/IF
IF is given by the DC equivalent circuit as IF = (E 0.7)/R for V>VB
Applying Ohms Law to the ac equivalent circuit
i = A sin(t) /(R+rac) and VD = A sin(t) rac /(R+rac).
Combining the results of DC and ac:
i(t) = (E-0.7) /R + A sin(t) /(R+rac)
VD(t) = 0.7 + A sin(t) rac /(R+rac).
The total DC and ac source voltage is
v(t) = E + A sin(t)
Page 8 of 13
I

This has a maximum value of vmax = E+A and a minimum value of vmin = EA. We saw that for the single DC source we got a single load line. For the
time varying signal v(t) we think of a series (infinite) of load lines one for
each of all the values that v(t) has between vmin and vmax. So we can draw the
load line extremes in the V-I graph and superimpose the diode forward bias
curve, as shown in the figure below. As total voltage varies between vmin and
vmax, the intersection of all the load lines with the VI characteristic curve
generate all the current voltage combinations that are in the circuit. So we
can visualize circuit operation as a point moving continuously along the V-I
diode curve between the points A and B
I
(E+A)/R
E/R
(E-A)/R
A
Q
B
E

Vmin=
E-A

Vmax=
E+A

Example 1: The Si diode in the figure requires a minimum current of 1mA

to be above the knee of its I-V Characteristics.
(a) What should be the value of R to have a 5 mA current in the circuit?
(b) With this value of R what is the minimum value to which the voltage E
could be reduced and still maintain diode current above the knee?
R

I
V

E=5V

If I = 5mA we know that the voltage across the diode is 0.7V.

Therefore R = (E-0.7)/I = 860
To maintain diode current above the knee, I must be at least 1mA.
I = (E-0.7)/R 1 mA. With above value of R, E 1.56V.

Page 9 of 13

Example 2:If the Si diode in the figure is biased above its knee and has a
bulk resistance 0.1, find the total current in and voltage across the diode.
+
e=2 sint

270

6V

To find DC current we short the ac source and get I= (6-0.7)/270=19.63 mA

The diode ac resistance is then rD = 0.026/I + rB = 1.42
The ac current is i = e/(R+rD) = 7.37 sin t mA
The ac voltage is vD = rD/(R+rD) e = 0.01 sin t V
The total current and voltage is i(t) = 19.63+7.37 sin t mA
v(t) = 0.7 + 0.01 sin t V

Applications of Diodes
Rectifiers
One of the most common uses of a diode in large-signal operation is as a
rectifier. Large-signal means changes in V and I are large. A rectifier is a
device that allow current to flow through in one direction only. A simple
rectifier circuit that contains an ac source e(t) and load R is shown in the
figure below. During the +ve half cycle the diode is forward biased and
current will flow. During each ve half cycle the diode is reverse biased and
no current flows (except for Is). Net effect is the conversion of an ac voltage
into a pulsating DC voltage, the fundamental step in the construction of a
DC power supply. The single diode is called a half wave rectifier.
e(t)

e(t)+~
-

vR(t)
R

Input

vR(t)

i(t)

Rectifier

t
Output

Elementary DC Power Supplies

Most practical circuits require a DC voltage source that produces and
maintains a constant voltage. This is done by converting the pulsating half

Page 10 of 13

sine waves obtained with a rectifier to a steady DC level. This is achieved by

filtering.
The pulsating half sine waves (like all periodic waveforms) can be regarded
as waveforms that have both a DC component and ac components. The
purpose of filtering these waveforms for a DC power supply is to reject all
the ac components. The simplest kind of filter that will do this is a capacitor.
Capacitor has reactance Xc= 1/(2fC),
where f is frequency in Hz and C the capacitance in F. Thus Xc 1/f.
If we connect a capacitor in parallel to the diode then at high frequencies the
rectified signal will see a low impedance path to ground and will not appear
in the output. In practice a power supply will supply a DC current to a load.
Taking these into account the circuit for the elementary DC power supply is
as shown in the figure below.
vL(t)

e(t)

Rectified and filtered

Waveform

i(t)

e(t)+
~
t

RL

vL(t)
t

Input

Output

Zener Diode
A Zener diode is also called a voltage reference diode, a voltage regulator
diode or a breakdown diode. The Zener diode is a PN junction device and
operates in the reverse-breakdown region only as shown in the reverse
characteristics below. The breakdown voltage Vz of a Zener diode is set by
carefully controlling the doping level during manufacture.
I
Vz
K

IZK

V
Regulation
region

IZM

When reverse voltage VR is increased the reverse current (called Zener

current Iz) remain very small upto the knee point K. At K the breakdown
process begins. From K, the breakdown voltage Vz remains essentially
Page 11 of 13

constant with increasing Iz. This ability of a diode is called the regulating
ability.
Two important points must be noted here,
1) There is a minimum value of Iz called breakdown current IZK which
must be maintained in order to keep the diode in the breakdown (or
regulation region). When current is reduced below IZK the voltage
changes rapidly and the regulation is lost.
2) there is a maximum value of zener current IZM above which the diode
may be damaged. The value IZM is given by the maximum power
dissipation of the zener diode and will be supplied by the
manufacturer.
IZM = PZM / Vz, where PZM = power rating for zener, Vz = breakdown
voltage.
The circuit symbol and a practical equivalent circuit for a Zener diode are
shown in the figure.
Circuit symbol

K
rz

Practical equivalent
Circuit
Vz
Vz

Zener diode Voltage Regulator

Rs
Is

Iz

Vs

IL
RL

VL

Vz

For operation Vs > Vz and this ensures operation is in the breakdown region
of the Zener.
The input current Is = (Vs-Vz)/Rs, where Vs is DC input voltage and Vz is
Zener Voltage. Zener acts as a constant voltage source of Vz. A practical
Zener has a finite value of rz (Zener resistance). Therefore there is a voltage
drop across rz. Voltage across terminals of load VL= Vz + Iz rz
If rz is small VL = Vz. Applying Kirchoffs Law the current through the load
resistor is IL= Is Iz where IL = VL / RL.
Rs is connected in series with Zener to limit the current in the circuit.
Page 12 of 13

Operation of Zener Regulator

1) Regulation with varying input voltage
(a) when Vs increase, Is increases. This increases the current through
Zener without affecting IL. Increase in Is will increase the voltage
drop across Rs thereby keeping the load voltage VL constant.
(b) If Vs is decreased Is is also decreased. Current through Zener is
decreased and voltage drop across Rs is reduced. Therefore VL and
iL remains constant.
2) Regulation with varying load resistance variation of RL changes IL so
changing VL.
(a) when RL decreases, IL increases. This causes Zener current Iz to
decrease. As a result, Is and voltage drop across Rs remain constant.
Therefore VL is also kept constant.
(b) If RL increase, IL decrease and Iz increase. This keeps Is and
voltage drop across Rs constant. Therefore, VL remains constant.
Exercises: 3 The PN junction Diode
NB. Take n = 0.14 m2/(V.s) and p = 0.05 m2/(V.s) as nominal values
1. How many free electrons are in 6.25 cm2 of N-type Si if the intrinsic
electron density is 1.5x1016 electrons/m3 and the extrinsic hole density is
0.82 x 1011 holes/m3? Assume all donor ions are ionized.
2. What is the current density in extrinsic Si whose hole density is 4.5x1018
holex/m3, when an 8 kV/m electric field intensity is established in it?
3. Draw the structure and find the total current in and extrinsic Si bar with
length 1.2cm width 20mm and height 40mmn, when the electron density in
the bar is 2.6x1020 electrons/m3.
4. A bar of P-type Si has a majority carrier density of 7.62x1022 carriers /m3.
Its cross sectional area is 2.4x10-6 m2. How long should the bar be in order
that it has a resistance between the ends of 8.2 ?
5. A bar of Si 0.1 cm long has a cross-sectional area of 8x10-8m2 and is
heavily doped with phosphorous. What should be the majority carrier
density resulting from the doping if the bar is to have a resistance of 1.5 k.

Page 13 of 13