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x(t )
Intput
System
y (t )
Output
y (t ) = f ( x(t ))
x(t ) y (t )
-
h
q2
In the water tank height control system it is desired to control the height of the
water in the tank ( h ), which is also called controlled variable, by changing the
flow rate of the input water ( q1 ) and/or the flow rate of the output water ( q2 ),
which are also called manipulated variables.
Multi-input multi-output (MIMO) control systems versus single-input singleoutput (SISO) control systems.
h1
q2
h2
q3
Figures 1(a), (b) show the open-loop and closed-loop control of the height of the
water.
A fixed position
for the valve
q1
q2
Figure 1(a): Open-loop control of the height of the water
q1
h
q2
Figure 1(b): Closed-loop control of the height of the water
(desired output)
Error
Control
device
Actuator
Process
output
Sensor
Measured output
Actual
Feedback
Servo: Systems designed to track a changing reference signal are called tracking
Disturbance rejection
Robustness
Mathematical Foundation
superposition, which is for any constant values a and b , the following equation
is satisfied:
x1 (t ) y1 (t ),
It can be easily verified that for linear systems, an input which is zero for all time,
results in an output which is zero for all time.
of the system are fixed over time. Time invariant systems have the following
property:
x(t ) y (t ) x(t t 0 ) y (t t 0 )
-
depends only on values of the input at the present time and in the past.
-
A capacitor is an example of a causal system whose input and output are related
through the equation: v(t ) =
1 t
i ( )d .
C
A resistor is an example of a BIBO stable system whose input and output are
related through the following equation: v(t ) = Ri (t ) .
Convolution: For linear time invariant (LTI) systems, the input x(t ) , output y (t )
and the impulse response (the output when the input is a unit impulse function)
h(t ) are related through the following equation which is called convolution.
+
This means that an LTI system can be completely characterized by its impulse
response.
BIBO stability
h(t ) dt < .
+
0
x(t )e st dt , s C ,
X ( s) C .
L
The Laplace transform pair is also denoted by x(t )
X ( s) .
Not every signal has a Laplace transform. For example, signals that grow faster
than e at , a , such as e t do not have a Laplace transform.
2
L
Linearity: a1 x1 (t ) + a2 x2 (t )
a1 X 1 ( s ) + a2 X 2 ( s ), a1 , a2 C .
L
Time shifting: x(t t 0 )
e st0 X ( s ), t 0 > 0 .
L
Time scaling: x(at )
1
s
X ( ), a > 0 .
a
a
L
Convolution property: x1 (t ) x2 (t )
X 1 ( s). X 2 ( s) .
.
(
)
(
0
)
s
X
s
s
x
s
dt n
dt n2
dt n1
In particular:
dx(t ) L
d 2 x(t ) L
dx(0 )
2
s
X
s
sx
sX ( s ) x(0 ) , and
.
(
)
(
0
)
dt 2
dt
dt
d
X (s) .
ds
L
Differentiation in the s-domain: tx(t )
t
0
1
L
x( )d
X ( s) .
s
Final value theorem: A signal for which sX (s ) is analytic for all s on the
imaginary axis and the right half plane, has the following property:
s 0
The Laplace transforms of some important functions are given below ( (t ) and
L
(t )
1.
t n1
1
L
u (t )
.
(n 1)!
sn
L
e at u (t )
L
(cos n t )u (t )
L
(sin n t )u (t )
1
.
s+a
s
.
2
s + n
2
n
.
2
s 2 + n
dy (t )
+ y (t ) = (t ),
dt
y (0 ) = 0 .
Solution: By taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the above differential
1
y (t ) = e t u (t ) .
s +1
In this course, we are mainly concerned with the systems whose inputs and
outputs are related through a linear constant coefficient differential equation of
the following form:
d m x(t )
d n y (t ) M
=
b
m dt m , a N = 1, N M .
dt n
m =0
an
n=0
(1.1)
If N > M , then the system is called strictly proper. All physical systems are
strictly proper.
Transfer function: The transfer function of a LTI system is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input
variable, with all initial conditions assumed to be zero.
The transfer function of a system with the differential equation given by (1.1) is a
rational function of s as follows:
H ( s ) :=
Y ( s) bM s M + bM 1 s M 1 + L + b1s + b0 b( s )
:=
=
X ( s) a N s N + a N 1 s N 1 + L + a1 s + a0
a( s)
The roots of b(s ) are called the zeros and the roots of a(s) are called the poles of
the transfer function.
The behaviour of a system depends highly on the location of its poles and zeros.
bounded input with exactly the same frequency as the imaginary poles will result
in an unbounded output. For example if a system has a pair of poles s = j0 and
all other poles are in the LHP, only the input signal A cos(0t + ) (which is a
bounded signal) for any value of A and will cause an unbounded output.
Sometimes an integrator (which has a single pole in the origin) is considered
stable.
-
Im{s}
s-plane
Im{s}
s-plane
Re{s}
Unstable
Re{s}
Stable
s-plane
Re{s}
Stable
Im{s}
Im{s}
Im{s}
s-plane
Marginally stable
s-plane
Re{s}
Re{s}
s-plane
Unstable
Re{s}
Unstable
Step response of an LTI system is the output of the system when the input is a
unit step and all initial conditions are zero.
Step input is one of the commonly used test signals in the control systems. For
example changing the set-point in the automobile cruise control means applying a
step input to the system.
ds(t )
.
dt
x(t )
Solution:
Y ( s) =
Y ( s)
1
=
,
X ( s) s 1
H (s) =
X ( s) =
1
s 1
y (t )
1
,
s
1
1
1
=
(partial fraction expansion) y (t ) = (e t 1)u (t ) .
s( s 1) s 1 s
This system is unstable (because of the RHP pole, step response goes to infinity
as time goes to infinity. In other words the output is not finite while the input is
finite).
It is to be noted that the final value theorem cannot be applied to y (t ) as
sY ( s ) =
1
is not analytic in the RHP (it has a pole in the RHP). If one
( s 1)